characteristics of romanticism - empire tuition classes

Characteristics of Romanticism

Introduction

Romanticism often considered as Romantic Age or Romantic Era was an artistic, literary

and intellectual movement of Europe. Many different dates are given for the rise of the

Romantic Age but the publication of Lyrical Ballads by William Wordsworth and S. T. Coleridge

in 1798 is taken as the beginning of the Romantic Era.

Romanticism in literature concerned with the two bed – rock of emotions and

imaginations. It introduces the readers to a world of strangeness and beauty as Pater considers

it as “The addition of Strangeness in beauty.” He further said that –

The desire of beauty being a fixed element in every artistic organization, it is the

addition of curiosity to the desire of beauty.

Thus, the two most prominent elements of romanticism are curiosity and beauty.

Romanticism also stands for freedom and liberty, and therefore it is “Literalism in Literature.”

Rise of The Romanticism

Romantic Movement dates its origin in 1798 with the publication of Lyrical Ballads by

William Wordsworth and S. T. Coleridge. This movement in literature was preceded and

accompanied by the change in literary styles. It was partly a reaction to the Industrial

Revolution and also the social and political norms of England as well as Europe. The rise of the

Romanticism in English literature is somehow concerned with the Age of Enlightenment. The

supreme Romantic Movement in English literature was the Renaissance. It had brought about a

transformation not only in England but also in European life.

Characteristics of Romanticism

[1] Contrast with Neo – Classicism

While talking about Neo – Classicism era, the Romantic era is totally opposed to it.

There is a great contrast between Neo – Classicism and Romanticism. The main difference

between neoclassicism and romanticism is that neoclassicism emphasized on objectivity, order,

and restraint whereas romanticism emphasized on imagination and emotion. The main thing in

the poetry of Romanticism is the break from the thralldom of rules and regulations. W. J. Long

marks –

The Romantic Movement was marked by a strong reaction and protests against

the bondage of rule and custom which in literature, generally tend to fetter the

free human spirit.

[2] Love for Freedom

In Romantic Poetry, the emphasis was laid on liberty and freedom of the individual.

Romantic poets were rebels against tyranny and brutality exercised by tyrants and despots over

humans crushed by poverty and smashed by inhuman laws. English romanticism was an

expression of the desire for freedom from the restraining forces of reason and the assertion of

the rights of feeling and imagination. Thus, Freedom is the breath in which the Romantic poets

breathed freely.

[3] Supernaturalism

Supernaturalism is another outstanding quality of Romantic Poetry. Poets like Coleridge

and Scott gave a sense of wonder and mystery to poetry. It was this supernaturalism that gave

the atmosphere of wonder and mystery to the Romantic Poetry. Most of the romantic poets

used supernatural elements in their poetry. Samuel Taylor Coleridge is the leading romantic

poet in this regard, and "Kubla Khan" is full of supernatural elements.

[4] Subjectivity

Subjectivity is another important feature of the Romantic poets. Subjective poetry is a

kind of poetry in which the poet goes into himself and finds his inspiration from his own

experiences, thoughts and feelings. Most of the Romantic poets are subject in this sense. For

example, Keats’s “Ode to the Nightingale” is basically based on personal matter. Subjectivity

began to have its full play in the poetry of this age as W. J. Long points out –

The Romantic Movement was the expression of individual genius rather than of

the established rules.

[5] Variety of Moods

In Romantic Poetry, we come across an endless variety. The poetry of this age is as varied as the

character and moods of different writers. A noted remark of W. J. Long said that –

In the works of the best romanticists there is endless variety. To read them is

like passing through a new village, meeting a score of different human types,

and finding in each one something to Love or to remember.

[6] Simplicity in Style

The style of the Romantic Poets is varied but the stress was laid on simplicity. Instead of

an artificial mode of expression of classical poets, we have a natural diction and spontaneous

way of expressing thoughts in Romantic Poetry. Romantic Poets believe in the simplicity in their

style. They followed the simplicity in their works. They not followed the artificial mode of the

expression of classical Poetry. They have express thoughts in natural Diction and spontaneity

way.

[7] Emotion and Imagination

In Romantic Poetry, reason and intellect were subdued and their place was taken by

imaginations, emotions and passion. In the poetry of all the Romantic Poets, we find

heightened emotional sensibilities and imaginative flights of genius bordering on heavenly

heights uncrossed by the poets of the previous age.

Authors of The Romantic Era

William Wordsworth, born in 1770 and died in 1850, is considered as the father of

Romantic Movement. In fact, the Romanticism in English literature began with his publication

of Lyrical Ballads with co – author and his friend S. T. Coleridge. He was also the Poet Laureate

of England from 1843 till his death in 1850.

Samuel Taylor Coleridge, born in 1772 and died in 1834, was another great poet of

Romantic Era. He was a good friend of William Wordsworth, and they two together published

Lyrical Ballads which marks the beginning of Romanticism. Coleridge contributed in Romantic

Movement with his two best poems The Rime of Ancient, Christabel and Kubla Khan.

John Keats, born in 1795 and died in 1821, was one of the prominent figures of the

second generation of English Romantic poets. However, his reputation grew after his death. His

famous works are Ode to Nightingale and When I Have Fears.

P. B. Shelley, born in 1792 and died in 1822, was an English poet and friend of John

Keats who contributed in English Romanticism along with John Keats. His great works of the

time were Ode to The West Wind and A Defense of Poetry.

William Blake, born in 1757 and died in 1827, was highly influential figures in the

history of Romantic era. His poetry often accompanied by fantastic imagery. Songs of Innocence

and Songs of Experience are the two great works of Blake.

Works of The Romantic Era

Lyrical Ballads, The Rime of Ancient, Christabel, Kubla Khan, Ode to Nightingale, When I

Have Fears, Ode to The West Wind, and Songs of Experience are some of the great works of the

Romanticism of Literature.

Conclusion

The Romantic period was one of major social, political and literary change in England.

