8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

1/48

Chemistry 130 28/04/2013 19:36:00

Section 1.2

experiment: observation of natra! phenomena carrie" ot in

contro!!e" manner so res!ts can be "p!icate" an" rationa!

conc!sions can be ma"e

!a#: concise statement of fn"amenta! re!ationship or re$!arity of

natre

hypothesis: tentative exp!anation of some re$!arity of natre

theory: teste" exp!anation of basic natre phenomenon

o cannot be comp!ete!y proven

scientific metho": $enera! process of a"vancin$ scientific %no#!e"$e

Section 1.3

mass: &antity of matter

matter: #hatever occpies space an" is perceivab!e by senses !a# of conservation of mass: 'the tota! mass remains constant

"rin$ a chemica! chan$e(

#ei$ht: force of $ravity exerte" on ob)ect

Section 1.4

t#o princip!e #ays of c!assifyin$ matter

o physica! state *$as+ !i&i"+ so!i",

o chemica! constittion *e!ement+ compon"+ mixtre,

compressibi!ity/expansibi!ity "efine states

vapor: $aseos form of matter that norma!!y exists as !i&i" or so!i"

physica! chan$e: chan$e in form of matter+ bt not chemica!

i"entity

o "isso!vin$

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

2/48

o "isti!!ation

chemica! chan$e/reaction: chan$e in #hich one or more forms of

matter are chan$e" in one or more ne# %in"s of matter

o rstin$

physica! property: characteristic that can be observe" #/o chan$in$chemica! i"entity

chemica! property: characteristic invo!vin$ chemica! chan$e

sbstance: matter that cannot be separate" frther by physica!

process

o a!#ays has same characteristic properties

mixtre: materia! that can be separate" frther by physica! process

o most materia!s

o has variab!e composition

o t#o types

hetero$eneos mixtre: mixtre #/ physica!!y "istinct

parts+ each #ith "istinct properties

homo$eneos mixtre *so!tion,: mixtre niform in

properties thro$hot $iven samp!es

Section 1.-

nit: fixe" stan"ar" of measrement

precision: c!oseness of set va!es obtaine" from simi!ar

measrements of i"entica! &antity accracy: c!oseness of sin$!e measrement to tre va!e

si$nificant fi$res: "i$its in measrement or ca!c!ation that inc!"e

a!! certain "i$its an" fina! "i$it #/ some ncertainty

nmber of si$nificant fi$res: nmber of "i$its reporte" for

measrement or ca!c!ation+ in"icatin$ precision

o r!es for contin$ on p. 16

o r!es for ca!c!ations on p. 16

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

3/48

scientific notation: representation of nmber in 10n

exact nmber: nmber that arises #hen contin$ items or "efinin$

nits

ron"in$: proce"re of "roppin$ insi$nificant "i$its in ca!c!ation

Section 1.8 "imensiona! ana!ysis *factor!abe! metho",: metho" of ca!c!ation

#hich carries a!on$ nits of &antities

conversion factor: factor e&a! to 1 that converts to &antity

expresse" in nit to &antity expresse" in another nit

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

4/48

Chemistry 130 28/04/2013 19:36:00

Section 2.1

atomic theory: a!tons exp!anation of strctre of matter as

"ifferent combinations of very sma!! partic!es

o a!! matter is compose" of in"ivisib!e atoms

atom: extreme!y sma!! partic!e of matter that retains its

i"entity "rin$ chemica! reaction

o an e!ement is compose" of on!y one type of atom+ #/ each

atom havin$ simi!ar properties

o a compon" is compose" of t#o or more e!ements chemica!!y

combine" in fixe" proportions

o a chemica! reaction is rearran$ement of atoms in reactin$

sbstances to pro"ce ne# combinations in forme"

sbstances atomic symbo!: one or t#o !etter notation se" to "esi$nate a

partic!ar e!ement

!a# of m!tip!e proportions: statement that #hen t#o e!ements

form more than one compon"+ then masses of one e!ement for

fixe" mass of other e!ement are in ratios of sma!! nmbers

Section 2.2

nc!es: atoms centra! core+ #hich is positive!y char$e" an"

constitte most mass

e!ectron: very !i$ht+ ne$ative!y char$e" partic!e otsi"e the nc!es

homson catho"e experiment

o sho#e" atoms #ere not in"ivisib!e

o bent beams

5therfor" $o!" foi! experiment

o some of the a!pha partic!es "ef!ecte" bac%

o nc!es is very sma!!+ so most partic!es #ent thro$h

Section 2.3

nc!es consists of both protons an" netrons atomic nmber: nmber of protons in atom

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

5/48

proton: nc!ear partic!e that has positive char$e e&a! in ma$nit"e

to e!ectron+ bt has 1800 times more mass

e!ement: sbstance #hose atoms a!! have same atomic nmber

netron: nc!ear partic!e #/ no char$e+ bt mass e&a! to proton

mass nmber: tota! nmber of protons an" netrons in atom nc!i"e: atom characterie" by atomic nmber an" mass

isotopes: atoms #hose nc!ei have same atomic nmber+ bt

varyin$ masses

Section 2.4

a!ton acta!!y conte" avera$e atomic mass+ b/c of isotopes

o !imite" #/o mass spectrometer

atomic mass nit *am,: mass nit e&a! to 1/12 mass of carbon

12 atom

atomic mass: avera$e atomic mass

fractiona! abn"ance: fraction of tota! nmber of atoms of partic!ar

isotope

o can "etermine atomic mass of e!ement

Section 2.-

7en"e!eev an" 7eyer fon" in"epen"ent!y that e!ements co!" be

or$anie" by atomic mass not comp!ete!y tre

perio"ic tab!e: tab!ar arran$ement of e!ements in ro#s an"

co!mns+ #hich "emonstrates repetition of propertieso or$anie" by atomic nmber

perio": horionta! ro# on perio"ic tab!e

$rop: vertica! ro# on perio"ic tab!e

o main$rop/representative

o transition

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

6/48

o innertransition

!anthani"es

actini"es

e!ements in same $rop have simi!ar properties

meta!: sbstance that has characteristic !ster an" acts #e!! ascon"ctor of heat an" e!ectricity

nonmeta!: e!ement that "oes not exhibit meta! characteristics

meta!!oi"/semimeta!: e!ement #/ both meta! an" nonmeta!

properties

Section 2.6

chemica! form!a: notation sin$ atomic symbo!s #/ nmeric

sbscripts to convey proportion of e!ements in sbstance

mo!ec!e: "efinite $rop of chemica!!y bon"e" atoms

o mo!ec!ar sbstance: sbstance consistin$ of a!i%e mo!ec!es

mo!ec!ar form!a: exact nmber of e!ement in mo!ec!e

mo!ec!es are not pi!e" ran"om!y strctra! form!a

po!ymer: very !ar$e mo!ec!e ma"e of sma!!er mo!ec!es !in%e"

to$ether

monomer: sma!! mo!ec!e !in%e" to$ether to form po!ymer

po!ymers are important+ as they are se" "ai!y

ion: e!ectronica!!y char$e" partic!e obtaine" from atom or $rop of

atoms by a""in$/removin$ e!ectronso anion ne$ative!y char$e"

o cation positive!y char$e"

ionic compon": compon" compose" of cations an" anions

form!a nit: $rop of atoms or ions exp!icit!y symbo!ie"

