CHAPTER 9

CHEMICAL, BIOLOGICAL, AND RADIOLOGICAL(CBR) DEFENSE

Although chemical and biological warfare has beenoutlawed by international agreements, the potential forsuch warfare is real. Likewise, radiological or nuclearwarfare is an ever-present concern to the Seabees as wellas all other U.S. military personnel. The first part of thischapter discusses the effects of chemical, biological, andradiological (CBR) weapons on personnel andequipment. This information includes the symptoms ofCBR poisoning and its first-aid treatment. The nextsection discusses Seabee CBR defense responsibilitiesin detail. Individual protective measures and CBRdefense equipment are discussed in this section.Completing the Seabee’s mission while under CBRconditions is also covered in this chapter. The last twotopics are CBR defense training and markingcontaminated areas.

CBR Defense Readiness Policy states that missionaccomplishment in a CBR environment is dependent ontwo basic requirements:

1. The individual Seabee must have been trained totake whatever action is necessary for survival during aCBR attack

2. Seabee units must have been trained to performtheir assigned missions in a CBR-contaminatedenvironment.

So these basic requirements can be fulfilled, CBRtraining needs to be integrated into all facets ofindividual and unit training. Sufficient training timemust be allocated to ensure that actions required forinitial survival and subsequent mission accomplishmentare conditioned responses.

EFFECTS OF CHEMICAL WEAPONS

Chemical agents are used to produce death, injury,temporary incapacitation, or irritating effects.(Screening smokes are not toxic unless they are inhaledin large amounts. Incendiaries are used primarily to startfires. These two agents are not discussed further.)

Broadly speaking, there are three types ofantipersonnel agents: casualty, incapacitating, andharassing.

CASUALTY AGENTS are highly poisonous andare intended to kill or seriously injure. Included in thisgroup are nerve, blister, choking, and blood agents.Nerve agents, as a group, are probably the most effectivebecause only small doses are needed to produce death.Some agents are so persistent (when dispersed as aliquid) that they can remain effective for several days.They enter the body by the victim’s breathing orswallowing or through the skin of the victim. Blisteragents cause severe burns, blisters, and generaldestruction of body tissue. When they are inhaled, thelungs are injured. Choking agents inflame the nose,throat, and particularly the lungs. Blood agents interferewith the distribution of oxygen by the blood.

Some casualty agents have a cumulative effect,which means that successive doses add to the effect ofeach preceding dose. You might receive a nonlethal doseof a nerve agent, for example, followed within a fewhours by another nonlethal dose. The cumulative effectsof the two exposures, however, could be sufficient tocause death.

A new development is the NONLETHALINCAPACITATING AGENT. It renders personnelincapable of performing their duties by interfering withthe mental processes that control bodily functions.Reactions vary among individuals. One person might gointo shock, and still another might have a feeling ofextreme fatigue. These agents are difficult to detectbecause most of them are colorless, odorless, andtasteless.

HARASSING AGENTS include tear and vomitinggases that cause temporary disability. Tear gases areused mainly for controlling riots, but they have beenused in warfare with varying degrees of success.Without a gas mask, the individual is rapidlyincapacitated, but the effects disappear in 5 to 10minutes after the person dons a protective mask or getsto fresh air.

Vomiting gases are useful when the enemy intendsto launch an attack with casualty agents. They causeextreme nausea and vomiting, requiring those who havebeen exposed to remove their masks, thus exposingpersonnel to the casualty agents.

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EFFECTS OF BIOLOGICAL WEAPONS

Biological operations use living organisms to causedisease or death. They act on living matter only. Mostorganisms that produce disease enter the body of thevictim and grow in the human tissues. Some organismsproduce toxins (poisons) in food or water, and the poisoncauses disease after the victim eats or drinks it.

Large-scale biological attacks by an enemy are asyet an untried weapon. As far as it is known, there hasbeen no open attempt by any country to use this form ofattack. Biological agents, however, have certaincharacteristics that favor them over other types ofwarfare, and the possibility y of their use in the future mustbe anticipated. Only small amounts of the agents areneeded, because the organisms are alive and multiply inthe victims. Moreover, they are difficult to detect andslow to identify. A whole ship’s company might beinfected before the medical department realized adisease existed on board.

The most efficient means of delivering biologicalagents on a large scale is through aerosols, whichgenerally are invisible and odorless. Aerosols can bereleased from aircraft in bombs or direct sprays, fromsurface vessels on onshore winds, or from any numberof explosive munitions, such as projectiles, guidedmissiles, and rockets.

Animals and insects can be used as carriers to spreadbiological agents.

Another method of quickly infecting large numbersof people is for saboteurs to contaminate a water supply.Diseases, such as typhoid fever, cholera, and influenza,can be spread by infecting water, milk, and food supplieswith the proper microorganisms.

EFFECTS OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS

Nuclear weapons produce explosions of great forceand heat and release nuclear radiation. Their primarypurpose is the mass destruction of property andpersonnel. Their effects are divided into threecategories: blast, heat, and nuclear radiation.

BLAST

Injuries caused by blast can be divided into primary(direct) injuries and secondary (indirect) injuries.Primary blast injuries result from the direct action of theair shock wave (overpressure) on the human body. Thegreater the size of the weapon, the greater the effectiverange of the blast wave will be with a subsequentincrease in casualties.

Secondary blast injuries are caused mainly bycollapsing buildings and by timber and other debrisflung about by the blast. Personnel may also be hurledagainst stationary objects or thrown to the ground byhigh winds accompanying the explosion. Injuriessustained are similar to those resulting from amechanical accident, such as bruises, concussions, cuts,fractures, and internal injuries.

At sea, the shockwave or base surge accompanyingan underwater burst will produce various secondaryinjuries. Casualties resemble those caused by moreconventional underwater weapons, such as mines anddepth charges; but instead of being localized, theyextend over the entire ship. Injuries also will result frompersonnel being thrown against fixed objects orstructures. Equipment, furniture, boxes, and similargear, when not secured properly, can act as missiles andcause many injuries.

Frequently, hemorrhage and shock are seriouscomplications of blast injuries. The importance of shockcannot be overemphasized, because it is often-the mainconsideration in determining the fate of the patient.

HEAT

Heat from nuclear weapons causes burns. Thesebums can be grouped into two categories: primary andsecondary. Primary burns are a direct result of thethermal radiation from the bomb. Secondary burns arethe result of fires caused by the explosion.

As with blast injuries, shock is commonlyassociated with extensive burns. Burns are also subjectto infection, which may produce serious consequences.

Flash burns are likely to occur on a large scale as aresult of an air or surface burst of a nuclear weapon.Because thermal radiation travels in straight lines, itbums primarily on the side facing the explosion; butunder hazy atmospheric conditions, a large proportionof the thermal radiation may be scattered, resulting inbums received from all directions. Depending on thesize of the weapon, second-degree burns may bereceived at distances of 25 miles or more.

