532 | Chem. Educ. Res. Pract., 2016, 17, 532--554 This journal is©The Royal Society of Chemistry 2016

Cite this: Chem. Educ. Res. Pract.,

2016, 17, 532

Crossword puzzles for chemistry education:learning goals beyond vocabulary

Elizabeth Yuriev,* Ben Capuano and Jennifer L. Short

Chemistry is a technical scientific discipline strongly underpinned by its own complex and diverse

language. To be successful in the problem-solving aspects of chemistry, students must master the

language of chemistry, and in particular, the definition of terms and concepts. To assist students in this

challenging task, a variety of instructional techniques need to be explored. In this study we have

developed crossword puzzles to aid students in mastering chemical terminology via meaningful learning

as opposed to rote memorisation. We have evaluated this tool for its effectiveness in study and revision.

Specifically, we asked: (i) are crosswords effective as in-class and out-of-class revision tools? (ii) Is

crossword performance (as a measure of the command of scientific vocabulary) predictive of problem-

solving ability? The results demonstrated that crossword puzzles improve the ability of students to solve

problems and, when used systematically, contribute to increases in learning. The findings are discussed

in the context of information processing and meaningful learning.

Introduction

The command of scientific vocabulary is commonly categorisedas belonging to the ‘‘understanding’’ segment of Bloom’staxonomy (Bloom, 1956) and thus relegated to one of the LowerOrder Cognitive Skills (LOCS). Yet, deep understanding/comprehension of terminology is crucial to effective scientificcommunication and problem solving and forms an indispensablefoundation for higher levels of Bloom’s taxonomy (such asanalysis, evaluation, and synthesis) and for the developmentof the Higher Order Cognitive Skills (HOCS). In chemistryeducation, this translates into the goal of achieving broader,deeper and highly interconnected skills in scientific literacy,conceptual understanding, and application of knowledge in thecontext of chemical problems (Zoller and Pushkin, 2007).

Customary introduction of students to chemical terms andconcepts is through the presentation of definitions via lecturesand/or directed textbook reading. The presentation of termscommonly precedes the discussion of concepts, followed byconsideration of problems, cases, and/or scenarios (Middlecampand Kean, 1988). While this sequence appears logical, studentsoften find it daunting. New terms and concepts are introduced,often very quickly and conveyed through unfamiliar language.On average, 5000 words are spoken in a 50 min lecture, withstudents registering about 1500 (Johnstone and Al-Naeme, 1991).

This results in the overload of working memory (Cassels andJohnstone, 1985) and ultimately may lead to the material being‘‘poorly understood, poorly retained, and frequently confused’’(Herron, 1996). In addition, precision in scientific terms maybe lost when students use or substitute terms from everydaylanguage, and this can impede the learning and association ofscientific concepts. Often the vocabulary of the specific scientificdiscipline is very context dependent, and this can become lostwhen new terms are defined rapidly and without the explicitinstruction as to their meaning and the limits of that meaning.Despite the importance of a tightly defined discipline-specificscientific language, instructors often consider the introductionof terminology to be an ‘easy’ stage of learning and thus racethrough it to get to the ‘real stuff’, without realising thedifficulties it presents to learners and the importance of thesedifficulties as the source of misconceptions (Herron, 1996;Luxford and Bretz, 2013). Succinctly put, this ‘‘barrier to learningpresented by language is worse because it is largely unrecog-nised’’ (Childs et al., 2015). Such lack of attention to languagecomprehension and to deep understanding of scientific terms isdisturbing given it has been given considerable attention ineducational research literature (Cassels and Johnstone, 1985;Herron, 1996; Gabel, 1999; Johnstone and Selepeng, 2001;Childs et al., 2015).

Language comprehension plays an important role in learnersdeveloping a deep understanding of chemical terms and defini-tions; many learning obstacles and misconceptions are causedwhen such understanding is not established (Cassels andJohnstone, 1985; Herron, 1996; Schmidt, 1997; Johnstone andSelepeng, 2001; Jasien, 2013; Childs et al., 2015). Briefly, the

Faculty of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University,

381 Royal Parade, Parkville VIC 3052, Australia.

E-mail: elizabeth.yuriev@monash.edu; Tel: +61 3 9903 9611

Received 15th January 2016,Accepted 30th March 2016

DOI: 10.1039/c6rp00018e

www.rsc.org/cerp

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multifaceted language of chemistry is revealed in its unfamiliar,technical, and specialised nature. Furthermore, it is complicatedby potential confusion with ‘everyday’ word usage or alternativemeanings, by the use of symbols and Greek and Latin roots andprefixes, and by difficult spelling and pronunciation of wordsthat are often very long. Yet in order to construct and interpretmeaning, the language of chemistry must be precise and accurate(Childs et al., 2015).

While difficulties in learning chemistry are often manifestedby students struggling with problem solving, their causes areassociated with, but not limited to, poor learning of terminologyor scientific vocabulary (Jasien, 2013). Thus, the task is clear:chemistry instructors should develop approaches for more effi-cient teaching of technical language (Herron, 1996; Pyburn et al.,2013; Childs et al., 2015). In the Australian context, such arequirement is actually included in the secondary and tertiaryacademic standards (ACARA, 2016; Lim, 2013).

Various techniques have been developed for teachingchemical definitions; among them, solving crossword puzzleshas been shown to be a useful and engaging approach. In thefollowing sections we will briefly review literature covering priorresearch on definitions and definitional problems in scienceteaching as well as the use of crosswords in education, with afocus on chemistry education.

Prior research on definitions in science teaching

Definitions represent an important philosophical and scientificconcept (Feynman, 1998). Essentially, they are ‘‘explanations ofthe meanings of words or other bits of language’’ (Belnap,1993). They commonly embed a significant amount of knowledgein a form that can be systematically unpacked (Wong et al., 2014).Yet, semantics and definitional problems may encumber effectivelearning.

Ennis (1974) developed a taxonomy of definitions used inscience teaching based on their form and/or function. Byfunction, definitions are divided into the following categories:reported (stating how a term is used), stipulative (suggesting ameaning of the term), and programmatic (conveying a value ofthe term or a position of the definer). The difference betweenreported and stipulative definitions is subtle and depends onthe context and student’s level of knowledge of a particularsubject matter. By form, definitions are divided into the follow-ing categories: classifications (labelling the terms), equivalent-expressions (describing context), synonyms or approximations,range and operational definitions (specifying characteristicsand conditions, respectively, justifying the use of the term),and definitions by example. Out of all these forms, the classifi-cation, range, and operational definitions are particularlyimportant in chemistry. The issues associated with these formsoften lead to definitional problems as discussed below.

When introduced to definitions of chemical terms or concepts,students may experience a range of semantic challenges (Wonget al., 2014 and references therein). These could be associated witheither alternative definitions, based on everyday life (e.g., themeaning of the word ‘spontaneous’ in thermodynamics vs.common usage (Hamori and Muldrey, 1984)) or specific discipline

or sub-discipline (e.g., the meaning of the word ‘ligand’ for metalcoordination vs. protein binding). These challenges representproblems of context. Important for quantitative areas of chemistry,such as its physical or analytical branches, is the problem ofprecision, which necessitates that technical terms should havenot only verbal but also quantitative definitions (Williams,1999). Other types of semantic problems are those of circularity,when definitions are self-referent, or of incompleteness. Thusinadequacies of definitions (either learnt or taught) could resultin alternative conceptions or misconceptions (Wong et al., 2014).Wong and co-workers suggested that problem-based, rather thancontent-driven (i.e., by introduction of statements), learningof definitions could alleviate the development of alternative orerroneous conceptions.