Romanticism in literature concerned with the two bed – rock of emotions and imaginations. It

introduces the readers to a world of strangeness and beauty as Pater considers it as “The

addition of Strangeness in beauty.” Thus, the two most prominent elements of romanticism are

curiosity and beauty. Romanticism also stands for freedom and liberty, and therefore it is

“Literalism in Literature.”

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The Oxford Movement

Introduction

The Oxford Movement was a movement of High Church members of the Church of

England. Its philosophy was known as Tractarianism after the publication of Tracts for The

Times from 1833 to 1841. The Oxford Movement was deeply conservative in its attempts to

revive the Catholic roots of the Angelical Church. The evolution of the Oxford Movement was

displayed in literature as well as in religion and political journals of the time. Many recent

authors claim that –

The Oxford Movement prefigured issues that confront current religions

institutions and generated impassioned responses to the central conflicts of

nineteenth century thoughts.

The Oxford Movement stood against too much insistence on reason and proof in religions, and

sought to revive the faith of Roman Catholic Religion.

Background of the Oxford Movement

The Oxford Movement began in 1833 by Angelical clergyman at the University of Oxford

to renew the Church of England. It ended in the year of 1841. The most prominent leaders of

the movement were John Henry Newman (1801 – 1890), a clergyman; John Keble (1792 –

1860), a clergyman and a poet; Edward Pusey (1800 – 1882), a clergyman and professor at

Oxford University.

Cause of the Oxford Movement

Oxford of the 19th century was an impactful source of the movement. The Oxford

Movement began when Newman’s colleague, John Keble gave a sermon called “National

Apostasy.” In it Keble called for a renewal of the English Church by reviving ancient Christian

practices. Also the interest in Christian origins caused to reconsider the relationship of the

Church of England with The Roman Catholic Church which later resulted as The Oxford

Movement.

Cardinal Newman and the Oxford Movement

John Henry Newman also known as Cardinal Newman was born in 1801 and died in

1890. He is one of the most influent leaders of the Oxford Movement. John Henry Newman

played an important part from the beginning to the end in the movement which changed the

views of the University of Oxford. He contributed twenty of the ninety “Tracts for The Times,”

resigning his position in the Angelical Church.

As the leader of the Oxford Movement, Newman repudiated Protestant individualism,

and nineteenth century liberal Christianity. He upheld devotion, faith rituals, and dogmas in

preference to reason and proof. Newman wrote in defense that –

After all man is not a reasoning animal, he is a seeing, feeling, acting animal. Life

is not long enough for a religion of interference; we shall never have done

beginning, if we determine to began with proof.

Cardinal Newman’s conversion to Roman Catholicism becomes an object of severe

criticism and Charles Kingsley charged him of duplicity in changing from Protestantism to

Roman Catholicism and propagating the Oxford Movement. Newman had the better of the

argument, his defense is still read while Kingsley’s attack is forgotten.

Literary Aspects of the Oxford Movement

The Oxford Movement was basically a religious movement, it had nothing to do with

literature as W. H. Hudson remarks –

The Oxford Movement certainly belongs to the history of English religion more

definitely than to the history of English Literature

However, the numerous writings had some contemporary styles and religion themes.

Newman’s “The Idea of University” provides the basic principle concerning the site of the

University to the modern University. Another notable writing of Newman is “Apologia.”

Newman employed a classical way of writing in the expression of his thoughts. His prose style is

characterized by lucidity, transparency and balance. Newman, truly, knows how to make the

use of irony in an effective manner.

Failure of the Oxford Movement

The Oxford Movement failed to have any influence on the psychological life of the day,

and its impact on the growth of literature was not substantial. It could win the allegiance of a

few poets and had some effect on the movement, but unfortunately it had not. It was failure at

the end.

Conclusion

An Angelical priest Eugene R. Fairweather said –

The Oxford Movement, for all its profound conservatism, seriously altered the

accepted patterns of the Angelical thought and practice.

The Oxford Movement directed the attention of the people to the personal holiness. It

re – oriented the common views about apostolic authority. It also made the Church of England

conserve of the onslaught of Liberalism. Thus the Oxford Movement was more than a passing

ripple on the surface of “The Sea of Faith.”



Dover Beach

Introduction

Matthew Arnold was an English poet and cultural critic who was born in 1822 in

Middlesex, England. He has worked as an inspector of schools. Arnold was a great literary figure

in Victorian Literature, and Dover Beach was the best among his many works.

Dover Beach is a lyrical poem written by the English poet Matthew Arnold. It was

originally published in 1867. Dover Beach is one of the most popular and the most

representative poems of Arnold. It is a short cry against the decay of Religious faith and it

reveals Arnold’s outlook on Life.

Theme of The Poem

The central theme of the poem that Arnold depicts is the loss of faith in religions and

loss of cultures in societies, and the present world full of cruelty, uncertainty and violence. The

very eye – catching line of the poem “The Sea of Faith” tells us about the central theme of the

poem. The line presents the loss of faith in religions.

Technique of The Poem

Dover Beach consists of four stanzas, each containing a variable number of verses. There

is no apparent rhyme scheme, but rather a free handling of the basic iambic pattern.

Time and Place in The Poem

Matthew Arnold wrote Dover Beach shortly after he visits Dover District Beach of

England in 1851. The poem was written in the year of 1851 just a few months after the

marriage of Arnold. The town of Dover, where the poem took place, is much closer to France

than any other cities of England.

The Sea of Faith

Dover Beach is a short cry on religious faith of people that was revealed in the line “The

Sea of Faith.” It tells us the decaying of religious faith in the world and increasing hold of doubts

and fears among the minds of Victorian people. The poet says that the sea of faith was once full

and was dominating the world, but now it was losing faith and holds doubts and fears among

the minds of the people which could be harmful to the peace of mankind.

Criticism of Life

Arnold points out –

Only excellent poetry can offer criticism of life.

Dover Beach is nothing but a criticism of life. It is the best example of Arnold’s concept

of criticism of life as it contains the expressions of his favorite theme the loss of faith of in

material world. The poem reveals Arnold’s outlook on life. Arnold says that –

Only Love can make our Life purposeful and meaningful. Unrest and Anxiety

would be disappeared by Love.

