chapter_5

Chapter 5: Using Projects and Practicals

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Upon completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

Describe the characteristics of project work

Justify the use of the project as an assessment tool

Explain the procedure in using the project as an assessment technique

Explain the purpose of practical tests for particular subject areas

Describe how practicals should be assessed.

CHAPTER OVERVIEW

5.1 What is a Project?

5.2 What is Assessed Using

Projects?

5.3 Designing Effective Projects

5.4 Possible Problems with Projects

5.5 Group Work in Projects

5.6 Assessing Project Work

5.7 Assessment of Practical Work

5.8 Assessment of Science Practical

Work

Summary

Key Terms

References

Besides objective and essay tests, other methods of assessing students have been used. In

this chapter, we will focus on two types of such assessment methods, namely; the project

and practicals. The project is used in many subject areas while the practical test is

adopted for subjects that involve hands-on experience such as the sciences, technical and

vocational subjects, the hospitality industry and so forth. For, subjects such as

geography, geology and environmental education, the project may involve fieldwork.

Chapter 1: Introduction

Chapter 2: What to Assess

Chapter 3: Using Objective Tests

Chapter 4: Using Essay Tests


Chapter 6: Using Observations, Oral Tests,

and Portfolios

Chapter 7: Reliability and Validity of

Assessment Methods

Chapter 8: Item Analysis

Chapter 9: Analysis of Test Scores and

Reporting


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5.1 WHAT IS A PROJECT?

Most of us have done some form of project work in school or university and

know what is project. However, when asked to define, one will see varying

interpretations of the project and its purpose. A project is an activity in which time

constraints has been largely removed (compared to an examination) and can be

undertaken individually or by a group,

and usually involves a significant

element of work being done at home

or out of school (Firth and

Mackintosh, 1987). Project work has

its roots in the constructivist approach

which evolved from the work of

psychologists and educators such as

Lev Vygotsky, Jerome Bruner, Jean

Piaget and John Dewey.

Constructivism views learning the

result of mental construction wherein

students learn by constructing new

ideas or concepts based on their

current and previous knowledge.

In project work, the whole

work process is as important as the

final result or product. Work process

refers to students choosing a

knowledge area, delimiting it,

formulating a problem or putting

forward questions. It also involves

students investigating and describing

what is required to solve a given

problem, or answer a specific question through further work, collection of materials

and knowledge. Project work is planned so it can be carried out within the time

available. Preferably, the task should is drawn from knowledge areas in the current

curriculum. Project work is an integrated learning experience that encourages students

to break away from the compartmentalisation of knowledge and instead involves

drawing upon different aspects of knowledge. For example, making an object not only

requires handicraft skills, but also knowledge of materials, working methods and uses

of the object. Similarly, writing the project report requires writing skills learned in the

language classroom and applying it when analysing and drawing conclusions for a

science project. Generally, there are TWO types of projects: Research-based and

Product-based.

The Research-Based Project is more theoretical in nature and may consist of

putting a question, formulating a problem or setting up some hypotheses. In

order to answer the question, solve the problem or confirm the assumptions,

information must be found, evaluated and used. This information can either be

a result of their own investigations, or be obtained from public sources without

Most projects have certain common

defining features (Katz & Chard, 1989)

Student centred

A definite beginning, middle, and

end

Content meaningful to students;

directly observable in their

environment

Real-world problems

Firsthand investigation

Sensitivity to local culture and

culturally appropriate

Specific goals related to curriculum

A tangible product that can be shared

with the intended audience

Connections among school, life, and

work skills

Opportunity for reflective thinking

and student self-assessment

Authentic assessments (portfolios,

journals, etc.)


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being a pure reproduction. Such project work is usually presented as a

research report.

The Product-Based Project would be the production of a concrete object, a

service, a dance performance, a film, an exhibition, play, a computer

programme and so forth.

Project work provides an opportunity for students

to explore different approaches in solving

problems. In project work a teacher follows,

discusses and assesses the work in all its different

phases. This teacher is the student's supervisor. If

the work takes place in a group, the input of

different pupils should take place from within their

respective programme goals. Most importantly,

students should find projects fun, motivating, and

challenging because they play an active role in the

entire process (see Figure 5.1). The selection of a

project may be determined by the teacher or the

choice may be left to the students, probably with

the approval of the teacher (Katz, 1994).. What is

significant is that students take ownership of their

PROJECT IDEAS

There are many types of effective projects. The following are just some ideas for

projects:

Survey of historical buildings in the student‘s community.

Study of the economic activities of people in the local community

Study of the transportation system in the district

Recreate an historical event.

Develop a newsletter or Web site on a specific issue relevant to the school or

community (school safety, recycling, how businesses can save energy and

reduce waste, etc).

Compile oral histories of the local area by interviewing community elders.

Produce a Web site as a "virtual tour" of the history of the community.

Create a wildlife or botanical guide for a local wildlife area.

Create an exhibition on local products, local history, local personalities using

audiotapes, videotapes, and photographs.

Investigating pollution of local rivers, lakes and ponds.

The possibilities for projects are endless. The key ingredient for any project

idea is that it is student driven, challenging, and meaningful. It is important to realise

that project-based instruction complements the structured curriculum. Project-based

instruction builds on and enhances what children learn through systematic instruction.

Teachers do not let students become the sole decision makers about what project to

do, nor do teachers sit back and wait for the student to figure out how to go about the

process, which may be very challenging (Bryson, 1994). This is where the teacher‘s

ability to facilitate and act as coach plays an important part in the success of a project.

Figure 5.1 Making of models

can be fun and challenging


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The teacher will have brainstormed ideas with the student to come up with project

possibilities, discuss possibilities and options, help the student form a guiding

question, and be ready to help the student throughout the implementation process such

as setting guidelines, due dates, resource selection and so forth (Bryson, 1994;

Rankin, 1993).