Prior research on crossword puzzles in chemistry education

In education literature, solving crosswords is often referred toas an effective, engaging, and creative approach for learningterminology as well as an aid for the revision of concepts.Several studies have investigated the use of crosswords inscientific, medical, and humanities education, where they areusually used in a classroom setting or as a revision device(Table 1). In these studies crossword puzzles were found to beuseful for (i) revision and reinforcement of concepts (Crossmanand Crossman, 1983; Childers, 1996; Shah et al., 2010; Gaikwadand Tankhiwale, 2012); (ii) identifying important topics andgaps in learning (Childers, 1996; Franklin et al., 2003;Weisskirch, 2006; Shah et al., 2010); and (iii) as feedbackdevices (Shah et al., 2010). Crossword puzzles were also shownto promote and facilitate (iv) student engagement in the learningprocess (Franklin et al., 2003; Tifi, 2004; Weisskirch, 2006;Shah et al., 2010; Coticone, 2013); (v) collaborative work anddevelopment of teamwork skills (Sivagnanam et al., 2004;Weisskirch, 2006; Saxena et al., 2009; Shah et al., 2010); and(vi) critical thinking and association of concepts (Childers, 1996;Sivagnanam et al., 2004). Finally, they were suggested to (vii)provide alternative formative and summative assessmentoptions (Childers, 1996; Franklin et al., 2003; Boyd, 2007) and(viii) ease the anxiety associated with summative assessmentsand boost student confidence (Crossman and Crossman, 1983;Childers, 1996).

Crossword puzzles have been previously used in chemistryteaching and learning (such as Snead, 1975; Evans, 1985; Most,1993; Lee and Tse, 1994; Sims, 2011; Cady, 2012). In addition tothe reasons listed above, chemistry educators use crosswordpuzzles (as well as other educational games) to address theperception that chemistry is a dry subject and to make thematerial more interesting, while retaining rigour and improvinglearning outcomes (Russell, 1999; Boyd, 2007). However, to thebest of our knowledge, only two studies have been carried out toevaluate the use of crosswords in chemistry education. Shah andco-workers investigated student perceptions and found that themajority of students reported enhanced learning after attemptingmedicinal chemistry crossword puzzles (Shah et al., 2010).Students also found that puzzles assisted in revision andpointed toward the important topics. Joag (2014) used a crossword

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Tab

le1

Inve

stig

atio

ns

of

cro

ssw

ord

pu

zzle

sas

ed

uca

tio

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too

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Purp

ose

Nu

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puzz

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Fin

din

gs

Ref

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arn

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gain

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ud

ent

perc

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Ch

emis

try

(in

cl.

Med

icin

al)

Stu

den

tpe

rcep

tion

s(8

item

s)—

Act

ive

lear

nin

gac

tivi

tyd

uri

ng

lect

ure

s3

—E

nh

ance

dle

arn

ing

Iden

tifi

cati

onof

impo

rtan

tto

pics

Goo

dre

visi

on

Shah

etal

.,(2

010)

Cla

ssav

erag

es(p

ost-

test

)T

reat

men

tan

dco

ntr

olgr

oups

(gro

ups

wit

hsi

mil

arce

ntr

alte

nd

enci

esan

dd

ispe

rsio

n)

Lear

nin

gof

the

con

cept

ofpe

riod

icit

yvi

aa

proc

ess

sim

ilar

toso

lvin

ga

cros

s-w

ord

puzz

le

1Y

es—

Joag

,(2

014)

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logy

(in

cl.

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mac

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ud

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term

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.,(2

003)

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stu

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plet

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voca

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ance

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key

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es(p

re-

and

post

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stu

den

tpe

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Tre

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con

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and

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two-

arm

inte

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Self

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(201

2)

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clas

sav

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ost-

test

);st

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atm

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and

con

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grou

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revi

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year

resu

lts

use

das

con

trol

)

Self

-mad

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gm

eth

od1

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En

han

ced

lear

nin

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gage

men

tC

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one,

(201

3)

Hu

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itie

s(i

ncl

.So

ciol

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Psyc

hol

ogy)

Stu

den

tpe

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Ran

dom

repr

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tati

vest

ud

ent

grou

pR

evis

ion

tool

tore

info

rce

pair

ing

ofco

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pts

3Y

esc

En

han

ced

lear

nin

gPo

siti

vech

ange

inst

ud

yh

abit

sIm

prov

edre

ten

tion

Incr

ease

dco

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den

ceIn

crea

sed

mot

ivat

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Fun

Cro

ssm

anan

dC

ross

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,(1

983)

Stu

den

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pen

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com

men

ts)

—R

evis

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esse

nti

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and

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ry

1—

En

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lear

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gId

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ofto

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for

furt

her

stu

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Incr

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dco

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den

ceFu

n

Ch

ild

ers,

(199

6)

Exa

msc

ores

and

clas

sav

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es(p

ost-

test

)T

reat

men

tan

dco

ntr

olgr

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Rev

isio

nto

ol4

Yes

/Nod

—D

avis

etal

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009)

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den

tpe

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s(9

item

s)—

Rev

isio

nto

ol2

—U

nd

erst

and

ing

ofco

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pts

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efer

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for

coll

abor

ativ

ein

-cla

sspu

zzle

solv

ing

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sski

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,(2

006)

aB

lan

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(—)i

nd

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enta

gein

crea

seis

not

repo

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.d

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ult

sw

ere

inco

ncl

usi

ve.

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puzzle-like approach to teach students about the periodicity conceptand reported improved learning outcomes.

Researchers in all of the reviewed studies (Table 1)commented on crosswords being useful tools in their pedagogicalarsenals. Some also reported positive student perceptions(Crossman and Crossman, 1983; Childers, 1996; Franklin et al.,2003; Sivagnanam et al., 2004; Weisskirch, 2006; Saxena et al., 2009;Shah et al., 2010; Gaikwad and Tankhiwale, 2012; Coticone, 2013).However, the quantitative findings relating to crossword effective-ness vary quite dramatically. Specifically, Coticone (2013) reportedno appreciable effect (80.9 � 0.5 vs. 79.4 � 0.3 for treatment andcontrol groups’ examination results, respectively), while severalstudies described significant knowledge gain for treatment andcontrol groups, respectively (33.9% vs. 18.6% (Gaikwad andTankhiwale, 2012); 29% vs. 11% (percentage gain calculated byus, based on reported results) (Joag, 2014)). In the study publishedby Davis et al. (2009), some classes demonstrated learning gainsafter using crosswords, where others exhibited a negative effect.

Research questions

The above survey of the literature demonstrates that moststudies have investigated student perceptions rather than theeffectiveness of the crosswords (Table 1). Investigations into theuse of crossword puzzles for effective revision are limited andsomewhat contradictory, and the usefulness of crossword puzzlesfor improving students’ performance of more challenging tasks(such as problem solving) has not been evaluated. In this studywe investigated the use of crosswords as a revision tool for itspotential not simply to improve students’ learning of chemicalterms but also their ability to solve chemical problems basedon concepts associated with the terms used in the solvedcrosswords.

For revision and self-assessment of knowledge of physicalchemistry beyond the recitation of definitions, students wereprovided with crossword puzzles addressing terms and concepts.Importantly, it should be emphasised that, in the current study,crosswords were not used to introduce students to the relevantvocabulary of physical chemistry. These activities did not representthe initial encounter of the student group with these concepts andthey were not intended as the primary/only learning approach.Instead, crossword puzzles were used for consolidation andrevision. With this foundation, the findings we present hereaddress the following questions:

(1) Are crosswords effective as in-class and out-of-classrevision tools?

(2) Is crossword performance (as a measure of the commandof scientific vocabulary) predictive of problem-solving ability?

The second question is related to the hypothesis that thedeep understanding of chemical terms is critical for successfulproblem solving. Therefore, students should approach eachproblem by first checking that they know the exact meaning ofall the terms used and consider the specific physical situation,which is referred to in the problem. There is a significant bodyof literature dealing with distinctions between an exercise and aproblem. For the purpose of this paper, we are using the termproblem to indicate either.

