Workplace Counselling : Organisational Interventions

OverviewThe concept of employee assistanceStressors in the WorkplaceStress-related absenceOrganisational responsibility for stress managementCreating a healthy workplace

The Concept of Employee Assistanceearly 1900s : welfare provision 1920s : industrial psychiatry Mayo (1936) a happy worker is a productive worker1940s : Employee Assistance : Characteristics of early Employee Assistanceaim : employee regulationwelfare team : psychiatrists, social workers, occupational psychologists and personnel officersperipheral curative medical model

Characteristics of Contemporary Approaches to Employee AssistancePolitical pressure + legislation (Health & Safety Executive, 1995) + happy = productive has led to ....

Employee Assistance as a philosophy (Carroll, 1994)Mental Health Counselling ~ EAPsUS : litigation for cases of emotional damage, stress-related illness (Carroll, 1996)prevention better than cure

Stress in the WorkplaceHow bad is it ?...Economic health ~ employee ill-health (-ve correlation)Dutch Bureau for Social Statistics (SCP), 2000 : 5-15% pop. of Western European countries receive social security benefits (UK : approx. 10%)1 in 3 unable to work due to mental grounds (90% suffering exogenous reaction)30-60% of all sickness from work in UK due to some form of mental/emotional disturbance (Health & Safety Executive,1998); 40 million working days per year.Mental Health Foundation (2000)4 billion pounds lost annuallyline mgrs : 75% felt anyone could suffer from stress at some timeMost common = musculoskeletal disorders (back-problems) then work-related stress

What is Stress ?stress as an outside stimulus (traditional/early view)stress as an internal responseCannon (1930s) : first to link stress to disease/physiological responses (animal, human lab studies)Selyle (1946) first to look at the process of development of illness through stress : 3 stages :- alarm reaction(lowered resistance & counter-shock => defense mechanisms) ... resistance (coping strategies) ... exhaustion (adaptive mechanisms collapse)

Causes of Stress : TheoryCumming & Cooper (1979) : type of P x E model :individuals try to keep their world steadyeach factor of a persons emotional and physical world has a range in which that person feels comfortablethe individuals behaviour which is aimed at maintaining this state = coping strategiesSmith et al (1978) : stress occurs in all occupationsNB. occupational differences (caring professions, medics, PSYCHIATRISTS!!); gender differences (men affected 2x women, although women increasing)

BurnoutAdams (1963) Equity TheoryHigh/systemic imbalance between employee investments (time + effort) ~ employee rewardsExternal vs Internal InvestmentsExternal vs Internal RewardsBurnout

Causes of Stress : ResearchCooper et al (1988) : 5 categories of work stress :1. Factors Intrinsic to Job :hours of work (long hours, shift work); working conditions (heat, light, noise); risk and danger; new technology; work overload & work underload2. Role in the Organisation:role ambiguity (more stress when high ambiguity), role conflict (job role ~ job role, job role ~ other), level of responsibility (for people or things : Wardwell (64) for people is more stressful than for things) 3. Relationships at Workthe importance of social support (Lazarus, 66; Cartwright & Cooper, 97)

Cooper et al (1988), continued...4. Career Development :- job security & development (high nAch)- retirement (role transition i.e. roleless role)- job performance and appraisal- unemployment (e.g. Fryer & Payne, 86 : low happiness, low self esteem and poor psychological well-being; Eisenberg 38 : Model of reaction to unemployment : stage one = shock, stage two = optimism, stage three = pessimism)5. Organisational Structure & Climate :Lack of autonomy and freedom (Career Anchors)

Consequences of StressIndividualphysical : coronary heart disease, backache, migraine, skin complaints, respiratory disorders, stomach ulcers etc.etc.!psychological : decrease in job performance (Yerkes-Dodson Law); depression; panic attacks; etc etc.OrganisationalQuick & Quick (1984) : absenteeism and turnover : $ loss to organisations = almost half of lost employees salaryBy 1970s absenteeism cost more to industry than strikes and work stoppagesLitigation and Health Care Costs Societal : economic and social consequences