5.2 WHAT IS ASSESSED USING PROJECTS?

Project oriented work is becoming

increasingly common in working life. Project

competence, the ability to work together with

others, and also to take personal initiatives and

entrepreneurship are skills often required by

employers. These competences can be

developed during project work and thus

prepare pupils for working life. Project work

makes schooling more like the real world. In

real life, we selfdom spend several hours

listening to authorities who know more than we

do and tell us exactly what to do and how to do

it. We ask questions of the person we are

learning from. We try to link what the person is

telling us with what we already know. We bring

our experiences and what we already know that is relevant to the issue or task and say

something about it.

You can see this with a class of young learners. When the teacher tells a story,

little kindergarten children raise their hands eagerly to share their experiences with

something related to the story (see Figure 5.2). They want to be able to apply their

natural tendencies to the learning process. This is how life is much of the time! By

giving project work, we open up areas in schooling where students can speak about

what they already know.

Project work is a learning experience which enables the development of

certain knowledge, skills and attitudes which prepares students for lifelong learning

and the challenges ahead (see Table 5.1). These objectives may not be achieved by

current instructional strategies.

Figure 5.2 Young children are

eager to share their experiences

with something related in a story

SELF-CHECK 5.1

a) What is a project?

b) What is the difference between a research-based project and

a product-based project. Give examples of projects in your

subject area.


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Domains Learning Outcomes

Knowledge application

[Apply creative and critical

thinking skills]

Students will be able to make connections across

different areas of knowledge and to generate,

develop and evaluate ideas and information so as to

apply these skills to the project task.

be able to choose a knowledge area and

within this delimit a task or a problem,

be able to choose relevant material,

methods as well as relevant tools,

be held to draw up a project plan and where

needed revise it

Communication

[Improve communication

skills; both oral and written]

Students will acquire the skills to communicate

effectively and to present ideas clearly and

coherently to specific audience in both the written

and oral forms

be able to discuss with their supervising

teacher how their work is developing,

be able to provide a written report of the

project describing the progress of the work

from initial idea to final product

be able to produce a final product which

means an independent solution to the task

or problem chosen

Collaboration

[Foster collaborative learning

skills]

Students will acquire collaborative skills through

working in a team to achieve common goals.

Independent Learning

[Develop self-directed inquiry

and life-long learning skills]

Students will be able to learn on their own, reflect

on their learning and take appropriate actions to

improve it.

be able to use a logbook documenting the

progress of their work and regularly report

the process

be able to assess either in writing or

verbally their work process and results.

Table 5.1 The Knowledge, Skills and Attitudes Achieved with Projects

[source: Harwell, S., & Blank, W. (1997). Connecting high school with the real

world. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED407586]

PROJECTS aim at:

developing the skill of planning, structuring and taking responsibility for a larger

piece of work and providing experience of working in ‗project form‘ (like they do

in the real world!).

encouraging students to study in-depth knowledge within a subject or between

subjects.


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providing students with opportunities to explore the inter-relationships and inter-

connectedness of topics within a subject and between subjects.

encouraging students to synthesise knowledge from various areas of learning, and

critically and creatively applying it to real life situations.

Hence, it is important that students be assigned to carry our authentic projects in

which they plan, implement, and report on projects that have real-world applications

beyond the classroom (Blank and Harwell, 1997).

5.3 DESIGNING EFFECTIVE PROJECTS

There are many types of projects

and there is no one correct way to design

and implement a project, but there are

some questions and things to consider

when designing effective projects. It is

very important for everyone involved to

be clear about the goals of the project.

You will be surprised that many teachers

are not sure why they use projects to

assess their students. The teacher should

develop an outline that explains the

project‘s essential elements and

expectations. Although the outline can

take various forms, it should contain the

following elements (Bottoms & Webb,

1998):

Situation or problem: A sentence or two describing the issue or problem that

the project is trying to address. For example, study of the rainforest (see

Figure 5.1), the pollution levels in rivers, transportation problems in urban

centres, price of essential items are increasing, crime rate in squatter areas,

youths loitering in shopping complexes, students in internet cafes during

school hours and so forth.

Project description and purpose: A concise explanation of the project‘s

ultimate purpose and how it addresses the situation or problem. For example;

students will research, conduct surveys, and make recommendations on how

Figure 5.3 Fieldwork is a common type of

project used in subjects such as geography

biology and environmental studies.

5.1 ACTIVITY

a) What are the knowledge, skills and attitudes assessed

using a project?

b) To what extent has project work been used as an

assessment strategy in institution?


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students help reduce pollution of rivers. Results will be presented in a

newsletter, information brochure, exhibition or Web site.

Performance specifications: A list of criteria or quality standards the project

must meet.

Rules: Guidelines for carrying out the project. Include timeline and short-term

goals, such as: have interviews completed by a certain date, have research

completed by a certain date.

List of project participants with roles assigned: Roles of team members and if

members of the community are involved, identify their roles.

Assessment: How the student‘s performance will be evaluated. In project

work, the learning process is being evaluated as well as the final product.

BEFORE DESIGNING THE PROJECT:

Identify Learning Goals and Objectives. What specific skills or concepts students will

learn? Herman, Aschbacher, and Winters (1992) have identified five questions to

consider when determining learning goals:

1. What important cognitive skills do I want my students to develop? (e.g., to use

algebra to solve everyday problems, to write persuasively).

2. What social and affective skills do I want my students to develop? (e.g., develop

teamwork skills).

3. What metacognitive skills do I want my students to develop? (e.g., reflect on the

research process they use, evaluate its effectiveness, and determine methods of

improvement).