The intense flash of light that accompanies a nuclearburst may produce flash blindness, even at a range ofseveral miles. Flash blindness is normally of atemporary nature since the eyes can recover in about 15minutes in the daytime and in about 45 minutes at night.A greater danger lies in receiving permanent damage toyour eyes caused by burns from thermal radiation,

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which may occur 40 miles or more from a large-yieldnuclear weapon.

NUCLEAR RADIATION

Nuclear radiation consists of four types: alpha andbeta particles, neutrons, and gamma rays.

ALPHA and BETA particles can be ignored as initialradiation because they are very short-range; however,they can be a hazard as residual radiation. Alphaparticles have little penetrating power; but if they areingested into the body, they can cause serious harm. Betaparticles also are of little concern unless they are on thebody (in dust, dirt, etc.) or get into the body.

NEUTRONS are a direct hazard only during theinitial radiation phase and then only in the general areaof ground zero. In the residual phase, however, theycause whatever material absorbs them to becomeradioactive and emit gamma rays and beta particles.

GAMMA RAYS (similar to, but more powerfulthan, X rays) are the most hazardous form of radiation.They can travel long distances in air and have greatpenetrating power, making it difficult to providesufficient shielding to protect personnel.

Radiation hazards are of three types:PENETRATION DOSE, SKIN DOSE, andINTERNAL CONTAMINATION. Penetration dosesand internal contamination have the most seriouseffects. You can be protected against penetration dosesby proper shelter. You can avoid internal contaminationby wearing the protective mask and not eating ordrinking food and water until they are declared safe.Skin doses, which cause injuries similar to burns, can bereduced by your wearing of proper battle dress.

CBR CONTAMINATION DETECTIONAND IDENTIFICATION

For Seabees to carry out their mission, they must beable to detect and identify CBR agents immediately. Thevery nature of CBR agents, however, makes it difficultto detect and identify them.

In a nuclear attack for instance, you know an attackis taking place because you can see it, hear it, and feelit. But you cannot see the nuclear radiation that can bejust as deadly over a period of time as the blast itself. Inthe same invisible way, biological agents can be presentwith the possibility of no one knowing until it is too late.Recent developments in chemical operations makesome of the chemical agents colorless and odorless. You

must be able, therefore, to recognize them whenever youor your shipmates are victims.

You must learn the symptoms of each type of attackso you can take the proper action when exposed and soyou can apply the correct self-aid and first-aid measures.

SYMPTOMS OF CHEMICAL AGENTCONTAMINATION

Chemical agents make you a casualty when yourbody comes in contact with a bigger dose than it canwithstand. The limits of tolerance of the human bodyextend from short periods of exposure and lowconcentrations of certain agents to extended periods ofexposure and high concentrations of certain otheragents. Furthermore, the limits of tolerance to specificagents vary with individuals. In any event, yourprincipal concern is recognizing the symptoms andrelieving the effects of exposure before the limit ofexposure is exceeded.

Nerve Agent Symptoms

Symptoms of nerve agent contamination area runnynose; tightness of chest with difficulty in breathing;contraction of eye pupils; and nausea, cramps,headache, coma, and convulsions. All of thesesymptoms can take place in 30 seconds when the doseis sufficiently heavy.

Vapors of the G- or V-series nerve agents, even inlow concentrations, cause contraction of the eye pupils.This action affects the sight, especially in dim light, andinduces a headache. After a brief exposure to the vapors,a feeling of tightness in the chest maybe noticed, whichincreases deep breathing. The liquid substance does notinjure the skin but penetrates it and poisons the body.Contraction of the pupils, in such an instance, may notappear as a warning sign.

A 1- to 5-minute exposure of personnel not wearingprotective masks for low concentrations of G- orV-agent vapors causes difficulty in vision. Slightlygreater exposure causes headache, nausea, pain in thechest, and more serious visual difficulties. Exposure ofunbroken skin to vapor alone, however, entails littledanger of serious injury.

Liquid contamination from a nerve agent to the skinis a real hazard. One of the first signs of exposure whenliquid contaminates the skin may be excessive sweatingand twitching of the muscles at the site of contamination.Small amounts of liquid left undisturbed on the skin cancause death in a matter of a few minutes. The entrance

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to the body is even more rapid through the surface of theeye and through the linings of the mouth and nose. Alethal dose can be absorbed as rapidly by getting liquidin the eyes as by inhaling concentrated vapor. Whenpoisonous vapors are swallowed, the first symptoms areexcess flow of saliva, intestinal cramps, nausea,vomiting, and diarrhea. When the nerve agent isabsorbed into the system after the victim is exposed toliquid or vapor, the symptoms may be generalizedsweating, difficulty in breathing, muscular weakness,and eventually convulsions, paralysis, and unconscious-ness.

Blister Agent Symptoms

Immediate contact with LIQUID MUSTARD orMUSTARD VAPOR causes no eye or skin pain or anyother immediate symptoms. Exposure to mustard gas formore than half an hour, however, produces thesesymptoms: Half an hour to 12 hours after exposure, thecontaminated eyes water, feel gritty, and becomeprogressively sore and bloodshot. The eyelids becomered and swollen. Infection frequently results.

Mustard vapor will burn any area of the skin, but theburn will be most severe in moist areas (neck, privateparts, groin, armpits, bends of knees, and elbows).Redness of the skin follows in one half to 36 hours afterexposure. This condition may be accompanied byintense itching, and blisters may then appear. Stiffness,throbbing pain, and swelling may also be observed.

A few hours after breathing mustard vapor, a victimexperiences irritation of the throat, hoarseness, andcoughing. After severe exposure, the lining of therespiratory system swells and interferes with breathing.Frequently, pneumonia develops.

When the whole body is exposed to mustard vapor,the body goes into a state of shock. This reaction isaccompanied by nausea and vomiting.

NITROGEN MUSTARDS irritate the eyes beforethey affect the skin or respiratory system. The action ofnitrogen mustards on the eyes occurs in a shorter timethan does mustard. Even low concentrations of theseagents may seriously decrease vision during or shortlyafter exposure. Later effects are similar to those ofmustard. Contact of these agents with the skin producesdamage like that produced by mustard, and their effectson the respiratory system are also similar.

Blood Agent Symptoms

Symptoms produced by blood agents, such asHYDROGEN CYANIDE, depend upon theconcentration of the agent and the duration of theexposure. Typically, either death occurs rapidly orrecovery takes place within a few minutes after removalof a victim from the contaminated area. When the victiminhales a high concentration of a blood agent, the victimbegins to breathe more deeply within a few seconds, hasviolent convulsions after 20 to 30 seconds, stopsbreathing regularly within 1 minute, then givesoccasional shallow gasps, and finally the heart stopsonly a few minutes after the onset of exposure. Aftermoderate exposure, giddiness, nausea, and headacheappear very early, followed by convulsions and coma.Long exposure to low concentrations may result indamage to the central nervous system. Mild exposuremay produce headache, giddiness, and nausea, butusually recovery is complete.