Conclusion

To conclude, Dover Beach is a great poem with the criticism of life of modern world.

Though the poem was not written in a particular rhyming scheme and looks complex to many,

it is considered as one of the best works of Matthew Arnold. With many themes like losing faith

in religious, love and the life of the people of modern world, the poem became the cornerstone

of Arnold’s success.



Ode to a Skylark

Introduction

Percy Bysshe Shelley was one of the major English Romantic poets born in August 1792.

He was the most important figure of Romanticism in English Literature. Shelley is perhaps best

known for romantic poems such as Ode to the West Wind. Shelley did not see fame during his

lifetime, but recognition of his achievements in poetry grew steadily following his death.

To a Skylark is a poem composed in 1820 by P. B. Shelley and published in the same

year. Shelley was inspired to write the poem when he heard sweet songs of the bird while he

was strolling with his friend Halesworth in Italy. The poem is addressed to a bird that sings

songs of joy.

Theme of The Poem

The theme of the poem is the true joy and positive feeling that derives from nature and

greatness rather than sorrow and negative emotions. Shelley says that –

All human songs are sad, but the birds song is just pure joy.

At last, the power of nature is another concentrating theme of To a Skylark.


The poem consists of twenty one stanzas made up of five lines each. The rhyme scheme

of each stanza is ABABB. The first four lines of all the stanza are metered in Trochaic Trimeter,

the fifth line in each stanza is made of iambic hexameter.

The Skylark in the Poem

The poem begins with the poet’s description of the bird Skylark with these following

lines:

Hail to thee, blithe Spirit!

Bird thou never wert,

That from heaven, or near it

Purest thy full hear,

In profuse strains of unpremeditated, art.

In the poem, poet addresses the bird as blithe spirit that sings songs of joy. The poet uses vivid

images for the bird as the poet says that it flies higher and higher like a cloud of fire in the blue

sky. The poet further said that no one knows what the skylark is, for it is unique; even the

rainbow clouds do not rain as brightly as the shower of melody that pours from the Skylark.

The Power of Nature

The poem perhaps has the description of the power of nature somewhere and

somehow in the poem. In To a Skylark, the poet wants to know everything about skylark and

nature. He wants to know the secrets and the power of nature, to know what birds feel when

they sing. He is fascinated of the power of nature as well as of the Skylark. In the poem, Along

with skylark, there is also a description of the power of nature and how the humans are

connected with it.

Sadness of The Poet

Throughout the poem, the poet feels sad. He feels things so deeply throughout the

poem and so establishes sadness.

The poet seems jealous of freedom of the Skylark, which travels where it wants,

whereas poet has restriction and limitations in his life. Although the sadness of the poet is not

the important thing in the poem, it just mentioned in the poem when the poet talks about

human beings and their life.

Conclusion

The Sonnet is represents of Wordsworth’s poetic genius throughout the poem. The

World Is Too Much with Us by William Wordsworth represents modern humanity's lost spiritual

connection with nature. The poem presents the conflict between nature and modern progress.



The World is Too Much with Us

Introduction

The World is Too Much with Us is a sonnet written by the English romantic poet William

Wordsworth. William Wordsworth was born on 7th April, 1770. His father was a law agent and

rent collector. William Wordsworth began his career as a poet when he was yet a student. In

1798, Wordsworth and Coleridge published The Lyrical Ballads. In 1839, he was honored by

Oxford University. In 1843, he became the poet Laureate. And in April 1850, he was died in

England.

The World is Too Much with Us is a poem that we often call like a sonnet. It was

published in 1807. The World is Too Much with Us is written in the Petrarchan Sonnet form of

14 iambic pentameter lines. The poem is concerned with poet’s love for nature.

Theme of The Poem

There are many important themes in the poem such as morality, sadness, man and the

natural world and some others.

Getting and spending, we lay waste our powers;

Little we see in nature that is ours,

We have given our hearts away, a sordid boon.

In these lines, Wordsworth criticizes the materialism. Wordsworth feels that the blind belief in

materialism prevents the people from realizing the true meaning and purpose of the Life.


The World is Too Much with Us is a sonnet written in fourteen lines of iambic

pentameter rhyming in the form of ABBA ABBA CDCDCD. The credit of such sonnet goes to the

Italian poet Petrarch. Therefore, we may call The World Too Much with Us is a Petrarch Sonnet.

The poem was written in the form of ABBA ABBA CDCDCD rhyming 14 lines of iambic

pentameter lines.

Symbolism and Imagery in The Poem

The Poem is a great example of use of the literary devices such as allegory, figure of

speeches, symbolism, imagery and some others. However, symbolism and imagery are narrated

perfectly in the poem by William Wordsworth.

Wordsworth used symbolism in the poem to complaint that people nowadays are

consumed by the industrialism and they are no longer in interest with the beautiful nature. Also

there are some imagery in the poem such as nature, senses, feelings, death and the use of

allusion; and all these were presented in the poem very well by Wordsworth.

Love for Nature

This sonnet reveals Wordsworth’s love for the nature. In the poem, poet has given two

beautiful pictures of nature – one is that the picture of sea in moonlight and the other is the

picture of winds that sleep like flowers at night:

The sea that bares her bosom to the moon;

The winds that will be howling at all hours,

And are up – gathered now like sleeping flowers.

Criticism of Life

This sonnet is a great criticism of life of the people nowadays, living in the industrial age.

William Wordsworth greatly concerned with nature and is a great critic of the industrialism

opposed to the beauty of nature. Almost in every poetry of Wordsworth, we saw his love for

the nature.

Wordsworth described the beauty of the nature throughout the poem. With the

description of the beauty of nature, he has also criticizes human life of present industrialism.

Wordsworth complaint that the lives of people nowadays are not much concerned with nature

and their life is consumed by the industrial life. Thus, the poem is a criticism on the life of

Industrialist people and is also the description of the beauty of nature.