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

7/48

Section 2.

or$anic compon": sbstance containin$ carbon #/ other e!ement

hy"rocarbon: compon"s containin$ on!y hy"ro$en an" carbon

fnctiona! $rop: reactive portion of mo!ec!e that n"er$oes

pre"ictab!e reactions Section 2.8

chemica! nomenc!atre: systematic namin$ of chemica! compon"s

inor$anic compon"s: compon"s #/o carbon

monatomic ion: ion forme" from sin$!e atom

po!yatomic ion: ion consistin$ of t#o or more atoms chemica!!y

bon"e" to$ether an" carryin$ e!ectric char$e

oxoaci": aci" containin$ hy"ro$en+ oxy$en+ an" another e!ement

hy"rate: compon" that contains #ater bon" as crysta!s

Section 2.9

chemica! e&ation: symbo!ic representation of chemica! reaction in

terms of chemica! form!as

o reactant/pro"ct

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

8/48

Chemistry 130 28/04/2013 19:36:00

Section 3.1

mo!ec!ar #ei$ht *7;,: sm of atomic #ei$hts of a!! atoms in

mo!ec!e of sbstance mo!ec!ar compon"

o ex. #ater 2*1,,: nmber of atoms in 12 $ samp!e of

C12+ #hich is 6.02x10

23

simi!ar to ho# "oen is 12 an" $ross is 144

mo!ar mass: mass of one mo!e of sbstance+ #hich is e&a! to

form!a #ei$ht

o ex. C12 has mo!ar mass of 12 $/mo!

percenta$e composition: mass percenta$es of each e!ement in

compon"

o can "etermine mo!ec!ar form!a thro$h mo!ec!ar #ei$ht

Section 3.3

mass percenta$e: parts of per hn"re" parts of tota!+ by mass

o mass ? *mass of ,/*mass of #ho!e, x 100?

o ex. 1 mo! of C@2A has mass of 30 $

C@2A has 1 mo!e of C+ 2 mo!es of @+ an" 1 mo!e of A

mass ? C 12/30 x 100? 40?

mass ? @ 2/30 x 100? 6.3?

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

9/48

mass ? A 16/30 x 100? -3.3?

if $iven mass of compon"+ can ca!c!ate mass of parts

Section 3.-

empirica! form!a *simp!est form!a,: form!a of sbstance #ritten

#ith sma!!est inte$er sbscriptso same as form!a of compon" for ionic compon"s

o "ifferent from form!a of compon" for mo!ec!ar compon"s

@2A2 @A

o may have "ifferent strctres+ bt same percenta$e

composition

o n *mo!ec!ar #ei$ht,/*empirica! form!a #ei$ht,

stoichiometry: ca!c!ation of &antities of reactants an" pro"cts

invo!ve" in chemica! reaction

Section 3.8

!imitin$ reactant *!imitin$ rea$ent,: reactant entire!y consme"

#hen reaction $oes to comp!etion

o excess reactant not comp!ete!y consme"

o mo!es of pro"ct "etermine" by mo!es of !imitin$ reactant

theoretica! yie!": maximm amont of pro"ct obtainab!e from

reaction b/c of $iven amonts of reactants

o acta! yie!" may be mch !ess

some pro"ct may be !ost "rin$ process of separatin$from reaction mixtre

other competin$ reactions may occr

many reactions stop before comp!etion

percenta$e yie!": acta! yie!" expresse" as percenta$e of

theoretica! yie!"

o percenta$e yie!" *acta! yie!",/*theoretica! yie!", x 100?

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

10/48

Chemistry 130 28/04/2013 19:36:00

Section 4.1

ionic theory of so!tions certain sbstances pro"ce free!y

movin$ ions #hen "isso!ve" in #ater+ an" these ions con"ct

e!ectricity in so!tion

o e!ectro!yte: sbstance that "isso!ves in #ater as e!ectrica!!y

con"ctin$ so!tion

ionic so!i"s that "isso!ve in #ater >aC!

not a!! ionic+ some mo!ec!ar @C!

o noe!ectro!yte: sbstance that "isso!ve" in #ater to $ive

noncon"ctin$ or very poor!y con"ctin$ so!tion

ex. C12@22A11

con"ction of e!ectro!yte

o

stron$ e!ectro!yte: e!ectro!yte that exists in so!tion a!mostentire!y as ions more ions to con"ct

most!y ionic so!i"s

o #ea% e!ectro!yte: e!ectro!yte that "isso!ves in #ater to $ive

re!ative!y sma!! percenta$e of ions

most!y mo!ec!ar sbstances

so!bi!ity: abi!ity to "isso!ve in #ater

o so!b!e: "isso!ve rea"i!y in #ater

o inso!b!e: !imite" so!bi!ities

Section 4.2

mo!ec!ar e&ation: chemica! e&ation in #hich reactants an"

pro"cts are #ritten as mo!ec!ar sbstances+ even tho$h they

may exist in so!tion

o exp!icit abot reactant so!tions an" pro"cts

ionic e&ation "etai!s #hats happenin$ at !eve! of ions

comp!ete ionic e&ation: chemica! e&ation in #hich stron$

e!ectro!ytes are #ritten as separate ions in so!tion

o

represents sbstances in pre"ominant forms in reaction

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

11/48

spectator ion: ion in ionic e&ation that "oes not ta%e part in

reaction

net ionic e&ation: ionic e&ation from #hich spectator ions have

been cance!e"

Section 4.3 types of reactions

o precipitation reactions

o aci"base reactions

o oxi"ationre"ction reactions

precipitate: inso!b!e so!i" compon" forme" "rin$ chemica!

reaction in so!tion

o nee" so!bi!ity r!es to "etermine

exchan$e *metathesis, reaction: reaction b/# compon"s that+

#hen #ritten as mo!ec!ar e&ation+ appears to invo!ve exchan$e of

parts b/# t#o reactants

Section 4.4

aci"s an" bases are e!ectro!ytes

aci"base in"icator: "ye se" to "istin$ish b/# aci"ic an" basic

so!tions by means of co!or chan$es they n"er$o in so!tions

rrehenis "efinitions

o aci": sbstance that pro"ces @

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

12/48

o stron$ aci": aci" that ionies comp!ete!y in #ater an" is

stron$ e!ectro!yte

@C!A4

@2SA4

@D @Br

@C!