Theoretical framework

Issues relating to learning scientific terminology and using iteffectively for problem solving could be rationalised using theInformation Processing Theory (IPT) (Roberts and Rosnov,2006; Proctor and Vu, 2012). The three main components ofthe IPT are sensory memory (or sensory filter), short-term orworking memory, and long-term memory. Sensory and workingmemory act to manage limited amounts of incoming informa-tion during initial processing. The long-term memory acts as apermanent storage of knowledge, available for recall. IPTdescribes the main cognitive structures and processes (i.e.,memory systems and strategies) of the learning process andthus is very useful for analysing, explaining, and rationalisingthe connections between the learning of terminology andproblem solving.

The term working memory is used to describe a temporarymemory space, in which the following simultaneous processesare taking place: meaning-making, linking of elements of newinformation to each other and to the existing information, andinferring (Spillers et al., 2012). The most common model ofworking memory was developed by Baddeley (Baddeley andHitch, 1974; Baddeley, 1992). Efficient cognitive processing inworking memory is related to the limited nature of informationprocessing, the ability to perform tasks quickly and efficientlyas a result of repeated practice (i.e., automaticity), and selectiveprocessing (i.e., the intentional restricting of limited cognitiveresources to the most relevant information) (Schraw andMcCrudden, 2013). The working memory model has been adoptedto explain learning in chemistry (Johnstone and Al-Naeme, 1991;Johnstone, 2000; Johnstone and Selepeng, 2001; Taber, 2003;Taber, 2013; Reid, 2014) and, specifically, for problem solving(Overton and Potter, 2008; St Clair-Thompson et al., 2010; Overtonand Potter, 2011; St Clair-Thompson et al., 2012).

The IPT has important implications for instruction.Development of foundational skills (to which deep learning ofterminology could be ascribed) is essential as it enables auto-maticity, which in turn frees available limited processingresources to be used for higher order tasks. These resourcesare then made available so that students can engage in self-regulation and comprehension monitoring. When encounteringnew information, students require guidance on linking it to theirprior knowledge and creating highly organised knowledge. Inorder to develop automaticity, students should have multiple andregular opportunities for meaningful practice and support fordeveloping effective learning strategies.

While the IPT and working memory model account for thecognitive processes involved in learning, Ausubel’s and Novak’sAssimilation Theory (Ausubel, 1978; Novak, 2009) offers anaffective and behavioural viewpoint by considering the students’attitudes to and motivation for learning. Specifically, it proposesimportant conditions required for successful acquisition of deeplearning: to be learnt meaningfully, new information should (i) beconnected to what a learner already knows (prior knowledge),(ii) be relevant (concepts are significant), and (iii) be activelyintegrated into a learner’s cognitive structure (learner’s choice).

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Thus this theory emphasises the central role of the learner inknowledge construction (Grove and Bretz, 2012; Brandriet et al.,2013). In particular relevance to the present study, this theorymakes a distinction between rote and meaningful learning.

MethodsEthics approval

The study was designed to evaluate tools for scaffoldingproblem solving and was approved by the Monash UniversityHuman Research Ethics Committee. Students were briefedabout the objectives of the study and were invited to participate.Students that decided to participate in the research signed writtenconsent forms providing permission for their in-semester andfinal exam responses to questions to be used in the analysis. Theonline and in-class crossword solving constituted the in-semesterresponses. Data from 172 students was available for analysis.

Students were also asked for permission to use their AustralianTertiary Admission Rank (ATAR) scores. ATAR is the main

criterion for entry into most undergraduate-entry universitydegree programs in Australia.

Construction of crosswords

Four crossword puzzles were designed, one for each topic: IonicEquilibria, Thermodynamics, Phase Equilibria, and ChemicalKinetics (Fig. 1 and Appendices 1–3) within a physical chemistryunit. The clues were constructed around words representingessential concepts and connections between them, and termsand definitions that are required to be easily recalled for use inproblem solving. In composing clues, we sought to represent notonly the classification category, but also used definitions thatcould be categorised as equivalent-expressions and operationaldefinitions (by describing context and specifying characteristicsand conditions) (Ennis, 1974). The clues varied in difficulty:some were straight definitions (i.e., the clue defines the term)while others represented deconstructed definitions (i.e., the clueis a sentence with a missing word). Some clues were designed tochallenge students semantically and to provide an opportunityfor students to learn the importance of context when using

Fig. 1 Thermodynamics crossword puzzle.

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(scientific) terms (Appendices 4–7). Some of the clues wereassociated with alternative definitions, based on everyday life.For example, the meaning of the word ‘volatile’ in phase equilibria((of a substance) easily evaporated at ambient temperature) vs.common usage ((of a person) liable to display rapid changesof emotion). Other terms contrasted the meanings specific fordifferent sub-disciplines. For example, the meaning of the word‘donor’ for acids and bases vs. coordinate bonding. For moreexamples of terms with multiple meanings, see Appendices 4–7.

In several cases, the same concept was addressed more thanonce from different angles. For example, in the Thermo-dynamics crossword (Fig. 1), the clue 16 across alludes to theconcept of spontaneity while the clue 19 down probes into thethermodynamic requirements for a spontaneous process. Suchcomplementarity of clues is designed to reinforce the initiallearning of terminology as well as facilitate a deeper compre-hension of concepts. For more examples of terms with multiplerelevant clues, see Appendices 4–7.

The puzzles contained 20–30 clues each. The puzzles werecomposed by one of the authors (E. Y.) and validated by another(B. C.). Table 2 exemplifies the types of clues and their relation-ship to problem solving for the Thermodynamics crosswordpuzzle (Fig. 1).

Context, participants, and design

Students undertaking the Bachelor of Pharmacy and Bachelorof Pharmaceutical Science degrees took part in this study. Bothdegrees involve a core first year unit of physical chemistry. Notethat the required level of conceptual learning in physicalchemistry appropriate to these two degree programs is not asadvanced as that for science students majoring in chemistry.The prescribed textbook is ‘‘Chemical Principles’’ (Atkins et al.,2013), and the content of the unit is limited to selected sectionsfrom the chapters on Thermodynamics, Physical equilibria,Acids and bases, Aqueous equilibria, Electrochemistry, and

Chemical kinetics (chapters 8–10, 12–15). A typical fortnightlyworkload of students involves four one-hour lectures, a onehour problem-solving tutorial, and a two-hour workshop or athree-hour laboratory session. The lectures are delivered in aflipped format (McLaughlin et al., 2016) with regular activelearning tasks (White et al., 2015; White et al., 2016).

This study exploited a classroom-oriented quasi-experimentaldesign and involved two stages. Initially, crosswords wereevaluated for their usefulness as a revision tool and a studyaid. Students were given hard copies of the Thermodynamicscrossword puzzle (Fig. 1) to solve (20 minutes). The sessionstook place two weeks after the thermodynamics lectures, andstudents were allowed to refer to their notes or textbooks whilesolving the puzzle. Pre- and post-crossword knowledge wasassessed using two sets of four problems (Table 3); studentswere given 15 minutes for each set. The students did not see thepost-crossword problems until after they had completed thecrossword. The results of problem set one were not discussedbefore students undertook set two. Solutions to both problemsets were posted online after the class. Participation wasvoluntary and anonymous; 57 sets of responses were collected.The pre- and post-crossword evaluation problem sets were ofequal difficulty; problems were different but addressed thesame concepts. The solved problems were marked as follows:0 – no attempt, 1 – incorrect, 2 – partially correct with someconceptual understanding, and 3 – completely correct. Problem-solving performance was treated as a dependent measure.

After the initial pilot stage, crosswords were evaluated fortheir usefulness as an ongoing revision tool for self-directedstudy. All four crosswords (Fig. 1 and Appendices 1–3) wereuploaded to the online Virtual Learning Environment website(Moodle) and unlimited access was provided. All students (i.e.,including those that chose not to participate in the project)were encouraged to use crosswords for revision and formativeself-evaluation outside of the formal scheduled teaching hours.

Table 2 Examples of crossword clues and their relationship to problem solving

Position Clue Term Relevance for problem solving

Problem numberfrom theevaluation sets

22 across For molar heat capacities of gases,CP = CV + __.