Conclusion

The Sonnet is represents of Wordsworth’s poetic genius throughout the poem. The

World Is Too Much with Us by William Wordsworth represents modern humanity's lost spiritual

connection with nature. The poem presents the conflict between nature and modern progress.



Hard Times as a Mirror of Victorian Society

About Author

Charles John Huffam Dickens, simply known as Charles Dickens and born in 1812, was an

English writer and social critic. He is regarded by many as the greatest novelist of the Victorian

era. His works enjoyed unprecedented popularity during his lifetime, and by the 20th century

critics and scholars had recognized him as a literary genius. His novels and short stories are still

widely read today.

Introduction

Hard Times – For These Times is a great critical novel by Charles Dickens. It is commonly

known as Hard Times. The novel was first published in 1854. It was Dickens’ tenth novel. The

book surveys English society and satirizes the social and economic conditions of the Victorian

era. It is by far the shortest of Dickens' novels.

Theme of The Novel

There are several themes in the novel:

[1] Utilitarianism

The novel becomes a masterpiece because of the main theme of Utilitarianism. Thomas

Gradgrind represents utilitarianism within the novel. As he raises his children, he stresses facts

over imagination. Thus, the subject of Hard Times is harmed utilitarianism in different aspects

of the novel.

[2] Fact vs. Fancy

The opposition between fact and fancy is illustrated from the earliest pages of the novel.

Clearly, Gradgrind opposes fancy, imaginative literature. Instead, he encourages the pursuit of

hard facts. Therefore, the novel shows the use of facts over fancy in education of the Victorian

era.

[3] Love

In Hard Times, Love itself can be a positive or negative emotion. There is couple of examples

where the spiritual uplifting love inspires better behavior and improvement.

[4] Marriage

There are no happy marriages in Hard Times. There’s a loveless disaster where husband and

wife grow to hate each other in case of Louisa and Bounderby.

Except all these, there are several more themes in the novel Hard Times like money, family,

education and some others.

Characters in The Novel

[1] Thomas Gradgrind Mr. Gradgrind is the intellectual founder of the Gradgrind

educational system and he is also a member of Parliament. He

represents the rigor of "hard facts" and statistics.

[2] Mr. Bounderby Mr. Bounderby is one of the central characters of the novel. He

employs many of the characters in the novel and he is very wealthy.

He marries Louisa Gradgrind and the marriage eventually ends

unhappily. Throughout the novel, Bounderby is an emblem of

hypocrisy.

[3] Louisa Louisa is one of the central characters of the novel. She is the eldest

of the Gradgrind children. When she grows older, her father

arranges her marriage to Mr. Bounderby. Her marriage with Mr.

Bounderby is soon dissolved and she never remarries. Throughout

her life, Louisa is unfulfilled because she has been forced to deny

her emotions.

[4] Tom Tom is the son of Mr. Gradgrind. His ultimate misdeed comes when

he steals money from his safe in the bank and then announces the

loss as a true theft. In the end, Tom is forced to flee the country to

escape punishment. He dies overseas and full of regret.

[5] Stephen Blackpool Stephen is a poor laborer in one of Josiah Bounderby's factories. He

is married to a drunken woman who wanders in and out of his life.

After losing his job at the factory, Stephen is accused of committing

a crime that he did not actually commit. When returning to

Coketown to defend his honor, Stephen falls into a pit and injures

himself. He is rescued but he eventually dies.

[6] Sissy Sissy lives with the Gradgrind family but she is a poor pupil at their

school. In contrast to Mr. Gradgrind, Sissy lives by the philosophy of

emotion, fancy, hope and benevolence. In the end, her kindhearted

nature softens the rough edges of the Gradgrind family and they

come to be grateful for what she has done for them.

[7] Rachael Rachael is an unmarried companion of Stephen Blackpool. She

keeps his spirits up while he is suffering and after he has left

Coketown, she takes it as her responsibility to defend his honor.

[8] Mrs. Sparsit Mrs. Sparsit is a widow who has fallen on hard times. She is

retained in Mr. Bounderby's service until her snooping gets her

fired.

[9] Other Characters James Harthouse, Bitzer, Mrs. Gradgrind, Signor Jupe, Mr. Sleary

and some others.

Mirror of Victorian Life

We saw the picture of Victorian life of English people as we read the novel. Being

industrialized, machinery was primary in the national life of England. The advancement of

industries caused many conflicts, dissatisfaction and problems between capitalist and labours.

This situation was greatly seen in the novel where the labours made a union against their boss,

Mr. Bounderby. There are few other features of Victorian life that get perfect expression

through the pen of Dickens in Hard Times. Thus, the Victorian life was greatly portrayed in Hard

Times.

Selfishness in Victorian Society

Selfishness or the utilitarianism was one of the targets of Dickens’ satire. Dickens

gracefully depicts utilitarian and utilitarianism of the people of Victorian era in Hard Times. The

novel Hard Times shows that everyone in this novel is for themselves. There is a great example

of selfishness in the novel. Thomas Gradgrind convinces his daughter Louisa to marry Mr.

Bounderby who is much older than her and a successful owner of a factory. Gradgrind convince

his daughter to marry Bounderby because if Louisa marries him, then her brother Tom would

get a better life. Therefore, the play shows the selfishness of each and every characters of the

novel.

Upper Middle Class Life

In his novel, Hard Times, Dickens used his characters to describe the poor – rich system

that was seen in Victorian Life or society. Hard Times reveals that money was inevitably the

most important thing of the people of Victorian Age. The upper middle class was presented in

the novel as being less worried about money, having plenty of it. Therefore, Hard Times is the

representative novel of Victorian upper middle class life.

Femininity in Victorian Society

During the Victorian era, women were commonly associated with feminine traits like

compassion, and emotional sensitivity. For example, when Stephen feels depressed about the

charmlessness of his life as a factory worker, Rachael inspired him to keep going. Rachael was a

guiding angel to him. Apart from all these, we see many other examples of the importance of

femininity of women that was presented in the novel, Hard Times.