@>A3

o #ea% aci": aci" that part!y ionies in #ater an" is #ea%

e!ectro!yte

@C>

@=

o stron$ base: base that present in so!tion entire!y as ions an"

is stron$ e!ectro!yte

iA@

>aA@

EA@

Ca*A@,2

Sr*A@,2

Ba*A@,2

o #ea% base: base part!y ionie" in #ater an" is #ea%

e!ectro!yte netra!iation reaction: reaction of aci" an" base that res!ts in

ionic compon" an" possib!y #ater

o pro"ct sa!t

monoprotic aci"s: aci"s #/ on!y one aci"ic @ per mo!ec!e

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

13/48

po!yprotic aci": aci" that yie!" t#o or more aci" @ per mo!ec!e

aci" sa!ts: sa!ts #/ aci"ic @ an" can n"er$o netra!iation

Section 4.-

oxi"ation nmber *oxi"ation state,: acta! char$e of atom as

monatomic or hypothetica! char$e assi$ne" to atom by simp!e r!es oxi"ationre"ction reaction *re"ox reaction,: reaction in #hich

e!ectrons are transferre" b/# species or atoms chan$e oxi"ation

nmber

o oxi"iation increase" oxi"ation nmber

o re"ction "ecease" oxi"ation nmber

ha!freaction: one of t#o parts of oxi"ationre"ction reaction+ one

part !osin$ e!ectrons an" other $ainin$ e!ections

o oxi"ation !osin$ e!ectrons

o re"ction $ainin$ e!ectrons

oxi"iin$ a$ent: species that oxi"ies another species an" is

re"ce"

re"cin$ a$ent: species that re"ces another species an" is

oxi"ie"

combination reaction: reaction in #hich t#o sbstances combine to

form thir" sbstance

types of reactions

o "ecomposition reaction: reaction in #hich sin$!e compon"reacts to $ive t#o or more sbstances

o "isp!acement reaction *sin$!erep!acement reaction,: reaction

in #hich e!ement reacts #/ compon"+ "isp!acin$ another

e!ement from it

o combstion reaction: reaction in #hich sbstance reacts #/

oxy$en+ sa!!y #/ rapi" re!ease of heat as f!ame

Section 4.

so!te: sbstance bein$ "isso!ve"

so!vent: !i&i" that sbstance is bein$ "isso!ve" in

concentration: &antity of so!te in stan"ar" &antity of so!tion

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

14/48

o "i!te !o#

o concentrate" hi$h

mo!ar concentration/mo!arity *7,: mo!es of so!te "isso!ve" in one

!iter *cbic "ecimeter, of so!tion

o mo!arity *7, *mo!es of so!te,/*!iters of so!tion, Section 4.8

&antitative ana!ysis: "etermination of amont of sbstance or

species present in materia!

Section 4.9

$ravimetric ana!ysis: type of &antitative ana!ysis in #hich amont

of species in materia! is "etermine" by convertin$ species to

pro"ct that can be iso!ate" an" #ei$he"

Section 4.10

titration: proce"re for "eterminin$ amont of sbstance by a""in$

caref!!y measre" vo!me of so!tion #/ %no#n concentration nti!

reaction is comp!ete

vo!metric ana!ysis: metho" of ana!ysis base" on titration

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

15/48

Chemistry 130 28/04/2013 19:36:00

Section -.1

pressre: force exerte" per nit area of srface

o force mass x constant acce!eration of $ravity

mass x *9.81 m/s2,

o pressre force/area

Fmass x *9.81 m/s2,G/area

o scientific nit is %$/*ms2, or pasca!

re!ative!y sma!! nit

acce!eration: chan$e of spee" per nit time

barometer: "evice for measrin$ pressre of atmosphere

o manometer: "evice measrin$ pressre of $as or !i&i" in

vesse!

o

mi!!imeters of mercry *mm@$,/torr: nit of pressre e&a! tothat exerte" by co!mn of mercry 1 mm hi$h at 0 "e$rees C

o atmosphere *atm,: nit of pressre e&a! to 60 mm@$

o $enera! re!ationship b/# H an" h H$"h

Section -.2

compressibi!ity: abi!ity to be s&eee" into sma!! vo!me by

pressre

o Boy!es !a#: vo!me of samp!e of $as at $iven temperatre

varies inverse!y #/ pressre

HIconstant HfIfHiIi

#or%s for !o# to mo"erate pressres

o Char!es !a#: vo!me occpie" by samp!e of $as at constant

pressre is "irect!y proportiona! to abso!te temperatre

H/constant If/fIi/i

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

16/48

#or%s for mo"erate temperatres

!a#s can be combine" into sin$!e statement vo!me occpie" by

$iven amont of $as is proportiona! to abso!te temperatre "ivi"e"

by pressre

o HfIf/fHiIi/i

vo$a"ros !a#: e&a! vo!mes of any t#o $ases at same

temperatre an" pressre contain same nmber of mo!ec!es

o mo!ar $as vo!me *Im,: vo!me of one mo!e of $as

often 22.4 /mo! at stan"ar" temperatre an" pressre

*SH, 0 "e$rees C an" 1 atm

Section -.3

mo!ar $as constant *5,: constant of proportiona!ity re!atin$ mo!ar

vo!me of $as to /H

i"ea! $as !a#: HIn5

o #or%s at !o# to mo"erate pressres

o #or%s for not too !o# temperatres

H7m"5

Section -.-

a!tons !a# of partia! pressres: sm of partia! pressres of a!!

"ifferent $ases in mixtre is e&a! to tota! pressre of mixtre

o partia! pressre: pressre exerte" by partic!ar $as in mixtre

o HH1

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

17/48

rootmeans&are *rms, mo!ec!ar spee": + is a type of avera$e

mo!ec!ar spee"+ e&a! to spee" of mo!ec!e havin$ avera$e

mo!ec!ar %inetic ener$y

o F*35,/7mG*1/2,

ta%e care to se consistent nits "iffsion: process #hereby $as sprea"s ot thro$h another $as to

occpy space niform!y

Lrahams !a# of effsion: rate of effsion of $as from partic!ar

ho!e is inverse!y proportiona! to s&are root of mo!ec!ar #ei$ht of

$as at constant temperatre an" pressre

o effsion: process in #hich $as f!o#s thro$h sma!! ho!e in

container

"epen"s on area of ho!e+ nmber of mo!ec!es per nit

vo!me+ an" avera$e mo!ec!ar spee"

Section -.8

van "er ;aa!s e&ation: e&ation simi!ar to i"ea! $as !a#+ bt

inc!"es t#o constants+ a an" b+ to accont for "eviations from

i"ea! behavior

o *H

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

18/48

Chemistry 130 28/04/2013 19:36:00

Section 6.1

thermo"ynamics: science of re!ationships b/# heat an" other forms

of ener$y

thermochemistry: st"y of &antity of heat absorbe" or $iven off by

chemica! reactiono one area of thermo"ynamics

o ex. brnin$ of fe!

ener$y: potentia! or capacity to move matter

o property of matter

o many convertib!e forms

%inetic ener$y: ener$y of motion

o K%1/2mv2

o

SD nit is )o!e *M or %$m

2

/s

2

, ca!orie *ca!,: nonSD nit of ener$y common!y se" by chemists+

ori$ina!!y "efine" as amont of ener$y re&ire" to raise

temperatre of one $ram of #ater by 1 "e$ree C

o 1 ca! 4.184 M

potentia! ener$y: ener$y an ob)ect has by virte of position in fie!"

of force

o Kpm$h

interna! ener$y *N,: sm of %inetic an" potentia! ener$ies of

partic!es ma%in$ p sbstance

o KtotK%

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

19/48

heat: ener$y that f!o#s into or ot of system b/c of "ifference in

temperatre b/# thermo"ynamic system an" srron"in$s

therma! e&i!ibrim: temperatre e&a!ity

o ener$y f!o#s nti! e&i!ibrim b/# system an" srron"in$s is

estab!ishe"o f!o#s from hi$her temperatre system to !o#er temperatre

system

heat of reaction: va!e of & re&ire" to retrn system to $iven

temperatre after comp!etion of reaction

types of chemica! reactions or physica! chan$es

o exothermic process: chemica! reaction or physica! chan$e in

#hich heat is evo!ve" *&,

o en"othermic process: chemica! reaction or physica! chan$e in

#hich heat is absorbe" *

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

20/48

o specific heat capacity *specific heat,: &antity of heat

re&ire" to raise temperatre of one $ram of sbstance by

one "e$ree C or E at constant pressre

&smOt

ca!orimeter: "evice se" to measre eat absorbe" or evo!ve""rin$ physica! or chemica! chan$e

bomb ca!orimeter: ca!orimeter for reactions invo!vin$ $ases

Section 6.