The effects of CYANOGEN CHLORIDE combinethe properties of two agents: chlorine and cyanogen.The chlorine properties induce coughing, dryness of thenose and throat, tightness across the chest, and smartingand watering of the eyes, resulting finally in theaccumulation of fluid in the lungs. Cyanogen is similarto hydrogen cyanide and, like that agent, causesgiddiness, headaches, unconsciousness, convulsions,and death.

Choking Agent Symptoms

In low concentrations, choking agents produce anaction on the respiratory system that results in theaccumulation of fluid in the lungs. This effect may leadto death. High concentrations produce death for thesame reason, but the upper respiratory tract may beinvolved as well. Exposure to choking agents mayproduce immediate dryness of the throat, coughing,choking, tightness across the chest, headache, nausea,and at times, smarting and watering of the eyes.Symptoms usually are delayed, however, and it ispossible that no immediate symptoms will appear whenyou are exposed to a fatal dose.

Even mild exposure to a choking agent that isaccompanied by immediate symptoms may cause fluidto accumulate in the lungs within 2 to 24 hours afterexposure. The presence of this fluid is indicated byshallow and rapid breathing, hacking and painful cough,frothy saliva, and an ashen-gray color of the skin.

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Vomiting Agent Symptoms

Exposure to vomiting agents is followed soon by apepperlike burning of the eyes, nose, throat, and airpassages. The burning sensation is accompanied by aflow of tears and by repeated coughing and sneezing.These symptoms increase in severity for severalminutes, even after the victim dons a mask. The victimbecomes sick to the point of vomiting. When the maskis removed, the victim is then exposed to even morehazardous agents.

Tear Agent Symptoms

Tear agents (also called riot control agents) are localirritants which, in low concentration, act primarily onthe eyes, causing intense pain and a considerable flowof tears, stinging of moist, warm skin, and irritation ofthe nose. High concentrations affect the upperrespiratory tract and lungs and cause nausea andvomiting. The agents may be either solids or liquids andmay be dispersed as vapors or smokes. The newestagent, CS, is the most effective, causing incapacitation20 to 60 seconds after exposure. Recovery can beexpected 5 to 10 minutes after the victim is breathingfresh air.

Incapacitating Agent Symptoms

Incapacitating agents can cause mental symptomsand may also produce physical symptoms, such asstaggering gait, dizziness, and blurred vision. Some ofthese agents cause fainting spells, and others causesevere muscle weakness. The mental symptoms oftenresemble alcoholic drunkenness; for example,individuals may act silly, giggle, or become angry andbelligerent similar to a “fighting drunk.” Sometimesincapacitating agents can cause hallucinations. (Likealcoholic “DTs,” victims may imagine that they seesnakes or enemy soldiers, or they may imagine thatcolors have changed.) Many of these incapacitatinggases prevent sleep. Some people may stay wide awakefor 4 days and be mentally confused for the wholeperiod. These agents do not kill, but they can make aman unfit for duty. Many of them do not produce effectsuntil several hours after inhalation. These effects can lastfrom 8 hours to 4 days.

SYMPTOMS OF BIOLOGICALCONTAMINATION

In the early stages of any biological disease, thegeneral symptoms are fever, malaise, and inflammation.

The degree of fever varies with the individual,depending on his or her resistance, but it does serve asa rough guide to the severity of infection. Often the feveris preceded by a violent chill. Whether the chill occursor not, the fever is usually one of the earliest symptoms.

Malaise is a feeling of bodily discomfort andweakness. There may be nausea, dizziness, loss ofappetite, and general aches and pains.

Inflammation is caused by the reaction of bodytissues combating and sealing off an infection. In almostevery case, there is pain, redness, and swelling. Sometypes of infection result in a characteristic rash, makingit possible for the doctor to make an early diagnosis.

SYMPTOMS OF NUCLEAR RADIATION

The first symptoms of exposure to nuclear radiationare nausea and vomiting. Later (2 weeks or more)symptoms are diarrhea, loss of hair, loss of weight, sorethroat, and skin hemorrhage. Death rates depend on theamount of the dose and the general physical conditionof the victim. Unless a very heavy dose is received,ultimate recovery can be expected in most instances.

SEABEE CBR DEFENSERESPONSIBILITIES

The battalion commander is responsible forplanning the overall CBR defensive measures for aSeabee’s encampment. The battalion commander thenpresents to the battalion those requirements for defensemeasures that should be provided by other forces.

Protective measures used against other weaponsgive only partial protection against CBR attacks.Provisions must be made for CBR defense, such as thefollowing:

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Greater emphasis must be placed on unitseparation, dispersion, and mobility.

Increased air and ground reconnaissance.

Training and indoctrination of personnel.

Warning, reporting, detection, and identificationof CBR agents and hazards.

Individual and collective protection.

Decontamination of personnel, equipment,supplies, and terrain, when directed.

Plans for handling mass casualties, to includemedical operations and first aid.

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CHEMICAL DEFENSE

The best defense against a chemical attack isconstant monitoring with equipment to detect chemicalagents as soon as possible. To provide adequate time totake protective measures, commanders should use allavailable chemical detection equipment.

The protective measures taken by individuals andunits when operating under the threat of chemical attackor in a chemical environment are governed by the natureof the threat, mission, situation, and weather. Movementof troops and supplies should be planned socontaminated terrain is avoided to the maximum extentpossible. Contaminated terrain is crossed only whenabsolutely necessary and then as quickly as possible.Preferably, you should move in vehicles at speeds andintervals that minimize contamination. When thesituation and mission permit, heavy work-rate activitiesof personnel dressed in chemical protective clothing andequipment should be minimized. Essential work shouldbe planned for the coolest part of the day, when possible.

Protective Measures before Chemical Attack

In any combat situation, the commander shoulddesignate a level of Mission-Oriented ProtectivePosture (MOPP) for the unit. MOPP is discussed indetail later in this chapter. The following protectivemeasures must be taken before a chemical attack.

EXTENDED WEAR OF PROTECTIVECLOTHING.— Based on the MOPP level designated bythe commander, the individual may have to adapt torequirements for wearing his or her protective clothingand equipment for extended periods. The amount of timerequired to put all of these items on during a chemicalattack exceeds the amount of time required to receive acasualty-producing dose of chemical agent.

M9 CHEMICAL AGENT DETECTORPAPER.— The M9 chemical agent detector paper (fig.9-1) detects the presence of liquid chemical agentsencountered by the individual. It does NOT detectchemical agent vapors. The paper indicates the presenceof a nerve agent (G and V) or a blister agent (H and L)by turning a red or reddish color.

The M9 paper is self-adhesive; you can attach it tomost surfaces. When you attach it to clothing, place iton the upper portion of the right arm, left wrist, andeither the left or right ankle to allow adequaterepresentation of contamination encountered by theSeabee. When you place it on a piece of equipment, itmust be in a location free of dirt, oil, and grease and

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Figure 9-1.—M9 chemical agent detector paper.

where it cannot be stepped on. The M9 paper may beused in any weather, in temperatures above 32°F or 0°C.However, take care not to expose it to extremely hightemperatures, scuffs, or certain types of organic liquidsand DS2, as they all cause false readings. If spots orstreaks on the paper appear pink, red-brown, red-purple,or any shade of red, assume it has been exposed to achemical agent.