4. What types of problems do I want my students to be able to solve? (e.g., know

how to do research, apply the scientific method).

5. What concepts and principles do I want my students to be able to apply? (e.g.,

apply basic principles of biology and geography in their lives, understand

cause-and-effect relationships)

Steinberg (1998) provides a checklist for the design of effective project (see Table

5.2). The checklist can be used throughout the process to help both teacher and

student plan and develop a project, as well to assess whether the project was

successful in meeting instructional goals.

ALSO IMPORTANT TO ENSURE THE FOLLOWING:

Do the students have easy access to the resources they need? This is especially

important if a student is using specific technology or subject-matter expertise from

the community.

Do the students know how to use the resources? Students who have minimal

experience with computers, for example, may need extra assistance in utilising

them.

Do the students have mentors or coaches to support them in their work? This

can be in-school or out-of-school mentors.

Are students clear on the roles and responsibilities of each person in the group?


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Table 5.2 The Six A’s Projects Checklist

[source: adaptation of A. Steinberg (1998). Real learning, real work: School-to-

work as high school reform. New York, NY: Routledge]

Authenticity

Does the project stem from a problem or question that is meaningful to the

student?

Is the project similar to one undertaken by an adult in the community or

workplace?

Does the project give the student the opportunity to produce something that has

value or meaning to the student beyond the school setting?

Academic Rigor Does the project enable the student to acquire and apply knowledge central to one

or more discipline areas?

Does the project challenge the student to use methods of inquiry from one or more

disciplines (e.g., to think like a scientist)?

Does the student develop higher order thinking skills (e.g., searching for evidence,

using different perspectives)?

Applied Learning

Does the student solve a problem that is grounded in real life and/or work (e.g.,

design a project, organise an event)

Does the student need to acquire and use skills expected in high-performance

work environments (e.g., teamwork, problem solving, communication, or

technology)?

Does the project require the student to develop organizational and self-

management skills?

Active Exploration

Does the student spend significant amounts of time doing work in the field,

outside school?

Does the project require the student to engage in real investigative work, using a

variety of methods, media, and sources?

Is the student expected to explain what he/she learned through a presentation or

performance?

Adult Relationships

Does the student meet and observe adults with relevant experience and expertise?

Is the student able to work closely with at least one adult? Do adults and the student collaborate on the design and assessment of the project?

Assessment Practices

Does the student reflect regularly on his or her learning, using clear project criteria

that he or she has helped to set?

Do adults from outside the community help the student develop a sense of the real

world standards from this type of work?

Is the student‘s work regularly assessed through a variety of methods, including

portfolios and exhibitions?


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5.4 POSSIBLE PROBLEMS WITH PROJECT WORK

Teachers intending to use projects

both as an instructional and assessment tool

should be aware of certain problem areas.

Thomas (1998) identified the following

problem areas when undertaking project-

based instruction:

Aligning project goals with

curriculum goals can be difficult. To make matters worse, parents are not

always supportive of projects when they cannot see how it relates to the

overall assessment of learning.

Projects can often take longer than expected and teachers need a lot of time to

prepare good authentic projects.

Students are not clear as to what is required. There is need for adequate

structure, guidelines and guidance on how to carry out projects.

Intensive staff development is required; teachers are not traditionally prepared

to integrate content into real-world activities.

The resources needed for project work may not be readily available and there

might be a lack of administrative support.

Some teachers may not be familiar on how to assess projects.

5.5 GROUP WORK IN PROJECTS

Working in groups has become an accepted part of learning as a consequence of

widely recognised benefits of collaborative group work for student learning. When

groups work well, students learn more and produce higher quality learning outcomes.

What are some BENEFITS OF GROUP WORK IN PROJECTS?

Peer learning can improve the overall quality of student learning. Group work

enhances student understanding. Students learn from each other and benefit

from activities that require them to articulate and test their knowledge. Group

work provides an opportunity for students to clarify and refine their

Be as specific as possible in

determining outcomes so that both

the student and the teacher

understand exactly what is to be

learned.

5.2 ACTIVITY

a) What are some of the factors you should consider when

designing project work for students in your subject area?

b) Give examples of projects you have included or can

include the teaching and evaluation of your subject area.


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understanding of concepts through discussion and rehearsal with peers. Many,

but not all, students recognise the value to their personal development of

group work and of being assessed as a member of a group. Working with a

group and for the benefit of the group also motivates some students. Group

assessment helps some students develop a sense of responsibility: 'I felt that

because one is working in a group, it is not possible to slack off or to put

things off. I have to keep working otherwise I would be letting other people

down'.

Group work can help develop specific generic skills sought by employers. As

a direct response to the objective of preparing graduates with the capacity to

function successfully as team members in the workplace there has been a trend

in recent years to incorporate generic skills alongside traditional subject-

specific knowledge in the expected learning outcomes in higher education.

Group work can facilitate the development of skills, which include:

o teamwork skills (skills in working within team dynamics; leadership

skills);

o analytical and cognitive skills (analysing task requirements;

questioning; critically interpreting material; evaluating the work of

others);

o collaborative skills (conflict management and resolution; accepting

intellectual criticism; flexibility; negotiation and compromise); and

o organisational and time management skills: 'Having to do group work

has changed the way I worked. I could not do it all the night before. I

had to be more organised and efficient'

Group work may reduce the workload involved in assessing, grading and

providing feedback to students. Group work, and group assessment in

particular, is sometimes implemented in the hope of streamlining assessment

and grading tasks. In simple terms, if students submit group assignments then

the number of pieces of work to be assessed can be vastly reduced. This

prospect might be particularly attractive for staff teaching large classes.