Gas constant Relationship between heat capacity atconstant volume and at constant pressure;concept of heat capacity is required fordetermining enthalpy.

1

23 across Enthalpy change (DH) is the heat absorbed/released for a process at constant ________.

Pressure Definition of enthalpy; the operationalcondition (constant pressure) is veryimportant when solving problems involvingheat capacities.

1

10 down In the formula, DH = DX + Dn � R � T,X represents ____________.

Internal energy Relationship between enthalpy and internalenergy

2

20 down The change in internal energy of a systemequals the heat released/absorbed by thesystem and the work done on/by the system.

First Law Relationship between internal energy, heat,and work

2

21 across A process, the heat of which is equal in valueand opposite in sign to the heat of formationof a given substance.

Decomposition Relationship between decomposition andformation

3

9 down The standard enthalpy of combustionis a ________ property.

Molar Recognition that enthalpy of combustion isdefined as a molar property is required forcorrect problem solving

4

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Students were not required to submit completed crosswordpuzzles, and no credit toward the final mark was given forcompletion, nor the accuracy of completion.

After the examination period concluded, activity logs weregenerated for participating students. The logs contained infor-mation on how many times each student attempted the cross-words. Number of attempts was treated as a measure of studentengagement with learning chemical terminology. The comple-tion of the crosswords was not monitored, therefore each time acrossword was accessed was considered an attempt, although ifa student accessed a given crossword more than once on thesame date, these attempts were counted as one.

At this stage of the project, we have examined two aspects ofcrossword implementation: (i) the degree to which the studentsengaged with the tool and (ii) how efficient it was at assistingwith the development of their problem-solving abilities. For theengagement aspect, the number of students undertaking avarious number of attempts was collected. The level of engage-ment as a function of prior academic performance was alsoinvestigated. ATAR scores were used as a measure of prioracademic performance. For the problem-solving aspect, finalexamination results were collected. The examination papercontained two sections: a 20-point multiple-choice sectionand an 80-point written-answer section (calculations [70 points]and a 10-term crossword puzzle with terms drawn from thethermodynamics material [10 points]). Both sections containedquestions relating to the topics studied during the semester:ionic equilibria, thermodynamics, phase equilibria, andchemical kinetics. The scores for the crossword puzzle questionwere used as a measure of the command of scientific vocabu-lary. Examination results (for the calculation questions) wereused as a measure of problem-solving proficiency (treated as anoutcome measure).

ResultsEvaluating crosswords as revision tools

Fifty seven students attempted two sets of four thermodynamicsproblems (Table 3), as pre- and post-tests before and after solvingthe Thermodynamics crossword puzzle (Fig. 1). Each test containedfour different problems but addressed the same concepts: heatcapacity (Q1), Hess law applied to provided reactions (Q3), first lawof thermodynamics and the relationship between enthalpy andinternal energy (Q2), and Hess law applied to reaction types (Q4).The results of this evaluation are shown in Fig. 2.

As can be seen in Fig. 2, revising the material with the aid ofthe crossword effectively improved the students’ ability to solve theproblem sets. Interestingly, there was no significant gain forquestion 2, the only question that deals with internal energy. Theother three questions deal with enthalpy in different scenarios.Also somewhat unexpected was significant gain for question 4,compared to question 3. In question 4, students had to apply theHess law to the reactions defined only by their names (i.e.formation and combustion) while, in question 3, they had to applythe Hess law to the reactions they were given. While all these termswere alluded to by the crossword clues, it was surprising to see abetter result for what was designed to be a more complex exercise.

The improvements observed may be ascribed to a practiceeffect, i.e., students doing better on problem set two afterattempting set one. However, we would like to emphasise thatthe solutions to set one were not discussed in class and theanswers were not confirmed as correct prior to attempting settwo. Therefore, in this case it is more likely that the improve-ment is due to revision rather than a practice effect.

The common errors made by students when solving theseproblems are listed in Table 4. Significantly, the most commonmistakes appear to be language-related rather than mathematical,

Table 3 Problem sets for pre- and post-tests

Problem Pre-test Post-test

1 A sample of nitrogen (112 g) is heated from a temperatureof 298 K to 348 K in a sealed container. Calculate DH forthis process.CV (N2) = 20.95 J K�1 mol�1.

Two moles of nitrogen are heated from a temperature of 298 K to348 K in a sealed container. Calculate DH for this process.CV (N2) = 20.95 J K�1 mol�1.

2 One step in the production of hydrogen as a fuel is the reactionof methane with water vapour under catalytic conditions (Ni):CH4(g) + H2O(g) - CO2(g) + 3H2(g) DH = �191.7 kJWhat is the change in internal energy for the production of1.00 mol of hydrogen gas?

Oxygen difluoride is a colourless, very poisonous gas that reactsrapidly with water vapour to produce O2 and HF:OF2(g) + H2O(g) - O2(g) + 2HF(g) DH = �318 kJWhat is the change in internal energy for the production of 1.00mol of hydrogen fluoride?

3 Calculate the standard enthalpy of decomposition of hydrogenchloride gas from the following data:NH3(g) + HCl(g) - NH4Cl(s) DH1 = �176.0 kJN2(g) + 3H2(g) - 2NH3(g) DH1 = �92.22 kJN2(g) + 4H2(g) + Cl2(g) - 2NH4Cl(s) DH1 = �628.86 kJ

Calculate the standard enthalpy of decomposition of hydrogenbromide gas from the following data:NH3(g) + HBr(g) - NH4Br(s) DH1 = �188.32 kJN2(g) + 3H2(g) - 2NH3(g) DH1 = �92.22 kJN2(g) + 4H2(g) + Br2(l) - 2NH4Br(s) DH1 = �541.66 kJ

4 Calculate the standard heat of formation of benzene giventhe following heats of combustion:DH�c ðgraphite; sÞ ¼ �394 kJ mol�1

DH�c ðhydrogen; gÞ ¼ �286 kJ mol�1

DH�c ðbenzene; lÞ ¼ �3268 kJ mol�1

Calculate the standard heat of formation of ethyne given thefollowing heats of combustion:DH�c ðgraphite; sÞ ¼ �394 kJ mol�1

DH�c ðhydrogen; gÞ ¼ �286 kJ mol�1

DH�c ðethyne; gÞ ¼ �1300 kJ mol�1

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even though the solutions to these problems are numeric.Language-related errors were mainly caused by misinterpretationof some words within the questions (Table 4). Some improvements,if marginal, are observed for errors of language-related origin.

Assessing uptake of crosswords as ongoing revision tools andstudy aids

Four crossword puzzles (Ionic Equilibria, Thermodynamics,Phase Equilibria, and Chemical Kinetics) were made availableto students on Moodle with unlimited access. Students were

encouraged to use crosswords for revision and formative self-evaluation. Fig. 3 demonstrates the distribution of studentsundertaking a particular number of crossword attempts. Theseresults demonstrate that a significant number of studentsattempted 1–4 crosswords (67 students, 39%) or 5–8 crosswords(69 students, 40%). Out of those that attempted 1–4 crosswords,most made none or one attempt of each crossword; out of thosethat attempted 5–8 crosswords, most made one or two attemptsof each crossword (data per topic is not shown). Note that thisdata represents a total number of attempts, i.e., we have notexamined when the attempts were made. However, it is reason-able to assume that when repeated attempts were made, thesewere done for self-assessment during preparation for final semester

Fig. 2 Problem-solving results for thermodynamics problems completedbefore and after solving the thermodynamics crossword puzzle (Fig. 1). Columnheights represent the average mark for each question (n = 57). Highest markpossible is 3 points; error bars represent the standard error of the mean. Pair-sample t-tests for each question (with a Bonferroni’s correction to adjust formultiple comparisons) revealed that students performed better in questions 1and 4 after completing the crossword-based revision (p o 0.0125).