ALERTNESS AND PROFICIENCY.— Individ-uals must remain alert and constantly aware of thechemical threat, especially when duty requirementspreclude the wearing of full protective equipment.Individuals must understand the chemical alarms andsignals and be proficient in attaining the maximum levelof protection when alerted to a chemical attack.

PROTECTION OF INDIVIDUAL EQUIP-MENT.— To the extent possible, individuals mustprotect equipment and supplies against liquid chemicalagent contamination by keeping them organized andcovered. Hastily constructed fighting hole covers,ponchos, shelter halves, or other suitable materials canbe used for protection. Individuals should wear fullprotective clothing and equipment when sleeping and,to the extent possible, cover themselves and theirequipment before they go to sleep.

Protective Measures during Chemical Attack

A chemical attack may come directly in the area inwhich individuals are located or upwind from that areaIn either case, when alerted to a chemical attack theymust take the following immediate defensive actions:

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Stop breathing.

Don protective mask

Give the alarm.

Continue the mission and wait for further orders.

l When the situation permits, assist others whoneed help.

Protective Measures after Chemical Attack

Whether an attack comes in the form of a vapor,aerosol spray, or a liquid agent, remain in protective gearand continue your mission. When the time and themission permit, give first aid to casualties in theimmediate vicinity, and report the local casualty statusto the appropriate authority. All personnel must awaitthe commander’s order for unmasking. After a chemicalattack DO NOT UNMASK UNTIL AUTHORIZEDBY YOUR IMMEDIATE COMMANDER. In theabsence of command guidance, the proceduresdescribed below should be followed.

PROCEDURE WHEN A DETECTOR KIT ISAVAILABLE.— Use a chemical agent detector kit to testfor the presence or absence of chemical agents.

After determining the absence of agents, two orthree individuals should unmask for 5 minutes, thenremask. Check for chemical agent symptoms. If nochemical agent symptoms appear in 10 minutes, theremainder of the troops may safely unmask. Bright lightcauses contraction of the pupils that could beerroneous y interpreted as a nerve agent symptom.

PROCEDURE WHEN A DETECTOR KIT ISNOT AVAILABLE.— Observe animal life within yoursurrounding area for symptoms of chemical agentpoisoning. If the local animals appear affected by achemical agent and if it does not impede your mission,move to an area where the animals appear normal beforeyou attempt the procedures listed below. Theseprocedures should also be used in an extremeemergency. Two or three individuals should be selectedto take a deep breath, hold it, break the seal of theirmasks, and keep their eyes wide open for 15 seconds.They then should clear their masks, reestablish the seal,and wait for 10 minutes. If no symptoms appear after 10minutes, these same individuals should again break theseal, take two or three breaths, and clear and reseal themask. After another 10-minute wait, if no symptomshave developed, these same individuals should unmaskfor 5 minutes and then remask. After this procedure, ifno symptoms have appeared, the remainder of the groupcan safely unmask. However, remain alert for theappearance of any chemical symptoms. If symptomsoccur, resume the wearing of masks.

Protection of Unit Equipment and Supplies

Because contaminated equipment and supplies posea threat to personnel, covers should be used to protectequipment and supplies stored outdoors, if possible. Thefollowing guidance is appropriate for combat, combatsupport, and combat service support units.

EQUIPMENT.— Important items of equipmentmust be covered. Plastic sheets serve as excellent coversbecause they are nonporous. If plastic material is notavailable, tarpaulins or other suitable material may beused. If nothing else is available, dense foliage willprovide some protection.

PACKAGED FOOD ITEMS.— Vapor, aerosolspray, or liquid chemical agents can contaminate food.The type of food, type and amount of agent, andeffectiveness of protective measures influence theedibility of food. Food not in protective packagesgenerally presents the major problem. Chemical agentsmay penetrate packaged food when it is left exposedover an extended period of time.

UNPACKAGED FOOD ITEMS.— Oily and fattyunpackaged foods are particularly vulnerable tochemical contamination. These foods are protected fromcontamination when stored in containers, such as fieldiceboxes and refrigerators, if the sealing gaskets areserviceable. As a rule of thumb, CONTAMINATEDUNPACKAGED FOOD MUST NOT BE EATEN!

WATER.— Medical personnel are responsible forrecommendations on the potability of water. Water thatis not in sealed containers may become contaminated.Water suspected of contamination should not beconsumed until tested and declared safe.

First Aid and Self-Aid

First aid includes the immediate actions required toprevent further injury or complications from the effectsof chemical agents. First aid necessarily includes theprompt removal of agents from the eyes anddecontamination of the skin to avoid casualties fromlethal liquid agents. Therefore, first aid must includeperforming self-aid, or personal decontamination,automatically and without orders when it is required.First aid also includes the use of appropriate medicationsor actions to reduce the effects of the agent, such as theuse of the nerve agent antidote injector for nerve agentpoisoning. Each individual must be thoroughly trainedin both first aid and personal decontamination so he orshe can perform these actions quickly.

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Figure 9-2.—M258A1 skin decontamination kit.

UNIDENTIFIED CHEMICAL AGENTS.— Inmost cases, the individuals are not able to identify thechemical agent used in the attack. When exposed to anenemy chemical attack while dressed in chemicalprotective clothing and equipment, he or she is notnormally concerned with immediate decontamination.

When the skin of an individual becomescontaminated, it must be decontaminated immediately.Skin decon is the neutralization or removal ofcontamination from exposed portions of the skin. Theindividual performs the decon by using M258A1 skindecon kit (fig. 9-2). This kit is designed for chemicaldecon, but it can be used to remove radiologicalcontamination. If the contaminated person isincapacitated, another person must perform thedecontamination so that he can survive.

For decontaminating skin, each Seabee receives theM258A1 kit in a hard plastic case. Avoid gettingdecontaminants into eyes, open wounds, or mouth. Ifcontaminants enter these areas, flush them with water.If symptoms appear, seek medical attention as soon aspossible. The kit is normally attached to the protectivemask carrier or the load-bearing equipment (LBE). Itcontains three sets of foil-packaged towelettes saturatedwith different decontaminating solutions. Thesesolutions neutralize most nerve and blister agents.

Protect the kit from temperatures above 110°F(43°C) and below 32°F (0°C). The solutions areflammable and unstable in storage at temperaturesabove 110°F (43°C) or for prolonged periods of time insunlight.

Shelter is necessary to prevent further con-tamination during the decontamination process. If nooverhead cover is available, throw a poncho or shelterhalf over your head before beginning decontamination.

CAUTION

Do not let the solution from the M258A1kit get in your eyes!

NERVE AGENTS.— If you are told that your pupilsare getting very small or if you are having troublebreathing and your chest feels tight, use the atropinenerve agent antidote kit (NAAK), Mark I.