SELF-CHECK 5.2

c) What are some of the problems in using projects in teaching

and suggest ways of solving them?

d) Discuss the benefits of group work in projects.


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5.6 ASSESSING PROJECT WORK

Assessing student performance on project work is quite different from an

examination using objective tests and essay questions. It is testing groups of students

working on projects. This makes the task of assessing student progress even more

complex compared to a paper and pencil test where everyone is evaluated using one

marking scheme.

PRODUCT, PROCESS OR BOTH?

According, to Bonthron & Gordon, (1999), from the onset, you should be clear:

Whether you are going to assess the PRODUCT of the group work or both

product and PROCESS.

If you intend to assess process, what proportion are you going to allocate for

process and what criteria and how are you going to use to assess process.

What criteria are you planning to use to assess project work and how will the

marks be distributed.

Some educators believe there is a need

to assess the processes within groups as well as

the products or outcomes. What exactly does

'process' mean? Both teachers and students

must be clear what does process mean? For

example, if you want to assess 'the level of

interaction' among students in the group, they

should know what does ‗high‘ or ‗low‘

interaction mean.

Should the teacher involve himself or

herself in the workings of each group or rely on

self- or peer assessment? Obviously, for the

teacher to be involved in so many groups would

be physically impossible. What proportion of

assessment should focus on product and what

proportion should focus on process? There are

growing interest in assessing both the process

and product of project work.

The criteria for the evaluation of group

work can be determined by teachers alone or

both by teachers and students through

consultation between the two. Group members can be consulted on what should be

assessed in a project through consultation with the teacher. Obviously, you have to be

clear about the intended learning outcomes of the project in your subject area. It is a

useful starting point for determining criteria for assessment of the project. Once these

broader learning outcomes are understood, you can establish the criteria for marking

the project (See Table 5.3) which shows a general marking criteria for projects).

Generally, it is easier to establish criteria for measuring the ‗product‘ of project work

and much more difficult to measure the ‗processes‘ involved in project work.

'I don't care what you do in your

groups. All I'm interested in is

the final product and how you

arrive at your results is your

business.


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However, it is suggested that evaluation of product and process be done separately

rather than attempt to do both at once. [We will discuss how process in project work

may be evaluated later].

Table 5.3 General Marking Scheme for Projects

[source: Chard, S. C. (1992). The Project Approach: A Practical Guide for Teachers.

Edmonton, Alberta: University of Alberta Printing Services]

General Marking Criteria for Projects 100 -90% Exceptional and distinguished work of a professional standard.

Outstanding technical and expressive skills. Work demonstrating

exceptional creativity and imagination. Work displaying great flair and

originality.

89-80% Excellent and highly developed work of a professional standard.

Extremely good technical and expressive skills. Work demonstrating a

high level of creativity and imagination. Work displaying flair and

originality.

79-70% Very good work which approaches professional standard. Very good

technical and expressive skills. Work demonstrating good creativity and

imagination. Work displaying originality.

69-60% A good standard of work. Good technical and expressive skills. Work

displaying creativity and imagination. Work displaying some

originality.

59-50% A reasonable standard of work. Adequate technical and expressive

skills. Work displaying competence in the criteria assessed, but which

may be lacking some creativity or originality.

49-40% A limited, but adequate standard of work. Limited technical and ex

expressive skills. Work displaying some weaknesses in the criteria

assessed and lacking creativity or originality.

39-30% Limited work which fails to meet the required standard. Weak

technical and expressive skills. Work displaying significant

weaknesses in the criteria assessed.

29-20% Poor work. Unsatisfactory technical or expressive skills. Work

displaying significant or fundamental weaknesses in the criteria

assessed.

19-10% Very poor work or work where very little attempt has been made. A

lack of technical or expressive skills. Work displaying fundamental

weaknesses in the criteria assessed.

9-1% Extremely poor work or work where no serious attempt has been made.


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WHO GETS THE MARKS – INDIVIDUALS OR THE GROUP?

Most projects involve more than one student and

the benefits of group work has been discussed earlier. A

major problem of evaluating projects involving group

work is how to allocate marks fairly among group

members. As exclaimed by a student, ―I would like my

teacher to tell me what amount of work and effort will

get what mark‖. ―Do all students get the same mark

even though not all students put in the same effort?‖

―Are marks be given for the individual contribution of

team members?‖

These are questions that bother teachers,

especially when it is common to find freeloaders or

sleeping partners in group projects. The following are

some suggestions how group work may be assessed as

suggested by Winchester-Seeto, T. (2002) which is not

an exhaustive list but are some of the most commonly

used options and intended as a set of prompts for

consideration when designing group assessment.

Method 1: Shared Group Mark

All group members receive the same mark for the work submitted regardless of

individual contribution. It is a straightforward method that encourages group work

where group members sink or swim together. However, it may be perceived as

unfair by better students who may complain that they are unfairly disadvantaged

by weaker students and the likelihood of ‗sleeping partners‘ is very high

Joe did not contribute

much to be project.

Does he get the same

mark or grade as the

rest of us?

5.3 ACTIVITY

Refer to the marking scheme for projects above proposed by

S.C. Chard.

To what extent can you use the marking scheme for a

assessing student projects in your subject area?

Discuss the modifications you would make?


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Method 3: Individual Mark Each student in the group submits an individual report based on the task allocated

or on the whole project.

a) Allocated task : From the beginning, the project is divided into different parts or

tasks and each student in the group completes his or her allocated task that

contributes to the final group product and gets the marks for that task. This method

is a relatively objective way of ensuring individual participation and may motivate

students to work hard on their task or part. The problem is breaking up the project

into tasks that are exactly equal in size or complexity. Also, the method may not

encourage group collaboration and some members may slow down progress.

b) Individual report: Each student writes and submits an individual report based on

the whole project. The method ensures individual effort and may be perceived as

fair by students. However, it is difficult to determine how the individual reports

should differ and students may unintentionally plagiarise.