Table 4 Common errors observed in evaluation problems

Error

Frequency

CausePre-test Post-test

Question 1Using CV instead of CP 31 27 Language-related: not interpreting subscripts to signify words

‘‘constant volume’’ and ‘‘constant pressure’’Using a wrong formula 10 10 MathematicalForgetting that heat capacity given is a molar quantity(i.e., not including amount of substance n in the calculation)

5 3 Language-related: not interpreting the units to signify the word‘‘molar’’

Question 2Assuming DH = DU 26 22 Language-related: not interpreting the word ‘‘internal energy’’

correctlyQuoting wrong units in the answer (kJ instead of kJ mol�1) 3 3 Mathematical

Question 3Not calculating a molar property 17 16 Language-related: not interpreting the word ‘‘standard’’

to mean that 1 mole of a compound should be consideredQuoting wrong units in the answer (kJ instead of kJ mol�1) 3 3 Mathematical

Question 4Using a wrong formula 3 1 Mathematical: several students have applied the ‘‘products –

reactants’’ concept using the provided heats of combustion.This concept is only applicable to heats of formation.

Fig. 3 Distribution of students undertaking a particular number of cross-word attempts.

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examinations. The number of students that made nine or moreattempts was small (o10 for each number of attempts; 18 studentsin total) and this data was not analysed further.

We were also interested to see whether the provision of cross-word puzzles was received differentially by students of differentlevels of preparedness (i.e. prior academic performance). In orderto analyse this, we have divided students into three groups, basedon their ATAR scores. The ATAR is a percentile score (from o30 upto 99.95, in increments of 0.05), and represents a student’s rankingrelative to other students upon completion of their secondaryeducation (TISC, 2014). For example, an ATAR of 95.00 meansthat the student performed better than 95% of other students.

There were 93 students that had ATAR values available andgave permission to access them: 33 with ATAR o 90, 29 with90 r ATAR r 95, and 31 with ATAR 4 95. We have analysedhow many attempts were undertaken by students from each ofthese three groups (Fig. 4). Not unexpectedly, more studentswith higher ATAR scores attempted a greater number of crosswords.This relationship is most likely underpinned by their strongermotivation and more competent self-regulation skills, featuresstrongly connected to the concept of meaningful learning as definedby Ausubel’s and Novak’s learning theory (Ausubel, 1978; Novak,2009). The reasons explaining why some students only attempteda limited number of crosswords were not explored. Previously,Franklin et al. (2003) investigated this issue. In their study, studentsstated that they did not engage in crossword solving because they(i) had no time, (ii) were not aware of crossword availability, (iii) didnot think crosswords would be useful.

Examining crossword performance as a predictor ofproblem-solving ability

In the context of this study, crossword performance is considereda measure of the command of scientific vocabulary. We wereinterested to examine whether this command of terminologyaligns appreciably with problem-solving ability. To assess this

relationship, we have looked at students’ exam performance.The total end-of-semester result (all written-answer questions,out of 80 points) vs. the number of in-semester crosswordattempts (Fig. 5) shows that students who attempted eachcrossword more than once (i.e., 4–8 total attempts) had signifi-cantly better overall exam results. Specifically, the averageresult for these students was 63.1 � 0.9 (n = 83) compared to54.1 � 1.4 (n = 71) for those with a smaller number of attempts(p = 0.000). Similar to the ATAR-related observations above,these results are likely related to overall student engagementand other factors, not only their use of crossword puzzles as arevision tool and study aid.

To directly evaluate student crossword performance in thecontext of their problem solving, we have compared the exami-nation results for the thermodynamics questions: crosswordpuzzle vs. numeric problems (both marked out of 10). Theresults (Fig. 6) reveal an encouraging relationship betweenvocabulary performance and problem-solving ability, althoughit should be noted that most students demonstrated a particularlygood crossword performance on the exam, with the majority ofthe cohort achieving marks of 8, 9, or 10.

Discussion

An important component of the language of chemistry deals withdefinitions of technical terms and concepts. Chemistry studentsneed to become familiar with a complex and multifaceted chemicalvocabulary. This is an ongoing endeavour as the range of terms andconcepts grows with each year level and specialisation. Further-more, to be useful, chemical literacy needs to be active: studentsshould more than just know the terms and concepts, they shouldbe able to apply them in appropriate contexts.

This study was guided by two research questions, addressingeffectiveness of crossword puzzles as in-class and out-of-class

Fig. 4 Distribution of students undertaking a particular number of cross-word attempts grouped by ATAR (black, ATAR o 90; white, 90 r ATARr 95;grey, ATAR 4 95).

Fig. 5 Distribution of average exam results for students that undertook aparticular number of crossword attempts during the semester. The labelsabove the columns correspond to the number of students; error barsrepresent the standard error of the mean.

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revision tools and as aides for developing problem-solvingskills. The study was underpinned by the working memory modeland the concept of meaningful learning. In the following sectionswe will discuss our results within the framework of these theoriesas well as in the context of other findings in the field.

Importance of terminology for problem solving in chemistry

The delegation of knowledge of terminology, definitions, andclassifications to lower level cognitive tasks is based on thesupposition that this task only requires recalling of facts andthus is fully based on memorisation. This supposition mayhold true if a task of defining is performed in isolation.However, if it is inextricably linked with the expectation thatthe vocabulary is to be used in the attainment of knowledge andis to form the basis of deeper learning of chemical concepts,then care needs to be taken that this segment of teaching is notdismissed as easy, unnecessary, or unimportant. When terminologyand the use of a specific scientific vocabulary is invoked in theprocess of problem solving, such as in physical chemistry, itscognitive role becomes essential and is inseparably linked to themedium level skill of ‘comprehension’. In many physical sciences,problem solving requires deep understanding of the underlyingconcepts. Consider these famous quotes: ‘‘a problem well put is halfsolved’’ (John Dewey) or ‘‘if I had an hour to solve a problem I’dspend 55 minutes thinking about the problem and 5 minutesthinking about solutions’’ (Albert Einstein). Therefore, grasping aproblem goes a long way towards finding a solution or solutions.And analysis of a problem requires understanding of all the involvedterms and concepts, the context of their usage, and the precisedefinitions of these terms under problem-specific conditions.Thus, language is crucial for understanding (Childs et al., 2015).

This highlights the importance of developing the language abilitiesof students and the role of instructors and students in under-standing the need for exerting a tight control of vocabulary or theusage of the language of chemistry.

When dealing with quantitative problems common to physicalchemistry, the solutions are usually mathematical. Yet, before asolution is attempted the problem itself must be ‘‘translated’’from words and symbols into mathematical statements (Hamby,1990). The words have ‘‘mathematical meanings’’ and theirinterpretation and recognition of the connection between them(i.e., translation into mathematical expressions) requires astrong command of the appropriate vocabulary. Consider, forexample, the pre-test problem 1 (Table 3). Solving this problemrequires a skill of interpretation. First comes a conceptualunderstanding of enthalpy and heat capacity. Specifically, alearner should comprehend that enthalpy DH is a heatexchange at constant pressure, not just any heat exchange.This is a definition of the term ‘enthalpy’. Further, the data inthis problem contains the molar heat capacity at constantvolume CV, which is the amount of heat required to raise thetemperature of one mole of a substance by 1 K (or 1 1C)(definition). To succeed in problem solving, a learner isexpected to demonstrate understanding of these concepts byorganising these main ideas and concluding that to find DH,s/he needs to know CP (comprehension). Ignoring the require-ment for constant pressure leads to using CV instead of CP,a common error (Table 4). This error is an example of mani-festation of the definitional issue of precision (Wong et al.,2014). Proceeding to the higher level task of applying theninvolves using a mathematical relationship between CP and CV

followed by that between DH and CP (back to definitions andtheir mathematical representations). This particular problem isalso made more complex by providing a problem solver withmolar heat capacity (in units of J K�1 mol�1) and requiringhim/her to use it to find DH for a sample of a given mass(in units of g [grams]). This complexity is ubiquitous in physicalchemistry problems and is a common cause for errors incalculations. Approximately 10% of students (5 out of 57) havemade that mistake in our exercise and approximately 5% (3 outof 57) corrected it after the crossword-based revision (Table 4).Understanding units is a low level skill but applying themcorrectly is certainly not, as this requires a higher level cognitiveskill, synthesis.