The injectors contain medications to treat the initialsymptoms of nerve agent poisoning. But, mostimportantly, it will check the more serious effects ofnerve agent sickness. The injectors are antidotes, not apreventive device; therefore, only use the injectors whenyou actually experience symptoms of nerve agentpoisoning. (See fig. 9-3.) The directions for use are asfollows:

1. Put on the protective mask.

Figure 9-3.—Nerve agent antidote kit (NAAK), Mark I.

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2. Remove a (NAAK), Mark I, from the protectivemask carrier.

3. Inject the thigh with the first injector from thekit (atropine, small autoinjector). (See fig. 9-4.) Holdthe injector against the thigh for at least 10 seconds.Remove the injector.

4. Follow immediately with the second injector(2-PAM chloride, large injector) and inject the thigh.Hold the injector against the thigh for at least 10seconds.

5. Remove the injector and place each injectorneedle through the pocket flap of the overgarment. Bendeach needle to form a hook.

6. Massage the injection site, if time permits.

7. The interval between injecting each set of auto-injectors is 10 to 15 minutes when symptoms persist orrecur. A Seabee must not administer more than threeNAAK sets. The administration of more than three setsmust be authorized by medical support personnel.

WARNING

If within 5 minutes after the administrationof any set of injections your heart beats veryrapidly AND your mouth becomes very dry, DONOT give yourself another set of injections.

When an individual experiences severe symptomsfrom nerve agent poisoning and is unable to administerself-aid, a buddy must perform the following aidmeasures:

1. Mask the casualty.

2. Using the NAAK belonging to the victim,administer three sets of injections immediately and inrapid succession in the thigh muscle of the leg.

3. Hook the expended autoinjectors to theovergarment pocket flap of the victim.

4. Administer the back pressure arm-lift method ofartificial ventilation if breathing is difficult or hasceased.

5. Seek medical attention as soon as possible.

Continue to perform your duties if you feel relieffrom the atropine and can breathe freely again. Drynessof the mouth is a good sign. It means that you have hadenough atropine to overcome the dangerous effects ofthe nerve agent.

Figure 9-4.—Instructions for use of NAAK, Mark I.

If you should get a splash of liquid nerve agent inyour eyes, instant action is necessary to avoid seriousinjury. Obtain water as fast as possible, tilt your headback so your eyes look straight upward, slowly pourwater into the your eyes, and flush them out. Hold youreyes open with your fingers, if necessary. Pour the waterslowly so the irrigation lasts not less than 30 seconds.This irrigation must be done in spite of the danger ofbreathing nerve gas vapor. Don your mask quickly afterirrigation is complete. Then, if the symptoms of nervegas poisoning develop, give yourself an injection fromthe NAAK, Mark I.

If liquid nerve gas gets on your skin or clothing, fastaction is needed to get rid of it. Immediately use theM258A1 decontamination kit. Then carry on with yourcombat duties. Meanwhile, watch for muscles twitchingin the contaminated area. If twitching does not developin the next half hour and there is no tightness in yourchest, you have been decontaminated successfully.

If twitching of the muscles in the area ofcontamination does develop, do not wait for othersymptoms to appear. Give yourself the injections fromthe NAAK, Mark I, at once. If no other symptomsdevelop, one series of injections is enough. The atropine

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does not relieve the local twitching of muscles, but thistwitching is not dangerous.

Avoid water and food that may be contaminatedwith nerve agents. Let the medical personnel check thefood and water for safety before you consume them. Ifyou have swallowed contaminated food or water and allof the following symptoms occur-increased flow ofsaliva, nausea, pains in the stomach, and tightness in thechest–give yourself the injections from the NAAK,Mark I.

BLISTER AGENTS.— Casualties of blister agents,such as HD (distilled mustard), exhibit redness andinflammation of the eyes. Usually several hours afterexposure, reddening of the skin appears, followed by theappearance of blisters. There is NO first aid for blisteragents other than decontamination. Blister agent effectsare delayed for several hours todays. To decontaminateyour eyes, flush with plain water repeatedly. Any blisteragents on the skin and clothing should be removed usingthe M258A1 decontamination kits. Seek medical careas soon as possible. If evacuation to a medical facility isrequired, blister agent casualties receive the sametreatment given other bum victims.

BLOOD AGENTS.— Agents, such as AC and CK,enter the body by inhalation and produce symptomsranging from convulsions to coma. They act on the bodyby interfering with the ability of oxygen-carrying cellsto transfer oxygen to other body tissue. They may havean imitating effect on nasal passages.

There is currently no self-aid or buddy aid treatmentfor blood agent symptoms. Affected personnel shouldseek medical attention.

CHOKING AGENTS.— This agent producescoughing, choking, nausea, and headaches in casualties.Delayed effects include rapid and shallow breathing,painful cough, discomfort, fatigue, and shock. First aidincludes immediate masking. Masking may preventfurther damage. No specific first aid other than effortsto prevent shock is available.

VOMITING AGENTS.— For protection againstvomiting agents, put on your mask and wear it in spiteof coughing, sneezing, salivating, or nausea. Ifnecessary, briefly lift the mask from your face to permitvomiting or to drain saliva from the facepiece. Clearyour mask each time you adjust it to your face and beforeyou resume breathing. Carry on with your duties asvigorously as possible; this helps to lessen and to shortenthe symptoms. Combat duties can usually be performedin spite of the effects of vomiting agents.

TEAR AGENTS.— When liquid or solid agentshave entered your eyes, force your eyes open and flushthem with water. Put on your protective mask, cover theoutlet valve and voice meter, and blow hard to clear themask. Keep your eyes open as much as possible. Whenyour vision clears, continue to perform your duties.When it is safe to remove your mask, blot away tears,but do not rub your eyes. Now face into the wind.

INCAPACITATING AGENTS.— By the time avictim who is exposed to an incapacitating agent realizessomething is wrong, he or she may be too confusedmentally to handle his or her own decontamination.These cases should be taken to medical personnelimmediately. If many people are affected, it may benecessary to confine them temporarily under guard toprevent accidents. These personnel must not be allowedto enter critical or dangerous spaces until completerecovery is achieved, because these victims may not beresponsible for their actions. In addition, some of theseagents prevent sweating, which increases the danger ofheat stroke on hot days.

Personnel Decontamination

Decontamination can be accomplished by theremoval, neutralization, absorption, or weathering of thechemical agent. The primary purposes ofdecontamination are to prevent casualties and to removeobstacles that may prevent mission accomplishment.

Individual decontamination or self-aid is performedby an individual with materials on hand. It is performedon himself or herself and the equipment he or she uses.It is performed as soon as practical and is usuallysufficient to allow the individual to carry on his or herassigned mission. The M258A1 is used for limiteddecontamination of all items of individual clothing andequipment.

Unit decontamination is an organized effortperformed by personnel of the unit, with equipmentavailable to the unit, when directed by the commander,and under the supervision of trained CBR specialists.All officers and qualified CBR specialists should beprepared to act as supervisors of decontamination teamswhen required.

Support-Level Equipment Decontamination

Equipment decontamination stations are located asfar forward upwind as possible and are normally run bya specialized decontamination team or unit.