Conclusion

Hard Times is a novel by great merit. It is the most flawed of Dickens classics possibly,

but it is still a classical. Hard Times is the tenth novel of Charles Dickens, and unusual in several

ways. It is by far the shortest of Dickens’s novels, barely a quarter of the length of those written

before and after it. The novel condemns the system by the claims of individual human being

which are trampled in a general confusion.



Hard Times: Attack on Victorian Education

Theory

About Author

Charles John Huffam Dickens, simply known as Charles Dickens and born in 1812, was an

English writer and social critic. He is regarded by many as the greatest novelist of the Victorian

era. His works enjoyed unprecedented popularity during his lifetime, and by the 20th century

critics and scholars had recognized him as a literary genius. His novels and short stories are still

widely read today.

Introduction

Hard Times – For These Times is a great critical novel by Charles Dickens. It is commonly

known as Hard Times. The novel was first published in 1854. It was Dickens’ tenth novel. The

book surveys English society and satirizes the social and economic conditions of the Victorian

era. It is by far the shortest of Dickens' novels.

Theme of The Novel

There are several themes in the novel:

[1] Utilitarianism

The novel becomes a masterpiece because of the main theme of Utilitarianism. Thomas

Gradgrind represents utilitarianism within the novel. As he raises his children, he stresses facts

over imagination. Thus, the subject of Hard Times is harmed utilitarianism in different aspects

of the novel.

[2] Fact vs. Fancy


Clearly, Gradgrind opposes fancy, imaginative literature. Instead, he encourages the pursuit of

hard facts. Therefore, the novel shows the use of facts over fancy in education of the Victorian

era.

[3] Love

In Hard Times, Love itself can be a positive or negative emotion. There is couple of examples

where the spiritual uplifting love inspires better behavior and improvement.

[4] Marriage

There are no happy marriages in Hard Times. There’s a loveless disaster where husband and

wife grow to hate each other in case of Louisa and Bounderby.

Except all these, there are several more themes in the novel Hard Times like money, family,

education and some others.

Characters in The Novel

[1] Thomas Gradgrind Mr. Gradgrind is the intellectual founder of the Gradgrind

educational system and he is also a member of Parliament. He

represents the rigor of "hard facts" and statistics.

[2] Mr. Bounderby Mr. Bounderby is one of the central characters of the novel. He

employs many of the characters in the novel and he is very wealthy.

He marries Louisa Gradgrind and the marriage eventually ends

unhappily. Throughout the novel, Bounderby is an emblem of

hypocrisy.

[3] Louisa Louisa is one of the central characters of the novel. She is the eldest

of the Gradgrind children. When she grows older, her father

arranges her marriage to Mr. Bounderby. Her marriage with Mr.

Bounderby is soon dissolved and she never remarries. Throughout

her life, Louisa is unfulfilled because she has been forced to deny

her emotions.

[4] Tom Tom is the son of Mr. Gradgrind. His ultimate misdeed comes when

he steals money from his safe in the bank and then announces the

loss as a true theft. In the end, Tom is forced to flee the country to

escape punishment. He dies overseas and full of regret.

[5] Stephen Blackpool Stephen is a poor laborer in one of Josiah Bounderby's factories. He

is married to a drunken woman who wanders in and out of his life.

After losing his job at the factory, Stephen is accused of committing

a crime that he did not actually commit. When returning to

Coketown to defend his honor, Stephen falls into a pit and injures

himself. He is rescued but he eventually dies.

[6] Sissy Sissy lives with the Gradgrind family but she is a poor pupil at their

school. In contrast to Mr. Gradgrind, Sissy lives by the philosophy of

emotion, fancy, hope and benevolence. In the end, her kindhearted

nature softens the rough edges of the Gradgrind family and they

come to be grateful for what she has done for them.

[7] Rachael Rachael is an unmarried companion of Stephen Blackpool. She

keeps his spirits up while he is suffering and after he has left

Coketown, she takes it as her responsibility to defend his honor.

[8] Mrs. Sparsit Mrs. Sparsit is a widow who has fallen on hard times. She is

retained in Mr. Bounderby's service until her snooping gets her

fired.

[9] Other Characters James Harthouse, Bitzer, Mrs. Gradgrind, Signor Jupe, Mr. Sleary

and some others.

Education Theory in Victorian Era

Hard Times was written in the Victorian period around 1854 when the work had become

more important. The novel, from the very beginning, was originally intended to criticize

education system of Victorian era. Dickens has a negative view on the education system of the

age. He felt that it was useless and has no such values for futures. There were lots of pupils in

one classroom with boys and girls separated by a gap in the middle. They were thought facts

and not allowed to have fun or fancy. Dickens has strongly disagreed with this education theory

of the Victorian age in the novel Hard Times.

Gradgrind’s Education Theory

The novel Hard Times makes us familiar with the education theory of the Victorian

period. Dickens presents to us Gradgrind’s education theory throughout the novel. In Hard

Times, Thomas Gradgrind was helped by the government inspector and the new schoolmaster.

Gradgrind has established a model school to make all the boys and girls learn facts and facts

only. According to him –

Facts alone are the need of Life, the brains of reasoning animals should be filled

with facts and facts only.

Gradgrind is portrayed as a man of realities, facts and calculations. He always believes that two

and two will make four and nothing else. Dickens satirizes him by saying that if this man would

have learnt a bit less he can teach the students better.

Education and Utilitarianism

The education theory in Victorian period is much influenced by utilitarianism. Gradgrind

brings up his children strictly according to the particular educational theory. No child of

Gradgrind has ever seen a single face in the moon; even they are not allowed to wonder at

anything, because there are facts which should gratify them. In brief, the system of the

education of Victorian age stresses the facts completely divorced off all the sentiments,

affection, imagination and feelings. Thus, the education was one of the aspects that

Utilitarianism has influenced in the novel.

Facts vs. Imagination

To present the differences between fact and fancy, Dickens uses literary devices like

setting and metaphors. Ironically, Dickens uses creative metaphors as he said – “Painted face of

a Savage.” Dickens attempts to portray a civilized society being a savage and cruel society.