@ess !a# of heat smmation for chemica! e&ation #ritten as

sm of t#o or more steps+ entha!py chan$e for overa!! e&ation

e&a!s sm of entha!py char$es for in"ivi"a! steps

Section 6.8

stan"ar" state: stan"ar" thermo"ynamic con"itions chosen for

sbstance #hen !istin$ or comparin$ thermo"ynamic "ata

a!!otrope: one of t#o or more "istinct forms of e!ement in same

physica! state

stan"ar" entha!py of formation *stan"ar" heat of formation,:

entha!py chan$e for formation of one more of sbstance in its

stan"ar" state from its e!ements in reference form an" stan"ar"

states

Section 6.9

fe!: sbstance brne" or reacte" to provi"e heat an" other formsof ener$y

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

21/48

Chemistry 130 28/04/2013 19:36:00

Section .1

#ave: continos!y repeatin$ chan$e or osci!!ation in matter or

physica! fie!"

ex. !i$ht

e!ectroma$netic ra"iation !i$ht+ xrays+ ra"io #aves

#ave!en$th: "istance b/# any t#o a")acent i"entica! points #ave

o measre" in meters

fre&ency: nmber of #ave!en$ths of #ave that pass fixe" point in

one nit of time

o measre" in hert

cvP tota! !en$th of #ave passin$ point in 1s spee"

o spee" 3.00 Q 108m/s

e!ectroma$netic spectrm: ran$e of fre&encies or #ave!en$ths ofe!ectroma$netic ra"iation

o vio!et *300 nm, re" *800 nm,

o not visib!e 300 nm or 800 nm

Section .2

"iffraction: property of #aves in #hich #aves sprea" ot #hen

obstrction or sma!! ho!e abot sie of #ave!en$th is encontere"

photoe!ectric effect: phenomenon base" on fon"ation that !i$ht

has both #ave an" partic!e properties

K nhv

o n can on!y be positive inte$ers

o h is H!an%s constant physica! constant #/ va!e 6.63 Q

1034 Ms

photons: partic!es of e!ectroma$netic ener$y+ #/ ener$y K

proportiona! to observe" fre&ency of !i$ht

o K hv

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

22/48

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

23/48

#ave fnction: mathematica! expression containin$ information

abot partic!e in $iven ener$y !eve!

Section .-

atomic orbita!: #ave fnction for e!ectron in atom

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

24/48

Chemistry 130 28/04/2013 19:36:00

Section 8.1

e!ectron confi$ration: partic!ar "istribtion of e!ectrons amon$

avai!ab!e sbshe!!s

orbita! "ia$ram: "ia$ram to sho# ho# orbita!s of sbshe!! are

occpie" by e!ectron

Ha!i exc!sion princip!e no t#o e!ectrons in atom can have

same for &antm nmbers

o not a!! conceivab!e arran$ements of e!ectrons are possib!e

o orbita! can ho!" at most t#o e!ectrons+ on!y if they have

opposite spins

Section 8.2

$ron" state: &antm mechanica! state correspon"in$ #ith !o#est

ener$y !eve! of atom excite" state: confi$ration associate" #/ ener$y !eve!s other than

!o#est

bi!"in$p princip!e *fba princip!e,: scheme se" to repro"ce

e!ectron confi$rations of $ron" states of atoms by sccessive!y

fi!!in$ sbshe!!s #/ e!ectrons in specific or"er

o correspon"s to increasin$ ener$y of sbshe!!s

ener$y "epen"s on &antm nmber n an" !

nob!e $ases fi!!e" s/p sbshe!! re!ative nreactivity

a!%a!ine earth meta!s fi!!e" s sbshe!! mo"erate reactivity

o nob!e$as core: innershe!! confi$ration correspon"in$ to one

of nob!e $ases p!s t#o oter e!ectrons #/ ns2

confi$ration

pse"onob!e$ascore: nob!e$as core to$ether #/ *n1,"10

e!ectrons

va!ence e!ectron: e!ectron in atom otsi"e nob!e$as or pse"o

nob!e $as core

o

primari!y invo!ve" in chemica! reactionso accont for simi!arities of chemica! properties

exceptions to bi!"in$ p r!e

o chromim

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

25/48

o copper

Section 8.4

"ifferent arran$ements of e!ectron confi$rations sho# "ifferent

states "ifferent ener$y an" ma$netic characteristics

@n"s r!e !o#estener$y arran$ement of e!ectrons in sbshe!!is obtaine" by pttin$ e!ectrons into separate orbita!s of sbshe!! #/

same spin before pairin$ e!ectrons

ma$netic attractions from e!ectrons in opposite spin cance! each ot

o so+ on!y atoms #/ npaire" e!ectrons exhibit net ma$netism

parama$netic sbstance: sbstance #ea%!y attracte" by ma$netic

fie!" $enera!!y res!tin$ from npaire" e!ectrons

"iama$netic sbstance: sbstance not attracte" by ma$netic fie!"

or s!i$ht!y repe!!e" by fie!"+ res!tin$ from paire" e!ectrons

Section 8.6

e!ectron confi$rations "isp!ay perio"ic variation in atomic

nmbers+ #hich res!ts in perio"ic variation in e!ements physica!

an" chemica! behaviors

perio"ic !a# #hen e!ements are arran$e" by atomic nmber+

their physica! an" chemica! properties vary perio"ica!!y

o atomic ra"is

o ioniation ener$y

o e!ectron affinity atomic ra"is

o a!on$ perio"s+ "ecreases #/ increasin$ atomic nmber *Lrop

D nob!e $as,

o a!on$ $rops+ increases #/ increasin$ perio" nmber

effective nc!ear char$e: positive char$e that e!ectron experiences

from nc!es+ e&a! to nc!ear char$e+ bt re"ce" by shie!"in$ or

screenin$ from intervenin$ e!ectron "istribtion

o increasin$ char$e p!!s e!ectrons in#ar"

ioniation ener$y *firstioniation potentia!,: minimm ener$y

nee"e" to remove hi$hestener$y *otermost, e!ectron from

netra! atom in $aseos state

o a!on$ perio"s+ increases #/ increasin$ atomic nmber

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

26/48

o a!on$ $rops+ "ecreases #/ increasin$ atomic nmber

o m!tip!e ioniation ener$ies increase #/ each sccessive

remova!

!ar$e "iff. b/# 2n"an" 3r"ioniation ener$ies

e!ectron affinity: ener$y chan$e for process of a""in$ e!ectron tonetra! atom in $aseos state to form ne$ative ion

o !ar$e ne$ative nmbers in"icate formation of very stab!e

ne$ative ions

o sma!! ne$ative nmbers in"icate formation of !ess stab!e

ne$ative ions

o $enera! tren" is to#ar"s more ne$ative e!ectron affinities

from !eft to ri$ht in any perio"

Section 8.