Method 4: Individual Mark (Examination) Examination questions specifically target the group projects, and can only be

answered by students who have been thoroughly involved in the project. This

method may motivate students more to learn from the group project including

learning from the other members of the group. However, it may not be effective

because students may be able to answer the questions by reading the group reports.

In the Malaysian context, national examinations may not be able to include such

questions as it involves hundreds of thousands of students.

Method 5: Combination of Group Average and Individual Mark The group mark is awarded to each member with a mechanism for adjusting for

individual contributions. This method may be perceived to be fairer than shared

group mark. But, it means additional work for teachers trying to establish

individual contribution.

Method 2: Share-Out Marks

The students in the group decide how the total number of marks should be shared

between them. For example, a score of 40 is given by the teacher for the project

submitted. There are 5 members in the group and so the total score possible is 5 x

40 = 200. The students then share the 200 marks based on the contribution of each

of the 4 students; which may be 35, 45, 42, 38 and 40. This is an effective method

if group members are fair, honest and do not have ill-feelings towards each other.

However, there is the likelihood for the marks to be equally distributed to avoid ill-

feelings among group members.


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EVALUATING PROCESS IN A PROJECT

But the assessment of a group 'product' is rarely the only assessment taking place in

group activities. As discussed earlier, the process of group work is increasingly

recognised as an important element in the assessment of group work. Where group

work is marked solely on the basis of product, some may argue that it is unfair

because individual effort of group members may not be recognised. The following are

some techniques of assessing process skills in project work (Sutherland, 2003):

Peer / Self Evaluation of Roles - Students rate themselves as well as other

group members on specific criteria, such as responsibility, contributing ideas,

finishing tasks, etc. This can be done through various grading forms (see Table

5.4) or having students write a brief essay on the group/members strengths and

weaknesses.

Individual Journals - Students keep a journal of

events that occur in each group meeting. These

include: who attended, what was discussed and

plans for future meetings. These can be collected

and periodically read by the instructor, who

comments on progress. The instructor can

provide guidance for the group without directing

them.

Minutes of Group Meetings - Similar to

journals are minutes for each group meeting,

which are periodically read by the instructor.

These include who attended, tasks completed,

task planned, and contributors to various task.

This provides the instructor with a way of

monitor individual contributions to the group.

Group and Individual Contribution Grades -

Instructors can divide the project grade into

percentage of individual and group contribution.

This is especially beneficial if peer and self

evaluations are used.

Logs can potentially provide plenty of information to form the basis of assessment

while keeping minutes helps members to focus on the process which is a learning

experience in itself. These techniques may be perceived as a fair way to deal with

I hear ‘process’ is

going to be evaluated

in our project. What is

that? Will it be fair?

5.4 ACTIVITY

a) Which of the FIVE methods of assigning marks for

student projects have you used in your subject area?

b) Give reasons for your choice

c) Suggest other methods of assigning marks for project

work.


16

'shirkers' and outstanding contributions. However, reviewing logs can be time

consuming for teachers and students may need a lot of training and experience in

keeping records. Also, emphasis on second hand evidence may not be reliable.

Peer Evaluation Checklist Group Members Group Member Completing This Evaluation

1 …………………. _____________________________

2 ………………….

3 ………………….

4 ………………….

Please answer all of the following questions honestly, completely and true to what your

experiences were in your group.

Your evaluation of your peers may impact and be considered up to 20% of the final grade

for this project.

This form is to filled out in a confidential manner and is not to be discussed; this is

private and is only between you and your teacher.

1. Were you absent on any of the days that your group was working on this project?

2. Were any of your group members absent while working on this project? WHO and

how many days?

3. If any of the group members were absent, did this absence affect the amount of

work that you were able to complete that day? HOW?

4. Do you feel like the work load was distributed evenly between ALL group members?

5. Please give an estimate, using 100% as the total group and divide up the amount of

work that you feel each group member contributed, please write down each group

member‘s name and then put the appropriate percent next to it.

Group Members Percent (%)

(i) ………… ………

(ii) ………… ………

(iii) ………… ………

(iv) ………… ………

[continued on the next page]


17

Table 5.4 Checklist for Evaluating Processes Involved in Project Work

[source: Developed by Maggie Sutherland for the Biotechnology Academy at Andrew

P. Hill High School © 2003 East Side Union High School District, San Jose,

California]

6. What areas do you feel you contributed the most to on this project? Write down

the details.

Group Members: Work Contributed

1 ……………………….. ……………………

2 ……………………….. ……………………

3 ……………………….. ……………………

4 ……………………….. ……………………

7. What areas do you feel others in your group contributed the most to on this

project? Write down each name with the details next to it.

Group Members Grade Comments/Explanation

1 ………………. ……… ………………………….

2 ………………. ……… ………………………….

3 ………………. ……… ………………………….

4 ………………. ……… ………………………….

8. Do you feel that your group worked well together on this project?

WHY? Or WHY NOT?

9. If you were given another project of this magnitude what qualities would you look

for in future group members?

10. Based on your answers above please grade each of your group members,

including yourself on the scale below:

A — He/she worked great together, work was evenly distributed, he/she

pulled their fair share of the work with no absences.

B — He/she worked okay with the group, work was almost evenly

distributed, he/she mostly pulled their fair share, an absence was made

but it had minimal impact on the project.

C — He/she had difficulties working with the group, the work was not evenly

distributed, he/she did less than their fair share, any absences made an

impact on the project progress.