The above example represents a type of problem that cannot besolved by relying on the use of ‘parroted’ definitions and memorisedalgorithms/formulas without appreciating the meaning of theunderlying concepts. Thus, one of the crucial factors that contri-butes to the success of problem solving is the relevant knowledge ofscientific terms and their definitions (Sumfleth, 1988), the abilityto comprehend them in their depth and complexity rather thanmemorise them by rote, to apply them appropriately with a carefulconsideration of problem complexities and contributing factors,and to synthesise all the available and required information topropose a plan or a set of operations to lead towards a solution.

The issue of the processes underlying the learning of terminologyand its effective application to problem solving is markedly acute in

Fig. 6 Relationship between the crossword-puzzle and numeric-problem performance on the final examination. The labels above thecolumns correspond to the number of students; error bars represent thestandard error of the mean. One way ANOVA revealed a significantdifference between the groups, with a post hoc Tukey’s multiple comparisonstest indicating that students with a crossword mark of 8 had a numeric markfor the numeric section that was significantly lower than for students with acrossword mark of 10 (p o 0.05).

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chemical education (Sumfleth, 1988; Lee et al., 2001). Pyburn et al.demonstrated robustly that language comprehension ability issignificantly correlated with general chemistry performance (Pyburnet al., 2013; Pyburn et al., 2014). This finding is particularlynoteworthy given the common focus on mathematical, ratherthan language, skills as the important factor in chemicalproblem-solving success, particularly in physical chemistry(Becker and Towns, 2012; Shallcross and Yates, 2014).

Solving crossword puzzles as active learning

According to Ausubel’s and Novak’s learning theory (Ausubel,1978; Novak, 2009), one of the key requirements of effectivelearning is the learner’s choice to learn meaningfully. Usingcrossword puzzles for learning and revision provides studentswith opportunities for self-regulation. They can study at the time,pace, and place of their choosing (Evans, 1985). When crosswordsare provided online with unlimited access (as implemented inthis study), they give students opportunities for regular andmeaningful practice – a condition for achieving automaticity, asproposed in the working memory model (Baddeley and Hitch,1974; Baddeley, 1992; Spillers et al., 2012). Solving crosswordsis interactive and the formative feedback is immediate anddynamic. Immediacy is due to the self-correcting features of thepuzzles (i.e., the correct solutions should fit into the spaceand correctly overlap with other solutions) (Saxena et al., 2009).The dynamic nature means that feedback comes in chunks as theproblem is being solved, not just at the end. And finally, theactivity lends itself to be done either individually or collaboratively(Shah et al., 2010). All these factors contribute to crosswordsolving being an excellent active learning task to be used eitherin or out of class (Franklin et al., 2003).

There were two types of comments made by students con-cerning the crosswords available on Moodle. These commentswere not captured and analysed quantitatively, but are worthmentioning here. Firstly, some students remarked that theyfound crossword puzzles (or at least some clues) difficult tosolve completely and therefore felt challenged. As a result, theywere determined to finish even if it took extra effort. Secondly,some students observed that they were surprised, and reassured,when they found out that they were able to complete the cross-words without consulting their notes or textbooks. In otherwords, ‘‘they knew more than they thought they knew’’ (Childers,1996). Interestingly, this latter finding is similar to the commentswe received from learners in the FutureLearn Massive OpenOnline Course (MOOC) ‘‘The Science of Medicines’’ (Galbraithet al., 2014). We have introduced crossword puzzles in thatMOOC to provide learners with a way to review their learning.

Solving crossword puzzles as a revision technique

When evaluating the usefulness of crossword puzzles, Gaikwadand Tankhiwale (2012) concluded that crosswords are moreeffective for revision when compared to simply reviewing notesor reading a textbook. The authors postulated that this effectwas due to the students’ enjoyment of solving crosswordpuzzles which improves the likelihood of sustainable use ofthis learning tool and the associated increase in time-on-task.

We agree that the sustainability of the crossword-aided revisionis indeed stronger due to the recreational nature of the activityand the enhanced motivation of students to learn meaningfully(Ausubel, 1978; Novak, 2009). However, we consider the effec-tiveness of such revision to be due not only to these behaviouralfactors. Contemplating revision in the framework of the Infor-mation Processing Theory (Roberts and Rosnov, 2006; Proctorand Vu, 2012), the crossword-aided approach represents infor-mation processing which involves both sensory and workingmemory (see in more detail below), while note-reading usesprimarily sensory memory and therefore is not as effective astrategy at promoting the transfer of information into long-term memory systems.

In addition, there is evidence that suggests that the con-solidation of word meanings is a process that requires time(and possibly sleep) before these meanings are integrated intosemantic memory systems, and that the effectiveness of thisacquisition may be enhanced when the information is pre-sented in a written format (van der Ven et al., 2015). Humansforget information if they do not make any attempt to retain it(Ebbinghaus, 1885). This loss is exponential, which means thatthe memory of newly acquired knowledge is halved in a matterof days or weeks unless the learned material is consciouslyreviewed. Our data indicates that it is the regular revisionpractice with crosswords (i.e., distributed studying) that isassociated with improved problem-solving outcomes. We arebeing cautious here so as not to claim causality. Firstly, thereare many other factors and learning activities experienced bystudents in the course of a semester, both within and outside agiven unit of study, that are designed to improve their problem-solving skills. Secondly, students that regularly use crosswordsfor self-directed revision are likely to be those with strongermotivation and general engagement, and therefore, with ahigher likelihood to demonstrate better exam performance.Franklin and colleagues (2003) have also quantitatively investi-gated student use of non-compulsory crossword puzzles forfirst year biology. Based on their findings, they suggested thatvoluntary crossword puzzles may appeal to more motivatedstudents as well as to students with particular learning styles.Thus, our findings that some of the students embrace optionalcrossword-solving activities, while others do not, are not uncommon(Franklin et al., 2003; O’Connor et al., 2005; Boyd, 2007). In thefuture, we are considering changing crossword activities fromoptional to compulsory with an allocated (albeit small) credit(similar to Boyd, 2007; Pyburn et al., 2014) or keeping themvoluntary but attracting extra credit (similar to Childers, 1996).Since these activities would be low-stakes, we are going to followBoyd’s approach and not be concerned about collusion. In fact, ifthese assessments are going to encourage some form of informaland spontaneous group activities, the positive outcome willbe the development of cooperative and critical-thinking skills,which will offset a potential skewing of the grades. In additionto providing additional motivation for students to engage withthe material, ongoing assessment is known to produce the‘testing effect’, i.e. lead to test-enhanced learning (Pyburnet al., 2014).

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With the above discussion in mind, we suggest that our evalua-tion of crosswords is distinctive in that the puzzles were used(voluntarily) throughout the whole semester and covered all topicswithin a unit of study. Other studies, in which crossword usage wasevaluated quantitatively, were restricted to one or a limited numberof topics/class sessions (Table 1). The intermittent nature of cross-word implementation in these studies may explain the widely variedfindings with respect to crossword effect on learning gain. Interest-ingly, implementing crossword puzzles for all and each topic withina unit of study and a general desire for more crossword puzzleactivities were common suggestions expressed by students in manyof these investigations (Crossman and Crossman, 1983; Childers,1996; Franklin et al., 2003; Sivagnanam et al., 2004; Weisskirch,2006; Saxena et al., 2009; Gaikwad and Tankhiwale, 2012).