!o#/hi$h ioniation ener$y meta!!ic/nonmeta!!ic

basicaci"ic behavior of oxi"es in"icator of meta!!icnonmeta!!ic

character

o basic oxi"e: oxi"e that reacts #/ aci"s

most meta! oxi"es

o aci"ic oxi"e: oxi"e that reacts #/ bases

most nonmeta! oxi"es

o amphoteric oxi"e: oxi"e #/ both basic an" aci"ic properties

hy"ro$eno $rop by itse!f

o co!or!ess $as compose" of @2mo!ec!es

Lrop D *a!%a!i meta!s,

o soft an" reactive

o reactivities increasin$ "o#n $rop

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

27/48

o react #/ #ater to pro"ce hy"ro$en

Lrop DD *a!%a!ine earth meta!s,

o chemica!!y reactive *mch !ess so than a!%a!i meta!s,

o reactivities increasin$ "o#n $rop

o form basic oxi"es *5A, Lrop DDD

o si$nificant increase in meta!!ic character "o#n $rop

o form oxi"es *52A3,

Lrop DI

o form oxi"es *5A2,

o oxi"es pro$ress from aci"ic to amphoteric "o#n $rop

Lrop I

o transition from nonmeta! to meta!!oi" to meta!

o forms oxi"es *52A3an" 52A-,

some cases mo!ec!ar form!as are t#ice of these

form!as

o oxi"es pro$ress from aci"ic to amphoteric to basic

Lrop ID

o cha!co$ens

o transition from nonmeta! to meta!!oi" to meta!

o forms oxi"es *5A3 an" 5A3,

o most!y aci"ic *eA2an" HoA2is amphoteric+ tho$h HoA2 ismore basic,

Lrop IDD

o ha!o$ens

o reactive+ co!orf! nonmeta!s

o basic form!a *Q2,

Lrop IDD

o nob!e $ases

o $ases consistin$ of ncombine" atoms

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

28/48

Chemistry 130 28/04/2013 19:36:00

Section 9.1

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

29/48

ionic bon": chemica! bon" forme" b/# e!ectrostatic attraction b/#

positive an" ne$ative ions

o forms #hen e!ectrons are transferre" b/# va!ence she!!s of

cation to anion

o nei$hborin$ ions attract as many ions of opposite char$e aspossib!e

e#is e!ectron"ot symbo!: symbo! in #hich e!ectrons in va!ence

she!! of an atom or ion are represente" by "ots p!ace" aron" !etter

symbo! of e!ement

bon"e" atoms net "ecrease in ener$y b/c bon"e" state is more

stab!e an" at !o#er ener$y !eve!

Co!ombs !a# ener$y K obtaine" brin$in$ t#o ions #/ e!ectric

char$es 1an" 2 from infinite separation to "istance r is

K*%12,/r

o % is 8.99x109 Mm/C2

o m!tip!y by vo$a"ros nmber to express for one mo!e

!attice ener$y: chan$e in ener$y that occrs #hen ionic so!i" is

separate" into iso!ate" ions in $as phase

Born@aber cyc!e

o base" on @ess !a#

o "etermines !attice ener$y+ #hich is "iffic!t thro$h "irect

experimentation ionic sbstances are typica!!y hi$hme!tin$ so!i"s

o cations an" anions interact by stron$ bon"s

o cations an" anions attract to opposite!ychar$e" nei$hbors

Section 9.2

!oss of sccessive e!ectrons from atom re&ires increasin$!y more

ener$y

ten"ency to form ions is $reater "o#n any $rop of perio"ic tab!e

b/# of "ecreasin$ ioniation ener$y

r!es for common monatomic ions of main $rop e!ements

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

30/48

o cations of Lrops D to DDD #/ nob!e$as or pse"onob!e

$as confi$rations char$es e&a! to $rop nmbers

o cations of Lrops DDD to I #/ nob!e ns2 e!ectron

confi$rations char$es e&a! to $rop nmbers mins t#o

o anions of Lrops I to IDD #/ nob!e$as or pse"onob!e$as confi$rations char$es e&a! $rop nmbers mins

ei$ht

po!yatomic ions he!" by cova!ent bon"s

transition e!ements form severa! cations of "ifferent char$es

o many are co!ore" b/c of " e!ectrons transitions

Section 9.3

ionic ra"is: measre of sie of spherica! re$ion aron" nc!es of

ion #ithin #hich e!ectrons are most !i%e!y to be fon"

o arbitrary never abrpt!y en"s

o cation T atom T anion

o fo!!o#s re$!ar pattern ionic ra"ii increase "o#n any

$rop b/c of a""ition of e!ectron she!!s

isoe!ectronic refers to "ifferent species havin$ same nmber

an" confi$ration of e!ectrons

o in $enera!+ cations "ecrease in ra"is across perio"

o abrpt increase in ra"is #hen anions are reache"+ an" then

ra"is "ecreases a$ain Section 9.4

cova!ent bon": chemica! bon" forme" by sharin$ of pair of e!ectrons

b/# atoms

o attraction arises from opposite!y char$e" nc!ei an" e!ectrons

bon" !en$th: "istance b/# nc!ei at minimm ener$y

o potentia! ener$y reaches minimm va!e #hen rep!sion of

positive char$es becomes !ar$er than attraction of e!ectrons

an" then increases

bon" "issociation ener$y: ener$y nee"e" to separate atoms in

mo!ec!e

e#is e!ectron "ot form!a: form!a sin$ "ots to represent va!ence

e!ectrons

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

31/48

o bon"in$ pair: e!ectron pair share" b/# t#o atoms

o !one *nonbon"in$, pair: e!ectron pair that remains on one

atom an" is not share"

coor"inate cova!ent bon": bon" forme" #hen both e!ectrons of

bon" are "onate" by one atom octet r!e: ten"ency of atoms in mo!ec!es to have ei$ht e!ectrons

in va!ence she!!s *t#o for hy"ro$en atoms,

sin$!e bon": cova!ent bon" in #hich sin$!e pair of e!ectrons is

share" by t#o atoms

"ob!e bon": cova!ent bon" in #hich t#o pairs of e!ectrons are

share" by t#o atoms

trip!e bon": cova!ent bon" in #hich three pairs of e!ectrons are

share" by t#o atoms

Section 9.-

po!ar cova!ent bon": cova!ent bon" in #hich bon"in$ e!ectrons

spen" more time near one atom than other

o occrs #hen atoms are of "ifferent e!ements

nonpo!ar cova!ent bon" occrs #hen atoms are a!i%e

e!ectrone$ative!y: measre of abi!ity of atom in mo!ec!e to "ra#

bon"in$ e!ectrons to itse!f

o atom that ten"s to pic% p e!ectrons easi!y !ar$e

e!ectrone$ativityo atom that ten"s to !ose e!ectrons rea"i!y sma!!

e!ectrone$ativity

o in $enera!+ increase from !eft to ri$ht an" "ecreases from top

to bottom

meta!s !east e!ectrone$ative *e!ectropositive,

nonmeta!s most e!ectrone$ative

o abso!te va!e of "ifference in e!ectrone$ativity of t#o bon"e"

atoms

sma!! nonpo!ar bon"

!ar$e po!ar bon"

very !ar$e ionic

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

32/48

Section 9.6

r!es for #ritin$ e#is e!ectron"ot form!as

o ca!c!ate tota! nmber of va!ance e!ectrons

o #rite s%e!eton strctre of mo!ec!e or ion

o "istribte e!ectrons to atoms srron"in$ centra! atomo "istribte remainin$ e!ectrons as pairs to centra! atoms

Section 9.