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BIOLOGICAL DEFENSE

Protective measures against a biological threatinclude training, immunization of personnel, and strictpersonal hygiene.

Biological Defense Training

Training for defense against biological agents muststress the necessity for an alert and questioning attitudetoward any indication that biological agents may havebeen used. Although knowledge of these agents isimportant, there must be no unreasonable fear of diseasefrom a suspected biological attack. Personnel should beinstructed not to repeat or exaggerate rumors. Seabeesshould also know the following facts about a biologicalattack.

l It is normally impossible to recognize or detect.

. It may be used to supplement other types ofattack

. It may be used to cause either delayed death orincapacitation for strategic purposes.

Prevention of Disease

Casualties from a biological attack can be reducedby using the following preventive measures:

l Strict personal hygiene

. Immunization

l Quarantine of contaminated structures and areas

l Instruction in the proper care of cuts or wounds

l Use of approved sources of food and drink

High standards of personal hygiene and, whenpractical, avoidance of practices that produce arun-down condition. This assists personnel in fightingan infection. The importance of good protective maskdiscipline and proper field sanitation measures must beemphasized.

Indications of a Biological Attack

These are indications of a biological attack.

l Low-flying aircraft that appear to be producing amist or spray

l The function of any type of spray device

l The function of a submunition, such as abomblet, that appears to have no immediate effect

l Unusual types of bomblets found in the area

l Swarms of insects, such as mosquitoes, suddenlyappearing after an aircraft has dropped containers thatdid not appear to have immediate effect

Defensive Measures aftera Biological Attack

Units are not equipped with devices to indicate abiological hazard. After a suspected biological attack,individuals must continue wearing their protectivemasks until authorized to remove them by competentauthority.

DECONTAMINATION OF PERSONNEL.—After a suspected biological warfare attack individualscan decontaminate themselves by showering with soapand hot water. The fingernails and toenails should bethoroughly cleaned and the hairy parts of the bodyshould be thoroughly scrubbed. Contaminated clothingmust be washed in hot soapy water when it cannot besent to a field laundry for decontamination. Cotton itemsmay be boiled.

DECONTAMINATION OF OUTDOORAREAS.— Sunlight kills most microorganisms andusually decontaminates unshaded outdoor areas.However, shaded areas may remain hazardous fromseveral hours to several days. Decontamination of alarge area is not feasible.

DECONTAMINATION OF INDOOR AREAS.—Personnel in a shelter or building that is suspected ofbeing contaminated with biological agents should weartheir protective masks until they leave the building.

GUARDING AGAINST CONTAMINATION.—All exposed surfaces are assumed to be contaminated.Sealed containers, such as bottles and cans containingfood and water, should be washed down and boiledbefore opening.

REPORT SICKNESS PROMPTLY.— Promptreporting of sickness serves two major purposes:

1. It gives medical personnel the opportunity toidentify the biological agent to which the individualswere exposed. Once the disease has been identified,effective medical measures can be taken.

2. It helps to prevent the spread of disease fromperson to person.

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TREATMENT OF CASUALTIES.— There are noself-aid measures for the diseases that are caused byagents. In comparison to measles, the symptoms ofbiological warfare diseases appear in a like manner.Although it maybe a matter of days before the types ofbiological warfare agents are identified, medicalpersonnel will direct the decontamination of thesecasualties.

Even though the Navy provides preventive shots forsome diseases, additional shots have been developedthat will be given to all hands if biological warfare everoccurs. If you contract a disease from biological warfarein spite of the shots, the sickness should be mild, andmedical personnel will ensure that you receive the besttreatment available.

NUCLEAR DEFENSE

On a nuclear battlefield, units must be dispersed tothe greatest extent possible consistent with the situationand the mission. Dispersed units present smaller targetsand, hence, are less vulnerable. In contingency planning,the positioning, movement, and missions of units mayrequire adjustment by the commanders to minimize theeffects of nuclear bursts while maintaining the ability tocontinue construction operations and hold defensivepositions. Defensive measures for individuals and unitsshould include protection from blast, heat, and initialand residual radioactive fallout.

Defensive Measures before a Nuclear Attack

When a nuclear attack is imminent, the best defenseis to dig in. Earth is one of the best shielding materialsavailable in the field. Seabee defensive positions, whichvary from individual fighting holes to improveddefensive positions, should be prepared whenever thetactical situation permits. Read chapter 7 for detailedinformation on constructing fighting holes and shelters.

FIGHTING HOLE.— A properly constructedfighting hole provides excellent protection againstinitial radiation. The deeper the fighting hole, the moreprotection it provides. An overhead covering of earth orother material will help reduce the amount of thermaland initial nuclear radiation and fallout material fromreaching the individual. However, this cover must besturdily constructed to withstand the blast wave.

FIELD SHELTERS.— Tunnels, caves, and stormdrains provide effective shelter. Culverts and ditches canbe used in an emergency, although they offer only partialprotection. Vehicles made of steel, such as tank andarmored personnel carriers, provide some protection.

Buildings usually are not strong enough to provideeffective shelter, but the middle floors or basement of areinforced concrete or steel-frame building offersprotection from all effects except the blast. Personnelshould avoid the areas around windows and otheropenings.

SUPPLIES AND EQUIPMENT.— Individualequipment and supplies not being worn should be placedin the fighting hole. None of this equipment can be leftunsecured because the blast wave converts them intolethal missiles. Unit supplies, particularly explosivesand flammables, should be dispersed within the unit areaand protected or shielded. Debris must be kept to aminimum and not be allowed to collect because it couldbecome afire hazard. Objects, such as radios, generatortools, and gas cans, must always be secured to minimizethe danger of flying debris caused by the blast wave.

Defensive Measures during a Nuclear Attack

A nuclear attack may come without warning. Thefirst indication will bean intense light. Heat and initialnuclear radiation come with the light and the blastfollows. There is little time to take protective measuressince the blast wave travels at the speed of sound (about1,000 feet per second). Individual defensive actionsmust be automatic and instinctive. Unit activities will besuspended for a short period while all personnel takecover. When a surprise attack is a possibility, allpersonnel not engaged in essential activities shouldremain undercover as much of the time as possible.Individuals who are exposed when a nuclear detonationoccurs should do the following:

. Immediately drop flat on the ground (facedown)or to the bottom of a fighting hole.

l Close your eyes.

l Protect exposed skin from heat by putting handsand arms near or under your body. Keep your helmetson.

l Remain down until after the blast has passed anddebris has stopped falling.

l Stay calm, check for injury, check weapons andequipment for damage, and prepare to continue themission.

Defensive Measures after a Nuclear Attack

Following a nuclear attack, designated individualsshould begin fallout monitoring, so fallout arriving in

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the unit area can be detected quickly. When warned ofthe arrival of fallout and the tactical situation permits, individuals should take cover and remain protected untilinstructed otherwise.

A handkerchief or similar cloth maybe worn overthe nose and mouth. If dust particles make breathingdifficult or cause discomfort, the protective masksshould not be used as a dust respirator. If it is necessaryto remain in an area having fallout, individuals shoulddig in quickly, sweep fallout particles away from thearea around fighting holes, and remain covered untilfallout stops.