Solving crossword puzzles as a learning aid

When definitions are memorised by rote, students are likely tofocus on words rather than their meaning (Johnstone andSelepeng, 2001; Grove and Bretz, 2012; Luxford and Bretz,2013). Furthermore, they may commit to memory incorrectmeanings resulting from a change in word order or replacementof some words with inappropriate substitutions (for example,definitions based on ‘everyday’ or common word usage). Thusrote memorisation is not only an unproductive way to learn but ispotentially hazardous as it could lead to naı̈ve understandingsand misconceptions and potentially lead to confusions betweenembedded knowledge and newly-encountered definitions. Thereare many examples in the literature of chemical misconceptions/alternative conceptions that demonstrate that students often clingto ideas already in their cognitive structures and resist new ideasif they conflict with the existing (or, alternative) conceptualframeworks (Taber, 2003).

In order to deal with these pitfalls, instructional materialsshould be designed so as to encourage and motivate students tomove from rote memorisation to meaningful learning (Groveand Bretz, 2012). When students solve crossword puzzles, theydo not attempt to memorise definitions by simply ‘‘regurgitatingthe answer to a question which they have already seen’’ (Franklinet al., 2003). Instead they reconstruct the definitions of termsand concepts, thus triggering the recall and embedding thecorrect meanings into their knowledge structure without rotememorisation. Such learning may seem effortless, however it iswell rationalised if one considers it through the InformationProcessing Theory (Roberts and Rosnov, 2006; Proctor and Vu,2012). Namely, consideration of the crossword clues engagessensory memory, which is activated when students are presentedwith interesting or attention catching information (Johnstoneand Selepeng, 2001). Next, finding the words to include into thepuzzles (‘‘solutions’’) is the processing of the information, whichactivates working memory (Baddeley and Hitch, 1974; Baddeley,1992; Spillers et al., 2012). As a result, the meaning of a concept ora definition of a term are learnt, i.e. permanently stored into thelong-term memory. The role of working memory in informationprocessing is nicely captured by Johnstone and Al-Naeme (1991)who suggested that ‘‘the emphasis should perhaps be placedmore often on ‘working’ and less on the ‘memory’’’.

In addition, filling in a crossword puzzle involves a motortask of writing. Writing down information by hand whilestudying has been shown to be beneficial for learning (Kiewra,1989; Mangen and Velay, 2010; Mueller and Oppenheimer,2014; Smithrud and Pinhas, 2015). Thus, the attendantimprovements in learning and memory formation occur whencognitive and motor tasks are performed concurrently.

Crossword-aided learning is also superior to rote memorisationby allowing students to identify gaps in knowledge and developnew connections between concepts. In our crosswords, suchconnections are reinforced by considering different aspects of thesame concept (e.g., clues 16 across and 19 down for spontaneityor clues 18 across and 14 down for surroundings, Fig. 1).

Furthermore, similar to good distractors in multiple-choicequestions, well-designed crossword clues provide opportunitiesto address misconceptions (Schmidt, 1997). For example, acommon misconception relating to the strength of acids andbases is that strong acids produce weak conjugate bases, and thatweak acids produce strong conjugate bases. This misconception isthe result of misinterpreting the statement ‘‘the weaker the acid,the stronger its conjugate base’’. This misinterpretation is rootedin the reduced language abilities of learners. In order to addressthis misconception, we introduced the following clue into theIonic Equilibria crossword (Appendix 1):

The stronger the acid, the ______ its conjugate base.This clue compelled students to pause and contemplate the

relative nature of the strength of the base (i.e., weaker vs. weak).Lastly, learning definitions meaningfully, rather than by rote,

allows students to chunk information and thus make an efficientuse of the limited capacity of working memory (Reid, 2014).

Implications for teaching

To be sustainable, educational interventions must be effective,accepted by students, and practical to implement. Crosswordpuzzles tick all the boxes. Their effectiveness has been demon-strated by us and others, even though it is clear that it depends onmany factors such as frequency of use, level of difficulty, and thecomplexity of clues. The positive and eager acceptance by studentsof crossword puzzles as a learning and revision tool has beenestablished in numerous studies, and was confirmed by the levelof engagement demonstrated in our findings. Finally, the feasibilityof implementing crossword puzzles is based on the availability ofmany free and commercial crossword making programs and onlineresources (Table 5) and their ease of use. The puzzles could be easilyhosted on various virtual learning environment systems. Further-more, the technical ease of generating crossword puzzles means it ispossible to give students a crossword-creating rather than acrossword-solving task. Such a task would require students todeconstruct and thus analyse the definitions for all the importantfactors. The literature on crossword-making tasks is quite limitedbut it demonstrates that students often make conceptual errorswhen composing definitions (Tifi, 2004). Thus, provided studentsreceive timely and constructive feedback on their crossword puzzles,such tasks offer excellent opportunities to address misconceptions.

Crossword puzzles should contain clues of varying levels ofdifficulty. Too many simple clues and students will consider

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them a waste of time; too many very difficult ones and they maydisengage (Childers, 1996; Franklin et al., 2003; Saxena et al.,2009). The clues that are ‘straight’ definitions of terms areeasier to solve as students ‘recognise’ the definition they haveseen before or look it up (Table 2). While they are easy, such cluesserve a purpose of knowledge reinforcement by virtue of practice andthey reinstate the correct and precise definition of a term, potentiallystrengthening and adding weight to the cognitive systems that willpromote accurate recall of this term in another context. Moredifficult are the clues that ‘deconstruct’ the definition or involveverbal or numeric reasoning to solve. The deconstructing/reasoningclues access higher level cognitive processes as students are requirednot only to recall/look up a definition but also to interpret therelationship between the wording of the clue and the ‘missing’ word(Table 2). Working through such clues allows students opportunitiesfor higher order processing and therefore ‘‘turns definitions intomodels’’ (Luxford and Bretz, 2013) or concepts.

Knowing what errors students make when solving problems(e.g., Table 4) should also help to create clues/puzzles thatproactively address common pitfalls. In order to make suchcrossword puzzles into more efficient learning tools, instructorsmay consider convening focus groups or think-aloud interviewsto establish why students make these common mistakes. If itis confirmed that the issue arises from a gap in languagecomprehension then specific strategies could be developedto improve vocabulary and the precise use of language. Suchstrategies could include tailor-made crosswords or other language-related activities as discussed below.

In our study, the crossword puzzle was also used for assessment.The results (Fig. 6) demonstrated very good vocabulary performanceby students which matched up to their problem-solving results.However, if crosswords are used as a learning and revisiontool during the semester, we believe that the assessment puzzlescould be made more complex to robustly test deep understanding ofconcepts and to differentiate performance outcomes more finely.

Finally, crossword puzzles are most effective when studentscan practise with them flexibly and repeatedly. An efficient wayto achieve this is by making them available online for studentsto practise at the time of their choosing. Our results show thatthis approach leads to a reasonable uptake by students. In ourstudy, 90% of the students (154 out of 172) attempted at leastone crossword puzzle. This is in comparison to 77% (Franklinet al., 2003) and 62% (Weisskirch, 2006); in these studiescrossword puzzles were provided to students in specific classsessions.

Having presented the use of crossword puzzles as a learningand revision tool, we must note that they should not be the onlyapproach to aid language development of students. Otherpossible strategies include (i) the use of other tools similar tocrosswords (e.g., glossary construction); (ii) multiple-choicequestions designed to reinforce the precise use of language inchemistry; (iii) activities focused on accuracy in oral and writtencommunication (abstract writing, presentations, essays, etc.);and (iv) language support classes.

Limitations of the study and future work

Our results indicate that crosswords are an efficient approachfor learning and revision and are well adopted by students.However, several limitations of the study and associated caveatsshould be noted. Firstly, the ‘convenience’ sample was used inan authentic classroom setting, i.e. the cohort of studentstaught by one of the authors (E. Y.). Due to the vocationalnature of the two degrees, the composition of the class may bedifferent to a general chemistry unit. However, we are confidentthat the fundamental findings described in this study aregenerally applicable. Secondly, crossword puzzles were onlytested for some topics in physical chemistry and only for onecohort of students in a given semester. Further research isneeded to investigate the usability of the tool in other areas ofchemistry (organic, analytical) as well as longitudinally.Thirdly, this was a field study, where independent variables(such as prior academic ability) were not manipulated. Andfinally, the learning outcomes and problem-solving abilities ofstudents are likely to be affected by factors outside of the unit ofstudy where crossword puzzles were implemented. Thus wecould only observe possible relationships rather than makingany claims about cause and effect.