"e!oca!ie" bon"in$: type of bon"in$ in #hich bon"in$ pair of

e!ectrons is sprea" over nmber of atoms rather than !oca!ie" b/#

t#o

o bro%en !ine in"icates bon"in$ pair of e!ectrons that spans

more than t#o nc!ei

resonance "escription: "escription of e!ectron strctre of mo!ec!e

havin$ "e!oca!ie" bon"in$s by #ritin$ a!! possib!e e!ectron"ot

form!as

o sin$!e e!ectron"ot form!a cannot proper!y "escribe

o "e!oca!ie" bon"in$ resonance form!as

Section 9.8

some mo!ec!es have o"" nmber of e!ectrons an" cannot satisfy

the octet r!e

o ex. >A

o can have fe#er or more than ei$ht va!ence e!ectronsSection 9.9

forma! char$e: hypothetica! char$e obtaine" by assmin$ that

bon"in$ e!ectrons are e&a!!y share" b/# bon"e" atoms an" that

e!ectrons of each !one pair be!on$ comp!ete!y to one atom

o r!es for forma! char$e

ha!f of e!ectrons of bon" are assi$ne" to each atom in

bon"

both e!ectrons of !one pair are assi$ne" to atom to

#hich !one pair be!on$s

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

33/48

o forma! char$e va!ence e!ectrons on free atom nmber of

e!ectrons assi$ne" by r!es

Section 9.10

bon" !en$th *bon" "istance,: "istance b/# nc!ei in bon"

o "etermine" experimenta!!y sin$ xray "iffraction ormo!ec!ar spectra ana!ysis

o sometimes+ can be pre"icte" from cova!ent ra"ii *va!es

assi$ne" to atoms sch that sm of cova!ent ra"ii of atoms

an" B pre"icts approximate B bon" !en$th,

bon" or"er: nmber of pairs of e!ectrons in bon"

o as bon" or"er increases+ bon" stren$th increases an" bon"

!en$th "ecreases

Section 9.11

bon" "issociation ener$y: measre of stren$th of partic!ar bon"

o essentia!!y entha!py chan$e for $asphase reaction in #hich

bon" brea%s

bon" ener$y: avera$e entha!py chan$e for brea%in$ of B bon" in

mo!ec!e in $as phase

in $enera!+ entha!py of reaction is approximate!y e&a! to sm of

bon" ener$ies for bon"s bro%en mins sm of bon" ener$ies for

bon"s forme"

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

34/48

Chemistry 130 28/04/2013 19:36:00

Section 10.1

mo!ec!ar $eometry: $enera! shape of mo!ec!e "etermine" by

re!ative positions of atomic nc!ei

va!enceshe!! e!ectronpair rep!sion *ISHK5, mo"e! pre"icts

shapes of mo!ec!es an" ions by assmin$ va!enceshe!! e!ectron

pairs are arran$e" abot atoms that e!ectron pairs are %ept as far

a#ay as possib!e from one another

o !inear t#o e!ectron pairs

o tri$ona! p!anar three e!ectron pairs

o bent an$!ar

o tetrahe"ra! a!! e!ectron pairs are bon"in$

o tri$ona! pyrami"a! three bon"e" e!ectron pairs/one

nonbon"in$ pairo trio$ona! bipryrami"a! - e!ectron pairs

o octahe"ra! 6 e!ectron pairs

"irection in space of bon"in$ pairs mo!ec!ar $eometry

ISHK5 mo"e! pre"icts bon" an$!es

o !one pairs ten" to re&ire more space than correspon"in$

bon"in$ pair

m!tip!e bon" re&ire more space than sin$!e bon"s b/c of

$reater nmber of e!ectrons

tri$ona! bipyrami"a! arran$ement

o axia! "irections t#o "irections that form axis thro$h

centra! atom *180 "e$rees,

o e&atoria! "irections other three "irections *90 "e$rees to

axia! "e$rees an" 120 "e$rees from each other,

seesa# "istorte" tetrahe"ra!

Section 10.2

"ipo!e moment: &antitative measre of "e$ree of char$e

separation in mo!ec!eo net separation of char$e "ipo!e moment

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

35/48

o measre" in co!ombmeters *Cm, an" "ebyes *,

capacitance: capacity of p!ates to ho!" char$e

vector &a!ity: ma$nit"e an" "irection

nonpo!ar ero "ipo!e moments

po!ar can have nonero "ipo!e moments intermo!ec!ar force po!ar !i&i" mo!ec!es orient so positive

en"s of mo!ec!es are attracte" to ne$ative en"s

Section 10.3

va!ence bon" theory: approximate theory to exp!ain e!ectron pair or

cova!ent bon" by &antm mechanics

o orbita! on one atom occpies portion of same re$ion as orbita!

on other atom over!ap

o tota! nmber of e!ectrons in both orbita!s no more than 2

$reater over!ap $reater bon" stren$th

orbita!s bon" protr"e or point for maximm over!ap

promote" e!ectron excite" from s to p orbita!

hybri" orbita!s: orbita!s "escribin$ bon"in$ obtaine" by ta%in$

combinations of atomic orbita!s of iso!ate" atoms

nmber of hybri" orbita!s forme" e&a!s nmber of atomic orbita!s

se"

o ex. s an" t#o p orbita!s form three hybri" orbita!s

Section 10.4 one hybri" orbita! nee"e" for each sin$!e/m!tip!e bon" an" !one

pairs

U *si$ma, bon" cy!in"rica! shape abot bon" axis

R *pi, bon" has e!ectron "istribtion above an" be!o# bon" axis

isomers: compon"s of same mo!ec!ar form #/ "ifferent

arran$ements of atoms

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

36/48

o cis/trans "ifferent properties

Section 10.-

mo!ec!ar orbita! theory: theory of e!ectronic strctre of mo!ec!es

in terms of mo!ec!ar orbita!s+ #hich may sprea" over atoms or

mo!ec!e bon"in$ orbita!s: re$ions b/# nc!ei #here mo!ec!ar orbita!s are

concentrate"

antibon"in$ orbita!s: mo!ec!ar orbita!s havin$ ero va!es in re$ion

b/# t#o nc!ei an" concentrate" in other re$ions

bon" or"er: nmber of bon"s b/# t#o atoms

o V*nbna,

stren$th of interaction b/# t#o atomic orbita!s to form mo!ec!ar

orbita!s is "etermine" by

o ener$y "ifference b/# interactin$ orbita!s

o ma$nit"e of over!ap

stron$ interaction approximate!y e&a! ener$ies an" !ar$e

over!ap

Section 10.6

homonc!ear "iatomic mo!ec!es: mo!ec!es compose" of t#o !i%e

nc!ei

heternc!ear "iatomic mo!ec!es: mo!ec!es compose" of t#o

"ifferent nc!ei parama$netic npaire" e!ectrons ma$netic

"iama$netic paire" e!ectrons not ma$netic

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

37/48

Chemistry 130 28/04/2013 19:36:00

Section 11.1

$ases compose" of mo!ec!es in constant ran"om motion

thro$h most!y empty space

o compressib!e can be pshe" into sma!! space

o f!i" mo!ec!es move easi!y re!ative to each other

!i&i"s re!ative!y incompressib!e f!i"s

o mo!ec!es are in constant motion+ bt more ti$ht!y pac%e"

o mo!ec!es move easi!y re!ative to each other

so!i"s near!y incompressib!e an" ri$i"

o partic!es are in c!ose contact an" "o not move abot+ bt

rather osci!!ate in fixe" positions

Section 11.2

chan$e of sta$e/phase transition: chan$e of sbstance from onestate to another

o me!tin$ *fsion, so!i" to !i&i"

o freein$ !i&i" to so!i"

o vaporiation !i&i"/so!i" to vapor

sb!imation so!i" to vapor

o con"ensation $as to !i&i"/so!i"