D — He/she did not work well with the group, did little work, less than their

fair share, and any absences did hinder the project progress.


18

SELF ASSESSMENT IN PROJECT WORK

Self-assessment is a process by which students learn about themselves; for

example, what they have learned about the project, how they have learned and how

they reacted in certain situations when carrying out the project. Involving students in

the assessment process is an essential part of balanced assessment. When students

become partners in the learning process, they gain a better sense of themselves as

readers, writers and thinkers. Some teachers may be uncomfortable with self-

assessment because traditionally teachers are responsible for all forms of assessment

in the classroom, and here we are asking

students to assess themselves. Self-assessment

can take many forms:

Discussion involving the whole class or

small groups

Reflection logs

Self-assessment checklist or inventories

Teacher-student interviews

These types of self-assessment share a common

theme; they ask students to review their work

to determine what they have learned and areas

of confusion still exist. Although each method

may differ slightly, they all include enough

time for students to consider thoughtfully and

evaluate their progress.

Because project learning is student driven, assessment should be student

driven as well. Students can keep journals and logs to continually assess their

progress. A final reflective essay or log can allow students and teachers to understand

thinking processes, reasoning behind decisions, ability to arrive at conclusions and

communicate what they have learned. According to Edwards (2000), the following

are some questions the a student can ask himself or herself while self-assessing:

What were the project‘s successes?

What might I do to improve the project?

How well did I meet my learning goals? What was most difficult about

meeting the goals?

What surprised me most about working on the project?

What was my group‘s best team effort? Worst team effort?

How do I think other people involved with the project felt it went?

What were the skills I used during this project? How can I practice these skills

in the future?

5.5 ACTIVITY

a) Explain how process can be assessed in group project

work

b) What do you foresee are some problems with assessing

project work in your subject area? Suggest ways how

they may be overcomed?


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5.7 ASSESSMENT OF PRACTICAL WORK

This may explain why the training and education of professionals such as

doctors, dentists, engineers and teachers involves engagement in a substantial amount

of practical work that is regularly assessed. In schools, students engage in practical

work in subjects such as biology, chemistry, physics, geography, living skills and

even religious education. Should involvement in practical work in primary and

secondary school be assessed? If ‗yes‘, how do we go about assessing practical work

or conducting practical tests. Many areas of study involve practical work, but it is

often much more difficult to assess such work. Assessing reports such as laboratory

reports or the objects produced in practical work may only be measuring the quality of

the end-product of the practical work, and not the work itself.

Macintosh and Hale (1976) see practical assessment as being essentially

concerned with presentation of problems and with the provision of opportunities for

students to suggest and to justify solutions to these problems. It is thus necessary for

them to demonstrate mastery of relevant skills. It involves the teacher setting pieces

practical exercises and continuously assessing the skills involved in completing these

exercises.

WHY EVALUATE PRACTICALS?

Practical work may be really important. For example, none of us wants to

be treated by a surgeon who has the best theoretical knowledge available, but

whose practical work is slipshod!

N NONE of us would want to be treated by a dentist or surgeon or

taught by a teacher who has the best theoretical knowledge

available, but whose practical work is slipshod!

? ?


20

Employers may need to know how good students' practical work is (and

not just how good their reports are.) It is therefore useful to reserve part of

our overall assessment for practical skills in such cases.

Practical work is learning-by-doing. Increasing the significance of practical

work by attaching assessment to it helps students approach such work more

earnestly and critically.

PROBLEMS WITH EVALUATING PRACTICALS

It is often difficult to assess practical work in its own right. Just like projects,

it is usually much easier to assess the end-point of practical work, rather than

the processes and skills involved in their own right.

It can be difficult to agree on assessment criteria for practical skills. There

may be several ways of performing a task well, requiring a range of alternative

assessment criteria.

Students may be inhibited when someone is observing their performance. When doing laboratory work, for example, it can be very distracting to be

watched!

TIPS FOR ASSESSING PRACTICAL WORK

Reserve some marks for the processes. Help students to see that practical

work is not just reaching a defined end point, but is about the processes and

skills involved in doing so successfully.

Get students to self-assess how well they undertook tasks. This at least

helps students to reflect on their performance in practical work, and since the

overall contribution to their final grades of the process side of their work will

probably be small, the risk of any error due to over-confidence or under-

confidence is well worth the benefits accruing from reflection.

Ask students to include in their reports "Ways I would do the experiment

better next time". This encourages students to become more self-aware of

how well (or otherwise) they are approaching practical tasks.

Design the right end products. Sometimes it is possible to design final

outcomes which can only be reached when the practical work itself is of high

quality. For example, in chemistry, the skills demonstrated in the preparation

and refinement of a compound can often be reflected in the purity and amount

of the final product.


21

GENERAL SCHEME FOR EVALUATING PRACTICALS

In schools, practicals are used in many subjects such as biology, chemistry,

physics, technical and engineering studies (such as electronics, electrical, engineering

drawing subjects), home economics, carpentry, art and craft and so forth. The

following is a general criteria for assessing practicals.

1) PLANNING Students should be able to:

identify and define the question or problem using available information and

knowledge

choose effective and safe procedures,

select appropriate tools, apparatus and materials to produce the desired results

consider the environmental and safety aspects of the proposed procedures and

tools used (if relevant).