The skin and clothing of individuals exposed tofallout or who have traveled through a radiologicallycontaminated area may cause a skin rash. If the situationprohibits complete decontamination, then field-expedient methods should be used to reduce theradiation hazard. Some of these methods that removealpha- and beta-emitting particles include the following:

l Removal and vigorous shaking of clothing orbrushing the clothing with brushes (avoid breathingdust)

. Removing dust from the hair and from under thefingernails

. Wiping exposed skin with a damp cloth

All personnel should bathe and change clothing assoon as the tactical situation permits. Remember thatrunoff water is contaminated, and appropriate defensivemeasures should be taken.

The requirement for decontamination of individualequipment, vehicles, weapons, and ammunition can bereduced, if, before fallout arrives, they are covered withmaterials such as tarpaulins, shelter halves, or ponchos.An effective way to remove radiological contaminationis to wash it with water.

Contamination Avoidance

Contamination avoidance can help minimizeexposure by doing the following:

l Limiting the duration of exposure by reducingthe amount of time in the hazardous area

c Delaying entry time until radiation decaysenough to permit safe passage or occupancy or both

l Avoiding and bypassing contaminated areas

First-Aid Treatment

The casualty-producing effects of a nuclearexplosion are blast, heat, and nuclear radiation. First-aidmeasures are limited to those for burns caused bythermal radiation and injuries caused by the blast. Thereare no immediate lifesaving measures for the treatmentof radiation sickness or blindness caused by the intenselight.

When the tactical situation prohibits you from goingto a decontamination station, you must remove most ofthe radioactive material with whatever you have onhand. If you become heavily contaminated, thefollowing measures are recommended:

1. You must remove your outer garments. Shakethem vigorously or brush them off. Be sure the clothingis held downwind. This will remove most of theradioactive material unless it is wet and muddy.

2. When it is too cold or wet to remove your outerclothing, brush or scrape them carefully.

3. The same procedure should be used to decon-taminate your equipment.

Personnel Decontamination Station

Complete personnel decontamination is conductedat a personnel decontamination station (PDS). The PDSis setup in a secure, uncontaminated area, located as farforward as the tactical situation permits. Personnel fromboth the decontamination and the supported unit operatethe PDS under the supervision of the Chemical,Biological, and Radiological Defense Officer(CBRDO), NOBC 2765 or the Disaster PreparednessOperations and Training Specialist, NEC 9598.

SEABEE CBR DEFENSE EQUIPMENT

NOTE

The following information was currentwhen it was written. Because of the frequencyof change in CBR defense equipment, consultthe Disaster Preparedness School (NCTC,Gulfport, Mississippi, or Port Hueneme,California) nearest you for the latestinformation.

Individual CBR defense equipment consists ofpermeable protective clothing, protective footwearcovers, protective masks, skin decontamination kits, andatropine.

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CBR Permeable Protective Clothing

This two-piece overgarment consists of one coatand one pair of trousers. It is packaged in a sealedvapor barrier bag to provide protection while not inuse against rain, moisture, and sunlight. Refer to thebag for detailed instructions for using the protectiveclothing. The coat and trousers are made of materialhaving an outer layer of nylon and cotton and an innerlayer of charcoal-impregnated polyurethane foam thatgives protection against vapors, aerosols, and smalldroplets of nerve and blister agents. The overgarmentis intended to be worn over the duty uniform;however, in high temperatures, it may be worndirectly over the underwear. The overgarment is notdesigned to be decontaminated and reimpregnated forreuse. It is discarded within 6 hours after beingcontaminated with liquid chemical agents or after 14days of wear.

Chemical Protective Footwear Covers(Overboots)

Overboots (fig. 9-5) are worn over standard combatboots. They protect the feet from contamination by allknown chemical agents, vectors, and radiological dustparticles.

The overboots are impermeable and haveunsupported butyl-rubber soles and butyl sheet-rubberuppers. When insulated boots (cold weather “MickeyMouse” boots) are worn with the overgarment, theoverboots are not necessary. The insulated boots provideadequate protection in a chemical environment.

Chemical Field Protective Masks

These masks, when properly fitted and worn withthe hood, give protection against field concentrations ofall known enemy chemical agents in vapor or aerosolform. They do so by filtering contaminated air to removethe agents, not by producing oxygen. When the air hasa low-oxygen content or when individuals are in tunnelsor caves with a heavy concentration of aerosolizedparticles, such as burning smoke mixtures, theprotective mask does not provide breathable air. Thesemasks also do not protect against ammonia vapors orcarbon monoxide.

The MCU-2/P, MCU-2A/P mask is the standardfield protective mask. Masks are shipped from themanufacturer with the following components:

1. MCU-2/P mask

Figure 9-5.—Chemical protective footwear covers (overbooks).

2. Ml waterproof bag

3. Mask carrier

4. Clear facepiece outsert

5. Cz canister

The following are accessories for the mask:

1. Protective hood

2. Optical inserts

3. M4 winterization kit

The MCU-2/P has one Cz canister that is designedfor protection against normal field concentrations of allknown toxic chemical agents and is considered adequatefor all foreseeable field use. Canisters must be replacedcarefully under the following circumstances: whendirected by higher headquarters; after prolonged usage;once every 15 days after initiation of chemical warfare;when they impose severe impedance to breathing; afterimmersion in water; upon visual examination, when theyare found to be damaged or unserviceable; or when the lotnumbers do not match.

Skin Decontaminating Kit M258A1

An M258A1 is issued to each individual duringoperations in a toxic chemical environment. It decon-taminates both nerve and blister agents. The use ofthis kit was discussed earlier in this chapter. The kitcontains three towelettes of each type (a total of six).Each pad is sealed in tearaway impermeable foilpackets. A single M258A1 kit contains materials toallow the individual three complete decontamination.

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Figure 9-6.—M42 remote alarm connected to M43 detector.

NAAK, Mark I

Three NAAK, Mark I, injectors are carried by theindividual in the top outside pocket of the mask carrier.These injectors are used for nerve agent first aid. Thissolution has a relatively high-freezing point and shouldbe removed from the carrier and placed inside the fielduniform in cold weather (below 45°F).

CBR UNIT EQUIPMENT

Each Seabee unit should have the equipmentdiscussed below.

Automatic Chemical Agent Alarm M8A1

The M8A1 automatic chemical agent alarm consistsof the M43A1 detector unit and the M42 alarm unit.

This unit is the primary means of detecting chemicalagents arriving in a unit area from an upwind chemicalattack. It can detect chemical agents in vapor and aerosolform and can alert personnel by audible and visualsignals. It is issued to platoons, companies, and similarunits.

The M43 detector unit of the automatic chemicalagent alarm continuously samples the air at its locationand indicates the presence of nerve agents. The M43gives an audible alarm. The M42 remote alarm unitprovides both an audible and visual alarm whenconnected by wire to the M43 detection. The M42 audiblealarm can be turned off manually. Up to five M42s canbe connected to the M43 (fig. 9-6). Maximum cablelength must not exceed 400 meters from the detector tothe farthest alarm.