"eposition $as to so!i"

!i&efaction $as to !i&i"

vapor pressre: partia! pressre of vapor over !i&i"+ measre" at

e&i!ibrim at $iven temperatre

o "ynamic e&i!ibrim rate of mo!ec!e con"ensation e&a!s

rate of mo!ec!e vaporiation+ tho$h mo!ec!es contine to

!eave an" come bac% to the !i&i"

o "epen"s on temperatre

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

38/48

o vo!ati!e hi$h vapor pressre at norma! temperatres

boi!in$ point: temperatre at #hich vapor pressre of !i&i" e&a!s

pressre exerte" on !i&i"

o "epen"s on pressre norma! boi!in$ point *at 1 atm,

freein$ point: temperatre at #hich pre !i&i" chan$es tocrysta!!ine so!i"

me!tin$ point: temperatre at #hich crysta!!ine so!i" chan$e to

!i&i"

me!tin$ an" freein$ points occr at same temperatre "ynamic

e&i!ibrim

chan$es of state invo!ve a""ition/remova! of heat ener$y

o heat of phase transition proportiona! to !en$th of f!at

re$ion+ #hen heat is a""e" at constant rate

o heat of fsion *entha!py of fsion,: heat nee"e" for me!tin$ of

so!i"

o heat of vaporiation *entha!py of vaporiation,: heat nee"e"

for vaporiation of !i&i"

o mch more ener$y re&ire" for vaporiation than me!tin$

ener$y mst be spp!ie" to brea% intermo!ec!ar attractions

C!asisC!apeyron e&ation

o !n*H,/

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

39/48

o trip!e point: point on phase "ia$ram representin$ temperatre

an" pressre at #hich three phases of sbstance coexist in

e&i!ibrim

spercritica! f!i" !i&i" an" vapor have same "ensities an"

"istinctions have "isappeare"o critica! temperatre: temperatre above #hich !i&i" state of

sbstance no !on$er exists re$ar"!ess of pressre

o critica! pressre: vapor pressre at critica! temperatre

Section 11.-

intermo!ec!ar forces: forces of interaction b/# mo!ec!es

o norma!!y #ea%!y attractive

van "er ;aa!s forces: $enera! term for intermo!ec!ar forces

inc!"in$ "ipo!e"ipo!e an" on"on forces+ that res!t in mo!ec!e

a!i$nment

o "ipo!e"ipo!e force: attractive intermo!ec!ar force res!tin$

from ten"ency of po!ar mo!ec!es to a!i$n themse!ves sch

that positive en" of one mo!ec!e is near ne$ative en" of

another

o on"on *"ispersion, forces: #ea% attractive forces b/# a!!

mo!ec!es res!tin$ from sma!!+ instantaneos "ipo!es that

occr b/# varyin$ positions of e!ectrons "rin$ motion abot

nc!ei increase #/ mo!ec!ar #ei$ht more e!ectrons an"

!ar$er atoms more po!ariab!e or easi!y "istorte" to

$ive instantaneos "ipo!es b/c e!ectrons are farther

from nc!ei

char$e niform!y "istribte" over time+ bt neven at

instant

po!ariab!e/nonpo!ariab!e noncompact/compact

strai$htchain/f!exib!e more stab!e

o stron$ intermo!ec!ar forces !o# vapor pressres

o stron$ intermo!ec!ar forces hi$h boi!in$ points

o stron$ intermo!ec!ar forces hi$h srface tensions

o stron$ intermo!ec!ar forces !o# f!i"ities

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

40/48

hy"ro$en bon"in$: #ea% to mo"erate attractive force that exists

b/# hy"ro$en atom cova!ent!y bon"e" to very e!ectrone$ative atom

an" !one pair of e!ectrons on another sma!!+ e!ectrone$ative atom

Section 11.6

for "ifferent types of so!i"s vary in chemica! bon"in$o mo!ec!ar so!i": so!i" consistin$ of atoms or mo!ec!es he!"

to$ether by intermo!ec!ar forces

ex. so!i" neon+ ice+ "ry ice

#ea% intermo!ec!ar attractions !o# me!tin$ points

re!ative!y soft

britt!e fractre easi!y a!on$ crysta! p!anes

noncon"ctin$

o meta!!ic so!i": so!i" consistin$ of positive cores of atoms he!"

to$ether by srron"in$ 'sea( of e!ectrons

ex. iron+ copper+ si!ver

$enera!!y have hi$h me!tin$ points variabi!ity

ma!!eab!e: can be shape" by hammerin$

con"ctin$

o ionic so!i": so!i" consistin$ of cations an" anions he!"

to$ether by ionic bon"s

ex. cesim ch!ori"e+ so"im ch!ori"e+ inc s!fi"e

re!ative!y hi$h me!tin$ points "ifferences arise b/cof !attice ener$y

britt!e fractre easi!y a!on$ crysta! p!anes

noncon"ctin$ so!i"/con"ctin$ !i&i"

o cova!ent net#or% so!i": so!i" consistin$ of atoms he!"

to$ether in !ar$e net#or%s or chains by cova!ent bon"s

ex. "iamon"+ $raphite+ asbestos

hi$h me!tin$ points

very har"

most!y noncon"ctin$

me!tin$/boi!in$ points increase from mo!ec!ar to meta!!ic to ionic to

cova!ent so!i"s

meta!!ic+ ionic+ an" cova!ent so!i"s !i%e!y to be so!i"s at 2-C

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

41/48

Chemistry 130 28/04/2013 19:36:00

Section 14.1

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

42/48

chemica! %inetics: st"y of reaction rates+ ho# reaction rates

chan$e n"er varyin$ con"itions+ an" #hat mo!ec!ar events occr

"rin$ overa!! reaction

o factors affectin$ reaction rate

concentrations of reactants reaction rates oftenincreases #hen reactant concentrations are increase"

concentration of cata!yst

cata!yst: sbstance that increases rate of reaction

#/o bein$ consme" in overa!! reaction

not consme" "oes not appear in ba!ance"

chemica! e&ation

temperatre at #hich reaction occrs reactions

sa!!y spee" p #hen temperatre increases

srface area of so!i" reactant or cata!yst on!y #hen

reaction invo!ves so!i" #/ $as or !i&i"

rate increases #/ srface area

reaction rate: increase in mo!ar concentration of pro"ct of reaction

per nit of time or "ecrease in mo!ar concentration of reactant per

nit time

o sa! nit mo!/*s,

o can be avera$e rate or instantaneos rate !on$/short

instants of time Section 14.2

#ays of measrin$ reaction rates

o #ith"ra#/ana!ye samp!es from reaction vesse!