As Gradgrind speaks in the novel that –

Now, what I want is, Facts. Teach these boys and girls nothing but Facts. Facts

alone are wanted in life. Plant nothing else, and root out everything else.

Clearly, Gradgrind opposes fancy, imaginative literature. Instead, he encourages the

pursuit of hard facts. Therefore, the novel shows the use of facts over fancy in education of the

Victorian era.

Conclusion

Hard Times is a novel by great merit. It is the most flawed of Dickens classics possibly,

but it is still a classical. Hard Times is the tenth novel of Charles Dickens, and unusual in several

ways. It is by far the shortest of Dickens’s novels, barely a quarter of the length of those written

before and after it. The novel condemns the system by the claims of individual human being

which are trampled in a general confusion.

Christabel

S. T. Coleridge

Introduction

Christabel is an incomplete poem written by Samuel Taylor Coleridge. It is a long

narrative poem in two parts. The first part was written in 1797, and the second was in 1800.

Coleridge actually planned to publish three parts, but it never completed. Christabel was left

out from the Lyrical Ballads also under the advice of William Wordsworth and then it was

published in a pamphlet in 1816, alongside Kubla Khan and The Pains of Sleep. Christabel

presents the supernatural, the world of dreams, but it presents it in its own distinctive way. It is

notable for creating the willing suspension of disbelief in the mind of readers.

Theme

There are many common themes in the poem which Coleridge often pen in his poems –

Good versus Evil, Memory and the Past, Compassion and Forgiveness, and the Supernatural

also. Along with all these themes, Christabel also presents the world of supernatural and the

world of dreams too. Although the themes used in Christabel are very distinctive in its own

way, and these themes make the poem appreciable.

Good versus Evil

Christabel is a poem about the conflict between good and evil. Christabel is good;

Geraldine is evil. Geraldine has appeared at the castle with the obvious intention of drawing

Christabel into evil; perhaps, it is implied, through a sexual seduction. Early in the poem, the

forces on both sides of the conflict are clearly lined up. Christabel has her faith, as expressed in

her prayers to God and to the Virgin Mary. Moreover, she has a spiritual guardian in her dead

mother as well as an earthly guardian in her beloved father. While recognizing the power of

evil, Coleridge did not intend for it to win, and in the conclusion, just as in Coleridge’s The Rime

of the Ancient Mariner, nature has justified; the woods, as well as the castle, will be rescued

from evil by the power of good.

Conclusion

Christabel has been regarded by some critic as an allegory. Christabel represents the

element of good in this world and Geraldine that of evil. On the whole, the poem is marked

with a strange melody and contains many passages of exquisite poetry.

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David Copperfield

Charles Dickens

Introduction

David Copperfield considered to be an outstanding novel of Charles Dickens. It is the

eighth novel of Charles Dickens, published in 1850. The novel has an autobiographical appeal. It

features the character of David Copperfield, with his own adventures and the numerous friends

and enemies he meets along his way. It is his journey from being an impoverished, neglected

child to a successful author. Many elements of the novel follows events of Dickens’s own Life,

and is often considered his veiled autobiography. It was Dickens’s favorite among his own

novels. In the preface to 1867 edition, Dickens wrote –

Like many fond parents, I have in my heart of hears a favorite child. And his name is

David Copperfield.

Theme

In David Copperfield, Dickens portrays many types of human suffering: for example,

poverty, child labor, social disgrace, and betrayal by friends and loved ones. He also emphasizes

the vital importance of kindness and charity that is given without thought of return. Such acts

are nevertheless generally rewarded, as a kindness given inspires a kindness in return.

Plight of The Weak

Throughout David Copperfield, the powerful abuse the weak and helpless. Dickens

focuses on orphans, women, and the mentally disabled to show that exploitation—not pity or

compassion – is the rule in an industrial society.

The weak in David Copperfield never escape the domination of the powerful by

challenging the powerful directly. Instead, the weak must ally themselves with equally powerful

characters. David, for example, doesn’t stand up to Mr. Murdstone and challenge his authority.

Instead, he flees to the wealthy Miss Betsey, whose financial stability affords her the power to

shelter David from Mr. Murdstone. David’s escape proves neither self-reliance nor his own

inner virtue, but rather the significance of family ties and family money in human relationships.

Conclusion

David Copperfield is Dickens’s one of the most popular novels. The immense popularity

of this novel rests on Dickens’s power of characterization, depicting humorous and pathetic

situations and memorable and immortal characters. The novel also contains one of the best

pictures of childhood in English Literature.



Great Expectations

Charles Dickens

Introduction

Great Expectations is the 13th novel by Charles Dickens. It is regarded as one of his

greatest and most sophisticated novels. The novel was published in 1860. It is a social criticism.

The structure of the novel is more organized and well interwoven compared to his early novels.

It is the story of the protagonist, Philip Pirrip commonly known as Pip throughout the novel. It

chronicles the coming of the age of the orphan Pip while also addressing issues as social class

and human worth. It is due to this structural unity of the novel that the novel has remained

popular even today.

Theme

Charles Dickens was a social reformer. Like many of his novels, Great Expectations

explores themes of social class, poverty, and crime. Its main character, Pip, starts out a lonely

orphan and becomes a young gentleman. Along the way, however, he struggles to find himself,

and he has many experiences that cause him to question his worldview. In the end, the central

theme of Great Expectations may well be the search for one's identity.

The Story

Charles Dickens has introduced many characters but the main story revolves around

only four or five main characters – Pip, Magwitch, Miss Havisham, Jaggers, Joe and Estella.

Dickens has employed the first person narrative method in this novel. The hero of the novel Pip

is the narrator of the story. The novel is based on a finely planned picaresque theme. The two

elements had been possible only due to the brightness and keenness of observation of Dickens.

During the boyhood, Pip encounters the convict destined to be his benefactor whom he

helps with a little food; Pip also gave him a file with the help of which the convict gets rid of

iron chain of legs. During his youth, Pip gets the benefit of the financial help. Thus, the novelist

has depicted a distinct stage in the life of Pip and his moral development with adequate balance

and proportion.