2) IMPLEMENTATION Students should be able to:

use tools, apparatus and materials in an appropriate and safe way

carry out work in a methodical and organised way with due regard for safety

and with appropriate consideration for the well-being of the environment

make measurements to an appropriate degree of precision based on

instruments used

record detailed observations accurately in a suitable manner (if relevant)

deal appropriately with unexpected results

3) ANALYSING Students should be able to:

communicate information and ideas using correct terminology such as graphs,

tables, annotated drawings and diagrams (if relevant).

recognise and comment on the data obtained or the product produced or the

procedure used

draw valid conclusions by applying knowledge and understanding

4) EVALUATING Students should be able to:

assess the reliability and accuracy of experimental data and draw conclusions

from it (in the case of science experiments)

identify the main sources of error and limitations in the practical sessions

suggest how these errors, limitations and procedures used could be improved

where appropriate


22

To test each of the FOUR abilities (Planning, Implementation, Analysing and

Evaluating), the following scale may be applied:

5.8 ASSESSMENT OF SCIENCE PRACTICAL WORK

WHY ASSESS SCIENCE PRACTICAL WORK?

Laboratory work is generally regarded as a necessary and highly significant

component of the science education experience provided for students. The laboratory

is a vital environment in which science is experienced. It may be a specially equipped

room, a self-contained classroom, a field site, or a larger place, such as the community

in which science experiments are conducted (The National Science Teachers

Association of America, 1990). Laboratory experience is so integral to the nature of

science that it must be included in every science programme for every student. Hands-

on science activities can include individual, small, and large group experiences.The

Australian Science Teachers Association (1980) proposed that practicals in science

learning should be concerned with developing skills in:

making observations and measurements, both with unaided senses and

instruments

Suggested Marking Scale:

5 marks – has reached independence in effectively demonstrating competence

4 marks – can carry out most of the listed procedures effectively and with minimal

assistance from the teacher

3 marks – can successfully carry out a number of procedures, but only with

considerable assistance from the teacher

2 marks – finds difficulty in achieving any significant success, even though an attempt

is made with considerable assistance from the teacher

1 mark – makes little attempt to undertake practical work or to follow through a series

of activities

0 marks – No acceptable work produced

5.6 ACTIVITY

a) To what extent is the marking scheme for assessing

practical work presented above appropriate for practical

work in your subject area?

b) Suggest modifications to the marking scheme to meet

The requirements of your subject area.


23

general manual dexterity

the use of specialised equipment

extracting, organising and analysing information from a variety of sources

designing controlled experiments to test hypotheses

thinking critically and creatively about ideas, information and problems

interpreting and using mathematical data and methods in science

communicating ideas related to science using a variety of media and

methods.

It reflects not only the psychomotor

domain of learning but incorporates the

integrated process-skills located in the

cognitive domain. The laboratory

provides an optimal setting for

motivating students while they

experience what science is. The spirit of

science is assimilated by students who

participate in meaningful laboratory

activities.

Problem-solving abilities are

presented in the context of laboratory

inquiry which seeks to develop a wide

variety of investigative, organisational,

creative, and communicative skills.

The National Science Teachers Association of America (1990) makes the following

recommendations with regards to practical work in science teaching and learning:

Preschool and Elementary Level

o Preschool/Elementary science classes must include activity-based, hands-on

experiences for all children. Activities should be selected that allow students

to discover and construct science concepts; and, after the concept is labelled

and developed, activities should allow for application of the concept to the real

lives of students. Provisions also need to be included for inquiry activities in

which students manipulate one variable while holding others constant and

establish experimental and control groups.

o Children at all developmental levels benefit from science experiences.

Appropriate hands-on experiences must be provided for children with special

needs who are unable to participate in classroom activities.

Specifically, practicals in science instruction enhance performance in the following

domains (see Figure 5.8):

o process skills: observing, measuring, manipulating physical objects

o analytical skills: reasoning, deduction, critical thinking

o communication skills: organizing information, writing

o conceptualisation of scientific phenomena.

Figure 5.8 Practicals enhances performance

in observing, measuring, manipulating

objects and communication


24

o A minimum of 60 percent of the science instruction time should be devoted to

hands-on activities, the type of activities where children are manipulating,

observing, exploring, and thinking about science using concrete materials.

Reading about science, computer programs, and teacher demonstrations are

valuable, but should not be substituted for hands-on experiences.

o Evaluation and assessment of student performance must reflect hands-on

experience. The full range of student experience in science should be

measured by the testing program.

Secondary School Level

o All secondary school science courses must offer laboratory experiences for all

students.

o A minimum of 40 percent of the science instruction time should be spent on

laboratory-related activities. This time includes pre-lab instruction in concepts

relevant to the laboratory, hands-on activities by the students, and a post-lab

period involving communication and analysis. Computer simulations and

teacher demonstrations are valuable but should not be substitutions for

laboratory activities.

o Evaluation and assessment of student performance must reflect the laboratory

experience. The full range of student experience in science should be

measured by the testing program.

PROPOSED MARKING CRITERIA FOR SCIENCE PRACTICALS

Stannard (1982), having reviewed a number of evaluation techniques across science

subjects proposed that laboratory work should be assessed on FOUR main criteria:

Planning & Design, Experimental Execution, Interpretation & Explanation and

Observation of Changes (Stannard. 1982).

1. Planning and Design 4 – Presents a plan for a properly controlled experiment and discusses

it critically.

3 – Presents a plan which needs modification. Understands overall

approach to the problem but some omissions in a critical

discussion.

2 – Presents a plan which is satisfactory but needs further detail.

Shows little critical insight into the problem.

5.7 ACTIVITY

a) The National Science Teachers Association of America

proposes that 60% of science instruction time primary

school and 40% of science instruction time in secondary

should be devoted to practicals. Do you agree? Why?

b) Is this widely implemented in your institution?


25

1 – Presents a poor plan and shows little evidence of insight into how

to translate the problem into action.

2. Experimental Execution

4 – Demonstrates a consistent ability

to carry out the experiment work

and takes account of the precision

of the apparatus.