Indicators of Individual StressIncrease in unexplained absences or sick leavePoor performancePoor timekeepingIncreased consumption of alcohol, tobacco, caffeine (drug taking)Headaches/BackachesWithdrawal from social contactPoor judgement/indecisivenessConstant fatigueUnusual displays of emotionIndicators of Group Stress : increased bickering, high staff turnover, increased grievances and complaints

N.B. The Criterion Problem : Diagnosing stress-related illnessRelevant information is not registeredDifferences in procedures/legislationUnclear diagnostic criteria (International Classification of Impairments, Diseases and Handicaps - no international definition of stress as a medical condition)

Stress-Related AbsenceAbsence figures : absence due to - own illness, injury, medical problems, childcare problems, family/personal obligations, civil/military duty, maternity/paternity leave. Not included : vacation, personal development days, industrial action - and anything else not given above.N.B. Multiple job-holdersAbsence Rate = No. workers with absences : No. workers in full-time employment (e.g. 25 : 100 = 1 in 4)Absenteeism Rate = Total no. lost working days / no. workers in workforce x no. working days)] x 100CBI survey : 1996 - 187 million lost days (12bn)static among manual staff, increased by 2 days (on average) in non-manual workers (N.B. manual staff more)public sector vs private sector (although gap narrowing)

How organisations perceive stress-related absence98% said sickness absence genuine20% increase in orgs using sickness record as a selection criteria for redundancyTraditionally, orgs responded to prolonged absence by disciplinary process/termination. Now - employee legislation prevents termination.Organisations as Ostriches! Organisational costs of stress-related absences overtime payments, training efforts, insurance premiums, admin. responsibilities, salary paid for no work performance, disruption in normal workflow morale, safety risks, productivity, quality of service

Organisational & Economic correlates of employee absenteeismlow unemploymentgrowing organisationhigh employee turnoverunionized organisationovertime pay availablelow wages employees have short tenure

Creating a Healthy WorkplaceThe individual and the organisation need to: be aware and accept a problem exists (individual is not incompetent, org. must monitor sick/turnover rates)identify and isolate the problem (stress diaries, stress audits - employee satisfaction surveys)attempt to change the problem in a way that is mutually beneficial - or find appropriate coping strategymonitor and review the outcome of the strategy adopted

Cures for StressEmployee Assistance Programmes :Are employee rather than org. directed - focus on changing individuals behaviour (not stressors in the work environment)Feldman (1991) : 75% of Fortune 5000 organisations use EAPsContent of EAPs : on-site fitness facilities, relaxation classes, counselling....Evaluation of EAPs : Organisations like them as : lead to significant financial benefits (due to decreased absenteeism); do not disrupt business; present a high profile means whereby org. is seen to be doing something about stress

Stress Management Training : ContentBehaviour Modification techniquesHealth promotion (e.g. gym membership)Counselling Cognitive Approach : maladaptive thinking e.g. Rational Emotive Therapy - challenge irrational thoughtsHumanistic-Phenomenological Approach : e.g. Q-Sort : piles describing ideal vs current self. Encounter Groups : hug me, manErhard Seminars training : 250 people in a field shouting at each other

Evaluation of Employee AssistanceReynolds et al (1993) : SMT => decreased self-report of stress, and psychological indices of strain - no improvement in job satisfaction, work stress, blood pressureAllison et al (1988) : Counselling = > improved mental health - no improvement in job satisfaction or organisational commitmentIvancevitch et al (1988) : Fitness Programmes => 70% failed to maintain the programme after initiation

Changing the sources of workplace stress : prevention rather than cureElkin & Rosch (1990) : 10 strategies : include....Redesign -task, -work environment; establish flexible working; encourage participative management and employee development; provide social support and feedback; share rewards; have fair employment policiesEvidenceGuzzo et al (1985) : increased empowerment => increased productivityDale et al (1998) :Quality Circle Programmes self-monitoring, autonomous work units - have significant positive impact on productivity and employee attitudes.

Characteristics of the Healthy OrganisationCartwright & Cooper (1994)Levels of stress are loworg. commitment and job satisfaction are highsickness, absenteeism and turnover are below the national averageindustrial relations are good - strikes are infrequentsafety and accident records are goodfear of litigation is absent