Conclusion

Among Dickens’s novels, Great Expectations has always been a particular favorite,

among both children and adult readers. Its story, with its hero growing from childhood to

manhood, has a very fundamental storytelling appeal, while its range of characters and

settings, its element of mystery and even adventure towards the end, make it compelling

reading.



Kenilworth

Sir Walter Scott

Introduction

Sir Walter Scott has been rightly called as the father of the historical novel in English

Literature during the 19th century. A historical novel is a novel which attempts to reconstruct

the Life and the atmosphere of an age rather than those of the writer. Kenilworth is a blend of

fact and fiction. It was published in 1821. The novel is a historical romance. Being a historical

novel, Kenilworth is set against the background of Queen Elizabethan’s reign. The novel mainly

focuses on the selfishness versus selflessness and ambition versus Love.

Theme

Kenilworth is a novel of selfishness versus selflessness and ambition versus love. Amy

and the Earl both struggle internally with selfishness and love, while Varney and Tressilian each

typify the extremes of the two qualities. The Earl is shown as an ambition – driven man who will

stoop to deceit and almost anything else in order to attain his goals, but with one saving grace –

he loves Amy, and in the end gives up his pride and ambition to confess their marriage.

Romantic Supernaturalism

Scott has given a mysterious atmosphere by the device of secrecy and intrigue. The roles

of Wayland Smith and Alasco are good substitutes for the supernatural of the fable. Scott’s

romanticism is not airy, but it is colored with a strong realistic sense. The main interest in

Scott’s historical novel is not historical but it has purely fictitious interest. There is a free play of

imagination between fact and legend. The novel also has a serious moral purpose. Scott has

presented some romantic elements with the help of the characters like Queen Elizabeth and

Amy Robsart.

Conclusion

Undoubtedly, Kenilworth is one of the best historical novels in English Literature. Much

of the novel gives a fair depiction of the Elizabethan court, although the circumstances of Amy

Robsart's death from a fall are greatly altered, and also many other events are a product of

Scott's imagination throughout the novel. Thus, it can be said that Kenilworth is not just a

historical novel but also a historical romance.



Lyrical Ballads

William Wordsworth and S. T. Coleridge

Introduction

Lyrical Ballads, with a Few other Poems is a collection of poetry by William

Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge. It was first published in 1798. It was considered as

the beginning of the Romantic Movement in the English Literature. Most of the poems were

written by Wordsworth, with Coleridge’s contribution of only four poems including one of his

most famous works, The Rime of Ancient Mariner. The second edition was published in 1800; in

which, Wordsworth included additional poems and a preface detailing the pairs of avowed

poetical principles. The last addition was published in 1802.

Theme

Lyrical Ballads marked Romantic Movement to the English Literature. One of the main

themes of Lyrical Ballads is the return of the original state of nature, in which people led purer

and more innocent existence. Wordsworth also mentioned Rousseau’s belief that –

Humanity was essentially good but was corrupted by the influence of the society.

The preface to Lyrical Ballads is one of the masterpieces of English Criticism; it is intelligent,

subtle, yet extremely clear and proactive.

Lyrical Ballads

In Lyrical Ballads, Wordsworth expressed his views on poetical style in a revolutionary

way. He insisted that poetry should be written in a selection of the real language of men in a

state of vivid sensation. Wordsworth has given the theory of new poetry in ‘Preface’ by saying

that –

Poetry is the breath and finer spirit of all knowledge. It is the spontaneous overflow of

powerful feelings; it takes its origin from emotions recollected in tranquility.

The majority of the poems of Lyrical Ballads are to be considered as experiments. They were

chiefly written with a view to ascertain how far the language of conversation in the middle and

lower classes of society is adapted to the purpose of poetic pleasure.

Conclusion

In this way, Wordsworth discussed the nature and function of poetry, poetic process,

the qualifications of poetry and the poetic truth in Lyrical Ballads. He regards poetry superior to

philosophy, history and science. That’s why the Preface is a landmark in the history of literary

criticism.



Pride and Prejudice

Jane Austen

Introduction

Pride and Prejudice is a romantic novel by Jane Austen. It is considered to be the finest

novel of Jane Austen which occupies a very important place as a work of art in the history of

English fiction. The novel was based on Shakespeare’s Much Ado About Nothing. It was

published on 28th January, 1813. The novel mainly focuses on the manners, education, marriage

and money of the British Regency period. It has become one of the most popular novels in

English literature with over 20 million copies sold, and paved the way for many standards that

around in modern literature.

Theme

Though novel mainly focuses on the different aspects of British Regency period such as

manners, education, marriage and money, Pride and Prejudice contains one of the most

adorable love stories of English literature. It depicts a society in which a woman’s reputation is

of the utmost importance. A woman is expected to behave in a certain ways. Also the theme of

Love versus Class is as noticeable as others.

Love versus Class

In Pride and Prejudice Jane Austen cleverly begins her novel with an introduction that reunites

all of the central themes of the novel: "Love versus Class and Reputation".

It is a truth universally acknowledged that a single man in possession of a good fortune,

must be in want of a wife.

This means that Regency society had a habit to expect young men to inherit property

from someone in their family and coming to property would mark social and financial success.

The single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife. And for that, women

need to prepare themselves for the opportunity of having this fortunate man consider them as

potential wives. The males equally seem hesitant to accept a potential wife merely out of being

told to do so. Yet, it is in the fact that social class came in between the Pride and Prejudice

bases its central theme of "Love, against Class and Reputation.”

Conclusion

Though the story of the novel is set at the turn of the 19th century, it retains a

fascination for modern readers. The novel has been the most popular of Jane Austen’s novels

with subsequent generations. It is regarded as one of the first ten novels of the world.