3 – Demonstrates a consistent ability

to carry out the experiment but is

limited in a number of psychomotor skills.

2 – Sets up the apparatus consistently but often needs advice to

complete the investigation.

1 – Careless in handling apparatus. Often fails to follow instructions.

Consistently needs advice.

3. Observation of Changes 4 – Correct observations specified, unexpected results recorded, errors

are identified and explained.

3 – Presentation of data consistent with experimental conditions, but

little attention to errors.

2 – Observations lacking in fine detail. Some consistency in

presentation of data, but generally consistent with experimental

data. Some measurements outside the range of the instrument

accepted.

1 – Poor presentation. Help needed in measuring. Poor discrimination

ability in observing. No concept of error range.

4. Interpretation and Explanation 4 – Demonstrates a definite analytical approach, calculates results

accurately, relates investigation to problem stated.

3 – Presents an adequate analysis, calculates correctly, but liable to

minor errors.

2 – Makes tentative judgments about problems stated and the

investigation. With assistance under data into acceptable results.

1 – Demonstrates little understanding of the relevant data and proceeds

with difficulty in carrying out the calculations.


26

SUMMARY

A project is an activity in which time constraints has been largely removed and

can be undertaken individually or by a group, and usually involves a significant

element of work being done at home or out of school

The Research-Based Project is more theoretical in nature and may consist of

putting a question, formulating a problem or setting up some hypotheses

The Product-Based Project would be the production of a concrete object, a

service, a dance performance, a film, an exhibition, play, a computer programme

and so forth.

Project work is a learning experience which enables the development of certain

knowledge, skills and attitudes which prepares students for lifelong learning and

the challenges ahead: knowledge application, collaboration, communication and

independent learning.

An effective project should contain the following elements: situation or problem,

project description and purpose, performance specifications, rules, roles of

member and assessment.

The Six As of a project: academic rigour, applied learning, authenticity, active

exploration, adult relationships and assessment practices.

Working in groups has become an accepted part of learning as a consequence of

widely recognised benefits of collaborative group work for student learning.

Allocating marks in a project work: shared group marks, shared-out marks,

individual mark, individual mark (examination) and combination of group average

and individual mark.

Self-assessment is a process by which students learn about themselves; for

example, what they have learned about the project, how they have learned and

how they reacted in certain situations when carrying out the project.

5.8 ACTIVITY

a) Do you agree with the marking scheme suggestd by

Stannard (198) for assessing science practical work.

b) Discuss the reliability of assessing science practicals?

c) How would you ensure that your assessment of science

practicals is reliable?


27

Practical assessment is essentially concerned with presentation of problems and

with the provision of opportunities for students to suggest and to justify solutions

to these problems.

The abilities and skills assessed in practical involve the student being able to plan,

implement, analyse and evaluate.

The laboratory provides an optimal setting for motivating students while they

experience what science is.

The spirit of science is assimilated by students who participate in meaningful

laboratory activities.

REFERENCES:

Bonthron, S., & Gordon, R. (Eds.). (1999). Service-learning and assessment:

A field guide for teachers. Montpelier, VT: Vermont Department of

Education, National Service-Learning and Assessment Study Group.

Bottoms, G., & Webb, L.D. (1998). Connecting the curriculum to ―real life.‖

Breaking Ranks: Making it happen. Reston, VA: National Association of

Secondary School Principals.

Bryson, E. (1994). Will a project approach to learning provide children

opportunities to do purposeful reading and writing, as well as provide

opportunities for authentic learning in other curriculum areas? Unpublished

manuscript. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED392513)

Chard, S. C. (1992). The Project Approach: A Practical Guide for Teachers.

Edmonton, Alberta: University of Alberta Printing Services]

Harwell, S., & Blank, W. (1997). Connecting high school with the real

world. ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED407586]

Herman, J., Aschbacher, P., & Winters, L. (1992). A practical guide to

alternative assessment. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and

KEY TERMS

Projects Six As of a project Practicals

Product-based project Group work - planning

Research-based project Marks allocation - implementation

Project ideas - shared group mark - analysis

Project design - shared out marks - evaluation


28

Curriculum Develop-ment. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.

ED352389)

Katz, L. (1994). The project approach [ERIC digest]. Urbana, IL: ERIC

Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education. (ERIC

Document Reproduction Service No. ED368509)

Katz, L.G., & Chard, S.C. (1998). Issues in selecting topics for projects [ERIC

digest]. Champaign, IL: ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early

Childhood Education.

Rankin, B. (1993). Curriculum development in Reggio Emilia: A long-term

curriculum project about dinosaurs. In C.P. Edwards, L. Gandini, & G.E.

Forman (Eds.), Hundred languages of children: The Reggio Emilia approach

to early childhood education (pp. 189–211). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.

Sutherland, M. (2003). Checklist for evaluating processes in project work. East Side

Union High School District, San Jose, California.

Steinberg, A. (1998). Real learning, real work: School-to-work as high school

reform. New York, NY: Routledge.

Stannard, P. (1982). Evaluating Laboratory Performance, The Queensland

Science Teacher, November Issue.

The Australian Science Teachers Association (1980). Bulletin for Science

Teaching. 24. August Issue. Canberra.

The National Science Teachers Association of America, (1990). Standards for

the Teaching of Science. Washington DC.

Thomas, J.W. (1998). Project based learning overview. Novato, CA: Buck

Institute for Education.

Winchester-Seeto, T. (April, 2002). Assessment of collaborative work –

collaboration versus assessment. Invited paper presented at the Annual

Uniserve Science Symposium, The University of Sydney

chapter_5

Documents

form of project work

practicals chapter

work process

group work

assessment of practical

work of psychologists

portfolios chapter

reporting chapter