The crossword puzzles described here included two types ofclues: definition of terms and missing words. These crosswordswere designed for students at the very beginning of theiruniversity degrees and therefore the clues were deliberatelylow in complexity so as not to lead to cognitive overload.Designing crossword puzzles with cryptic features or anagramsfor students more advanced in their studies would certainly beof interest, particularly after students have been exposed tomore simple crosswords in their first semester.

From our work and that of other groups, it is clear that moreresearch into the effectiveness of crossword puzzles is requiredin order to ascertain their optimal use. Specifically, the followingquestions should be addressed. What are the appropriate teachingformats: in or out of class, compulsory or optional, individuallyor cooperatively? What are the most effective durations and thenumber of practices required for optimal learning? Is solvingcrossword puzzles more effective than simply doing more numericalproblems or revising by building concept maps? What type ofcrossword puzzles, or other language-related activities, could assistin overcoming persistent conceptual errors?

Our plans for future use of crossword puzzles includeencouraging students to devise their own crossword puzzlesor just developing crossword clues. Such activities will promotelearning of concepts and active engagement with learning.

Table 5 A selection of crossword puzzle-making resources

Resource name URL

Crossword puzzle maker http://www.armoredpenguin.com/crossword/CrosswordLabs https://crosswordlabs.com/Eclipse Crossword http://www.eclipsecrossword.com/eduBakery.com http://edubakery.com/Hot Potatoest http://hotpot.uvic.ca/Instant onlinecrossword puzzle maker

http://www.puzzle-maker.com/CW/

Puzzlemaker http://www.discoveryeducation.com/free-puzzlemaker

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Conclusions

In this project we have designed a series of crosswords toscaffold study and revision, in order to assist first year Pharmacy/Pharmaceutical Science students in developing their vocabularyand knowledge of the terminology relating to physical chemistry.We have evaluated the usefulness of this strategy with pre-crosswordand post-crossword problem-solving tests. This study advances the

literature by demonstrating that, when used as a revision tool,crosswords improve students’ ability to analytically approachphysical chemistry problems. We have shown that the use ofcrossword puzzles for ongoing revision contributes to increasedlearning gains and improved problem-solving skills. Finally, we haverationalised crossword effectiveness for learning and revision interms of information processing and meaningful learning.

Appendix 1: ionic equilibria crossword puzzle

Across

4. The stronger the acid, the ______ its conjugate base.6. Salts of strong bases and strong acids produce _______ solutions.7. Base strength is _______ proportional to the basicity constant Kb.8. Strong acid hydrolysis is _______ dominant.10. Solutions that resist a change in pH when small amounts of strong acid or base are added.11. The theoretical point in a titration, at which the amounts of the reactants are equivalent.14. The experimental estimate of the equivalence point in a titration.17. Bases are molecules or ions that are ____ ______. (two words)20. Salts of weak acids and strong bases produce _______ solutions.22. A buffer is prepared by ________ neutralisation, when a limiting amount of strong base is added to an excess amount of

weak acid.24. For good absorption, a substance needs to be in its _________ form to be able to cross cellular barriers.25. Base A ( pKb 3.5) is ________ than base B ( pKb 5.2).

Down

1. Level of buffering occurring when the ratio b/a (amounts of base (b) and its conjugate acid (a)) equals 1.2. Acid strength is _______ proportional to pKa.3. The measure of the amount of protons (or hydroxide ions) a buffer can absorb without a significant change in pH. (two words)5. Salts of weak bases and strong acids produce _______ solutions.9. Weak base hydrolysis is _______ dominant.12. In the titration of a weak base with a strong acid, the pH of the stoichiometric point is _______ than 7.13. For weak acids and bases, the more dilute the solution the greater its extent of __________.15. Adding a titrant solution (with an accurately known concentration) from a burette to a flask containing the sample of

an analyte.

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16. Acids are molecules or ions that are ____ ______. (two words)18. For a ______ acid/base pair: pKa + pKb = 1419. A buffer with ________ concentrations of the constituents will have a greater buffer capacity.21. Acids and bases that are effectively completely ionised in water.23. Acids and bases that ionise in water to a slight extent (o5–10%).

Appendix 2: phase equilibria crossword puzzle

Across

1. The pressure that the gas would exert if it occupied the container alone.2. A gas whose behaviour follows the relationship: PV = nRT.7. Crystalline solids exhibit ____ ______ order. (two words)9. Measure of force per unit area.13. A gradual dispersal of one substance through another substance.14. F = C � P + 2, where F = degrees of freedom, C = number of components, P = number of phases. (two words)16. A mixture of two solids, which has a melting point lower than the melting point of either solid.17. A mixture of compounds that boils with a constant composition.19. At constant temperature, the rate of effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its molar mass. (two words)23. All systems prepared on a tie line separate into two phases of ________ compositions.24. Non-polar compounds possess _____________ dipoles.26. Volume is an _________ property.27. SI unit of pressure.28. A unique property of water that causes the negative slope of the solid/liquid boundary on its phase diagram.29. The volume of a quantity of gas is __________ proportional to pressure at constant temperature.

Down

2. 25 degrees Celsius is a standard ________ temperature.3. A disruption of an electron cloud on a neighbouring molecule leads to _________ dipoles.4. Temperature is an _________ property.5. Solids are of greater density than liquids. Exception?6. The point on a single component phase diagram, where there ceases to be any difference between liquid and gas phases.7. Real gasses obey The Ideal Gas Law at ___ pressure.8. Two partially charged particles (or parts of a structure) of opposite sign which are separated by a finite distance.10. The process of a gas passing through a small hole into a vacuum.11. The process of separating compounds with different boiling points.

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12. The pressure of a fixed amount of gas is __________ proportional to its temperature at constant volume.14. Polar molecules possess _____________ dipoles.15. Real gasses behave in ideal manner at ___ temperature.18. The existence of at least two different crystal structures for the same substance.20. The greater the vapour pressure, the more __________ the compound and the weaker the intermolecular forces in the liquid.21. A form of matter that is uniform throughout in both chemical composition and physical state.22. The point on a single component phase diagram, where three phases can co-exist in dynamic equilibrium.25. A horizontal line drawn across the region of two phases.

Appendix 3: chemical kinetics crossword puzzle

Across

3. __________ state – a combination of molecules, which is not a molecule in its own right.5. Chemical reactions must go over an energy barrier – __________ energy – before a reaction can take place.8. Rate-determining step – the _________ elementary step of a multi-step process.10. Any reaction that can exist at equilibrium is a __________ reaction.13. A reaction where a reactant either forms a product via two different mechanistic pathways or forms two (or more) different products.14. Exponents x in a rate law: rate = k[A]x (two words)17. The time (from the beginning of a reaction) it takes for the concentration of a reactant to decrease by half of its original value.19. Proportionality constant k in a rate law: rate = k[A]x (two words)20. Sequence of steps by which a reaction occurs.

Down

1. Rate at a particular moment in time.2. A reaction, in which the product from the 1st step becomes the reactant for the 2nd step, and so on.4. The number of molecules that come together in an elementary step.6. Catalysts – species which ___________ the rate of chemical reactions by lowering the activation energy.7. The time from the manufacture or preparation until the original potency or content of active ingredient has been reduced

by 10%.9. Rate Laws are derived from _____________ observations on the macroscopic level.11. Rate over a certain time interval.12. Order reflects the ________ change in going from reactants to products.15. Rate at the beginning of the reaction.16. The relationship between the reactant concentrations and the chemical rate. (two words)18. Rate is a change (in a property) over _________.

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552 | Chem. Educ. Res. Pract., 2016, 17, 532--554 This journal is©The Royal Society of Chemistry 2016

Acknowledgements

The authors are indebted to Kim Styles for insightful discussions.

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