Sense and Sensibility

Jane Austen

Introduction

Sense and Sensibility is a novel by Jane Austen, published in the year of 1811. It is

considered to be the most outstanding satire on sentimentalism. It is the work of Romantic

fiction too. The novel marked a great success for its author. Jane Austen wrote the first draft of

the novel in the form of a Novel in Letters and gave it the title Elinor and Marianne. She later

changed the epistolary form to a narrative and the title to Sense and Sensibility. The novel

portrays the Life and Love of the Dashwood sisters, Elinor and Marianne; Elinor represents

sense, while sensibility is represented by her sister Marianne.

Theme

One major theme in Sense and Sensibility is the contrast between the rational mind and

emotions. Jane Austen wrote this novel as a protest against the passionate ideas found in

popular works of the Romantic period. The novel teaches that it is far better to rely on sense

when it comes to matters of the heart, then it is to be guided by uncontrolled emotions.

The Satire

Satire is a literary mode based on criticism of people and society through ridicule.

Sense and Sensibility is a satirical in tone. The satire is mostly directed against sensibility

and sentimentality depicted in the character of Marianne. Jane Austen also ridicules the

selfishness and worldly wisdom of Mrs. John Dashwood and the henpecked nature of John

Dashwood. The style of the novel is forcefully ironical and the dialogues through which the

comedy is represented are piquant and trenchant. It seems that to represent the physical and

psychological suffering resulting from the accident in love, is the primary intention of the

novelist Jane Austen. But to represent the social reality in a satirical way is also the subtle

purpose of Jane Austen in Sense and Sensibility.

Conclusion

Christabel has been regarded by some critic as an allegory. Christabel represents the

element of good in this world and Geraldine that of evil. On the whole, the poem is marked

with a strange melody and contains many passages of exquisite poetry.



The Rime of The Ancient Mariner

S. T. Coleridge

Introduction

The Rime of The Ancient Mariner is the longest major poem by the English poet Samuel

Taylor Coleridge. It is one of the finest and best poems in English narrative poetry. It was

written in 1797 – 98, and published in 1798 in the first addition of Lyrical Ballads. The poem is

the most sustained piece of imagination in the whole of English poetry and has almost very

definable merit of imaginative narration. Coleridge takes us from this world of sordid realities

to a voyage on distant seas on the wings of imagination. John Buchan says –

Coleridge’s poetry represents the culminations of romanticism in its purest forms.

Theme

Though sin and repentance are the central themes of The Rime of the Ancient Mariner,

the description of natural world's power in the poem is unquestionable. However, the work has

popularly been interpreted as an allegory of man's connection to the spiritual, metaphysical

world. And at last, the poem is also a portrait of imprisonment and its inherent loneliness and

torment as describe by Coleridge –

Alone, alone, all, all alone,

Alone on a wide wide sea!

And never a saint took pity

On my soul in agony.

Sin and Repentance

Sin and repentance are the central ideas of the poem. In The Rime of the Ancient

Mariner, sin separates God from man and prevents the Mariner from understanding his

relationship with God and creation. That sin is pride, and the Mariner spends the rest of his life

atoning for it through suffering and humility. The Mariner's story is in essence a confession.

Ever since killing the albatross, he has been walking around, telling his story to anyone who will

listen. The Mariner wants to atone for his sin by steering others away from it.

Nature and religion are closely linked in the poem. The ancient Mariner learns too late

that God loves every creature, big or small. Each one is a living testament to his power and to

the beauty of the earth. Killing the albatross is a sin because it destroys part of God's creation.

Conclusion

Supernatural and mysterious atmosphere is woven all around by the power of

Coleridge’s poetic genius. The poet produces a unique poem, in which the magic of poetry

imparts an air of reality to the supernatural. The central idea of the poem was suggested by

Wordsworth. According to Coleridge –

The poem is based on a dream of his friend. It is noteworthy for its dramatic element.



Vanity Fair

W. M. Thackeray

Introduction

Vanity Fair is an English novel by William Makepeace Thackeray. It was first published as

a 19 volume monthly series from 1847 to 1848, with the subtitle of Pen and Pencil Sketches of

English Society. Then it was published as a single volume in 1848 with the subtitle A Novel

without A Hero, reflecting Thackeray’s interest in deconstructing his era’s conventions

regarding literary heroism. The novel created stir in the Victorian world. In Vanity Fair,

Thackeray has portrayed realistically the life of upper – middle class people of the Napoleon

War period. Also a cross – section of contemporary society is presented to us and every one of

its members represents some one or the other folly, vanity or affectation of Vanity Fair. The

novel is sometimes considered the principle founder of the Victorian domestic novel.

Theme

The title of the novel clearly indicates its themes. It is a satiric exposure of the snobbery,

materialism, and craze for social climbing of the upper – middle class in English society of the

first half of the 19th century. The novel engages with themes of deception and manipulation, as

characters attempt to get what they want by using other characters, either through marriage,

business deals, or other means. The novel also considers themes of desperation and some

others.

The Vanity

Vanity is the motivation of most characters, driving the entire bourgeoisie reality. Vanity

takes many forms in the novel. The satire relents at the end of the novel as Amelia and Dobbin

unite and become friends with Lady Jane Crawley, but the majority of the narrative exposes the

fraudulent lifestyle which gives value to appearance and possessions rather than love and

honesty.

Vanity appears most often in the novel in the form of excessive love of one's self, or

narcissism. For example, Amelia, though often portrayed as a selfless victim, is guilty of this

trait when she desperately takes whatever she can from her rich and corrupt father-in-law.

Vanity is an obsession with ephemeral, inevitably worthless things. This is best illustrated in

Dobbin's obsession with Amelia, because even though he is the only character Thackeray does

not consider odious, Dobbin can only have the one thing he has always wanted, besides

declaring that it is not worthy of his devotion.

Conclusion

Though the novel is without a hero, it is like Fielding’s Tom Jones, makes a

comprehensive and elaborates survey of the Victorian scene. It is the novel of social criticism. It

has been rightly said that Vanity Fair is now universally recognized as a brilliantly dazzling novel

and a masterpiece of fiction in the English language. In the opinion of E. A. Baker –

Vanity Fair at once a great anatomy of society, and the epic of a great adventure.



characteristics of romanticism - empire tuition classes

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