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Figure 9-7.—Dep1oyment of automatic chemical agent alarms.

Figure 9-7, view A, shows a situation where fourdetectors are emplaced with three platoons online. Notethe orientation on the wind direction. The detector isoriented on wind direction, not on the direction of theenemy. When the automatic chemical agent alarms aremounted on vehicles, consideration must be given towind direction for the protection of the main body.

Figure 9-7, view B, shows an array using fourdetectors with the wind direction coming from the rightflank of the unit. A significant difference between afour-detector may and a six-detector array is that with

Figure 9-8.—ABC-M11 portable decontaminating apparatus.

only four detectors the may must be shifted when thewind direction shifts greater than 20 degrees.

Figure 9-7, view C, shows a company in a defensiveposition with six detectors deployed. The actual numberof alarm systems per unit varies depending upon thetable of allowance (TOA). The 300-meter distancebetween the M43 detectors reduces the possibility thatagent clouds might drift through holes in the array. Thisarray provides a high probability of detecting anoff-target attack within a reasonable warning time.

NOTE

Remember that the detector is oriented onwind direction, NOT on the direction of theenemy.

IM-143/PD or IM-143A/PD Dosimeter

This is the standard tactical dosimeter in use today.It is a direct reading instrument capable of detecting andrecording a total dose of up to 600 rads. It is termed apocket dosimeter and is about the size and shape of afountain pen.

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Figure 9-9.—M13 portable decontaminating apparatus.

AN/PDR-27 Radiac Set M13 Portable Decontaminating Apparatus

It contains a low-range dose rate of a Geiger-Mueller type of instrument, used for monitoringcontamination of personnel, food, and equipment. Itmeasures gamma and detects beta radiation.

ABC-M11 Portable DecontaminatingApparatus, DS2

The ABC-Ml1 apparatus (fig. 9-8) decontaminatessmall areas, such as the steering wheel or otherequipment, that Seabees must touch. It is a steelcontainer with an aluminum spray-head assembly and anitrogen-gas cylinder that provides the pressure. It isfilled with 11/3 quarts of DS2, which is sufficient forcovering 135 square feet. The effective spray range is 6to 8 feet. After each use, refill the Ml1 with DS2 and fitit with a new nitrogen cylinder. It is now ready to useagain.

Use the M13 apparatus to decontaminate vehiclesand crew-served weapons larger than .50 caliber.The Ml 3 (fig. 9-9) is about the size of a 5-gallongasoline can. It comes prefilled with 14 liters ofDS2 decon agent. Decon capability is 1,200 squarefeet. A hose assembly, pump assembly, wandassembly, and brush are attached to the fluidcontainer for disseminating DS2. The brush is forremoval of thickened agents, mud, grease, or othermaterial.

MISSION-ORIENTED PROTECTIVEPOSTURE

Mission-oriented protective posture (MOPP) is aflexible system of protection against chemicalagents, used to facilitate mission accomplishmentin chemical warfare. MOPP requires the individualto wear protective equipment consistent with thechemical threat, the work rate imposed by the

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Table 9-1.—MOPP Levels before Chemical Attack

mission, and the temperature. (See table 9-1 forMOPP levels.)

All combat operations are conducted under themission-oriented protective posture system. Of course,when there is no threat, then there is no protectionrequirement, but this is still a MOPP. At the otherextreme, when there is a continuing, immediate threatof chemical attack and the enemy has the capability toproduce an unacceptable casualty level amongunprotected troops, the troops may be required to wearprotective clothing and equipment for extended periods.In this case, some form of safe area must be provided,so troops can perform the necessary functions thatrequire removal of some or all of the protective gear.

MOPP FLEXIBILITY-LIMITING FACTORS

The flexibility of MOPP in providing individualprotection is limited by the temperature of thesurrounding area, fatigue level of the troops, the degreeto which the troops need to use their senses, and personalneeds.

Heat Exhaustion

Individuals operating a moderate-to-heavy workrate while in chemical protective gear may experienceheat exhaustion (dizziness and fainting) at any time,especially during periods of high temperature.

Fatigue

Individuals in frill chemical protective clothing andequipment tend to experience fatigue resulting fromsuch factors as mask breathing resistance, increase inbody temperature from work energy and solar heat, andpsychological and physiological stress. This conditionof fatigue increases the need for rest and sleep tomaintain individual alertness and efficiency.

Senses

Individuals required to perform duties involvingtheir senses or related functions, such as manualdexterity, visual activity, and voice communication,operate at varying levels of efficiency, depending ontraining and proficiency while in full protective gear.

Personal Needs

Individuals cannot be in full chemical protection forindefinite periods and still attend to certain personalneeds, such as eating, caring for wounds, shaving, andeliminating of bodily wastes.

MARKING OF CONTAMINATEDAREAS (STANAG 2002)

The markers, or signs, are used in areas containingradiological, biological, and chemical contamination.The colorings and markings of the signs are according

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C3.178Figure 9-10.—CBR contamination markers.

to STANAG 2002 and are shown in figure 9-10. Thebase of the triangle should be about 11 inches (28 cm)and the opposite sides about 8 inches (20 cm). The signsare in the shape of a right isosceles triangle (90 degreesby 45 degrees by 45 degrees) and are made of plastic,wood, metal, or other rigid material, with holes or “ears”that are used for hanging them about the ground. Theyare placed on wire boundary fences, poles, trees, orrocks.

CHEMICAL CONTAMINATION MARKERS

The triangle is yellow on both sides. The word GASin red 2-inch (5 cm) block letters is placed on the sideof the markers facing away from the contamination

(front). Fluorescent paint is used, when available. Thename of the agent, if known, and the date and time ofdetection are also placed on the front of the marker atthe time of emplacement with paint, marking pencil, orgrease pencil.

BIOLOGICAL CONTAMINATIONMARKERS

The triangle is blue on both sides. The letters BIOin red (fluorescent paint, if available) 2-inch (5 cm)block letters are placed on the side of the marker facingaway from the contamination (front). The name of theagent, if known, and the date and time of detection arealso placed on the front of the marker at the time ofemplacement.

RADIOLOGICAL CONTAMINATIONMARKERS

The triangle is white on both sides. The word ATOMin black 2-inch (5 cm) block letters is placed on the sideof the markers facing away from the contamination(front). The dose rate, date, and time of reading, and thedate and time of burst, if known, are also placed on thefront of the marker at the time of emplacement.

CHEMICAL MINEFIELD MARKERS

The triangle is red on both sides. On the side facingaway from the contamination (front) appear the wordsGAS MINES in yellow 1-inch (2.5 cm) block letters(fluorescent paint, if available) with a horizontal yellowl-inch (2.5 cm) stripe underneath the lettering. Thechemical agent in the mines and the date ofemplacement may also be inscribed on the front of themarker if desired by the commander.

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. . . . . . ..-, ---- ---- . .