o manometer rea"in$s of reaction pressre chan$es

o spectrometer rea"in$s of co!or/absorption of !i$ht

Section 14.3

rate !a#: e&ation that re!ates rate of reaction to concentrations of

reactants *an" cata!yst, raise" to varios po#ers

o $enera! form rate%FGmFBGnFCGp

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

43/48

o rate constant: %W proportiona!ity constant in re!ationship b/#

rate an" concentrations

fixe" va!e at $iven temperatre

o exponents m+ n+ an" p fre&ent!y inte$ers "etermine"

experimenta!!y reaction or"er: exponent of concentration of species in rate !a#+ as

"etermine" experimenta!!y

overa!! or"er: sm of or"ers of reactant species in rate !a#

isomeriation: reaction featrin$ compon"s that are isomers

*"ifferent compon"s #/ same mo!ec!ar form!a,

initia! rate metho": #ay of obtainin$ reaction or"ers thro$h series

of experiments in #hich initia! concentrations of reactants are

varie"

Section 14.4

inte$rate" rate !a#: mathematica! re!ationship b/# concentration

an" time

o firstor"er rate !a# !nFGt/FG0%t

o secon"or"er rate !a# 1/FGt%t

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

44/48

activation ener$y: KaW minimm ener$y of co!!ision re&ire" for t#o

mo!ec!es to react

rate constant pro"ct of three factors %Xfp

o X: co!!ision fre&ency

chan$es s!o#!y #/ temperatreo f: fraction of co!!isions havin$ ener$y $reater than activation

ener$y

chan$es rapi"!y #/ temperatre responsib!e for

reaction rate

o p: fraction of co!!isions that occr #/ reactant mo!ec!es

proper!y oriente"

in"epen"ent of temperatre

transitionstate theory: exp!anation of reaction res!tin$ from

co!!ision of t#o mo!ec!es in terms of activate" comp!ex

o activate" comp!ex *transition state,: nstab!e $ropin$ of

atoms that can brea% p to form pro"cts

Section 14.6

rrhenis e&ation: mathematica! e&ation %eK/5#hich

expresses "epen"ence of rate constant on temperatre

o fre&ency factor: symbo! in rrhenis e&ation assme" to

be constant

re!at" to fre&ency of co!!isions #/ proper orientation !n % !n Ka/5 !n %2/%1 Ka/5 *1/11/,

Section 14.

e!ementary reaction: sin$!e mo!ec!ar event+ sch as co!!ision of

mo!ec!es+ res!tin$ in reaction

reaction mechanism: set of e!ementary reactions #hose overa!!

effect is $iven by net chemica! e&ation

reaction interme"iate: species pro"ce" "rin$ reaction that "oes

not appear in net e&ation b/c it reacts in sbse&ent step in

mechanism

mo!ec!arity: nmber of mo!ec!es on reactant si"e of e!ementary

reaction

nimo!ec!ar reaction: e!ementary reaction that invo!ves one

reactant mo!ec!e

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

45/48

biomo!ec!ar reaction: e!ementary reaction that invo!ves t#o

reactant mo!ec!es

termo!ec!ar reaction: e!ementary reaction that invo!ves three

reactant mo!ec!es

Section 14.8 rate"etermin$ step: s!o#est step in reaction mechanism

Section 14.9

homo$eneos cata!ysis: se of cata!yst in same phase as reactin$

species

hetero$eneos cata!ysis: se of cata!yst that exists in "ifferent

phase from reactin$ species+ sa!!y so!i" cata!yst in contact #/

$aseos or !i&i" so!tion of reactants

chemisorption: bin"in$ of species to srface to chemica! bon"in$

forces

cata!ytic hy"ro$enation: hetero$eneos cata!ysis invo!vin$

chemisorption

sbstrate: sbstance #hose reaction the enyme cata!yes

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

46/48

Chemistry 130 28/04/2013 19:36:00

Section 1-.1

"ynamic e&i!ibrim: for#ar" Y reverse reactions that occr at

same rate to form mixtre of reactants an" pro"cts

chemica! e&i!ibrim: state reache" by reaction mixtre #hen rates

of for#ar" an" reverse reactions have become e&a!o continin$ for#ar"/reverse reactions "ynamic process

Section 1-.2

e&i!ibrimconstant expression: expression obtaine" by m!tip!yin$

concentrations of pro"cts+ "ivi"in$ by concentrations of reactants+

an" raisin$ each concentration term to po#er e&a! to coefficient in

chemica! e&ation

e&i!ibrim constant *Ec,: va!e obtaine" for e&i!ibrimconstant

expression #hen e&i!ibrim concentrations are sbstitte"o re!ates a!! e&i!ibrim compositions of reaction at $iven

temperatre

o for reaction a < bB cC < "+ EcFCGcFG"/FGaFBGb

o "efine" in mo!ar concentrations

o ratio of rate constants for for#ar"/reverse reactions

!a# of mass action: re!ation that states that va!es of e&i!ibrim

constant expression Ec are constant for partic!ar reaction at $iven

temperatre+ #hatever e&i!ibrim concentrations are sbstitte"

Ep #ritten in terms of partia! pressres of $ases rather than

concentrations

o Ep Ec*5,On#here On is sm of coefficients of $aseos

pro"cts mins sm of coefficients of $aseos reactants

sef! r!e if $iven chemica! e&ation can be obtaine" by ta%in$

sm of other e&ations+ e&i!ibrim constant for $iven e&ation

e&a!s pro"cts of e&i!ibrim constants of other e&ations

Section 1-.3

homo$eneos e&i!ibrim: e&i!ibrim that inc!"es reactants an"pro"cts in sin$!e phase

hetero$eneos e&i!ibrim: e&i!ibrim invo!vin$ reactants an"

pro"cts in more than one phase

o omit concentrations of non$aseos reactants Y pro"cts

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

47/48

o reaction not affecte" by amonts of non$aseos sbstances+

as !on$ as some are present

sma!!/!ar$e e&i!ibrim constants favors reactants/pro"cts

o #hen aron" 1+ e&i!ibrim mixtre contains appreciab!e

amonts of both reactants Y pro"cts Section 1-.-

reaction &otient *c,: expression that has same form as

e&i!ibrimconstant expression bt #hose concentration va!es are

not necessari!y those at e&i!ibrim

o cEc $oes to !eft

o cTEc $oes to ri$ht

o cEc at e&i!ibrim

Section 1-.6

three steps se" to so!ve e&i!ibrim concentrations

o set p tab!e of concentrations *startin$+ chan$e+ an"

e&i!ibrim expressions in x,

o sbstitte expressions in x for e&i!ibrim concentrations into

e&i!ibrimconstant e&ation

o so!ve e&i!ibrimconstant e&ation for va!es of e&i!ibrim

concentrations

Section 1-.

e Chate!iers princip!e #hen system in chemica! e&i!ibrim is"istrbe" by chan$e of temperatre+ pressre+ or concentration+

system shifts in e&i!ibrim composition in #ay that ten"s to

conteract chan$e of variab!e

Section 1-.8

pressre

o "ecrease"/increase" vo!me increase"/"ecrease"

pressre moves to#ar"s si"e #/ fe#er/more mo!es

temperatre

o en"othermic reaction *positive O@Z,

increase"/"ecrease" temperatre

increase"/"ecrease" pro"cts

o en"othermic reaction *ne$ative O@Z,

increase"/"ecrease" temperatre

"ecrease"/increase" pro"cts

8/13/2019 CHEM 130 Notes

48/48