CHAPTER FIVE

PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SOCIAL ASPECTS OF MARITAL DISHARMONY

The earlier chapters dealt with the psycho-analytical

and pscyho-social aspects of marital disharmony as

presented in Bellow's novels and demonstrated that there

evolves in them a pattern which has cultural,

environmental, economic and psychological implications.

It was shown that certain aspects of parental influences

lead to male and female characters exhibiting psycho-

neurotic and psychotic disorders in adulthood. Rupture of

interpersonal relationships leads to maladjustments which

in turn set off conflicts. The analysis of individual

novels in chapters three and four traced the conflict-

prone areas in marital life--male occupation and family;

women, family and work; marital mobility and masculine

protest and superiority ego. Conflict between couples, we

have seen, results in defense-oriented reactions like

escape mechanisms, rationalization, persistent behaviour

and reaction-formation which help remove or create

anxiety. Anxiety undepleted would cause aggression which

could be symptomatic of some fixation, regression or

mother-complex. In extreme cases, male violence like

wife-battering can be noted in some of the novels. Jung's

theory of anima-animus can be mentioned here as a version

of the androgynous traits suggested in the previous

chapters since most of the marital discords erupt where

there is a conflict of motives between the anima and the

animus.

The socio-cultural moorings of the male and female

are of utmost importance as the early formative years go a

long way in shaping their total personality. Power-

assertive methods employed by over-zealous parents very

often induce hostility and aygression in children who

experience continual difficulties in their social

relations with both children and adults at later

developmental stages as in The Adventures of Auqie March

and Seize the Day. Augie March attempts to prove how

rejection and broken homes in the form of

divorce, separation, desertion, death of a parent

or denial of advantages or privileges,

punishment, threats and humiliations, poor socio-

economic conditions and pressures also affect the

behaviour and social adjustment of the child. 1

Overprotective and clinging mothers, too, can do harm to a

growing child preventing him from assuming a mature,

responsible and self-confident social role. Barlinye

studied the influence of mother's personality on child's

personality and concluded that actual child-rearing

practices follovred by mothers were more important than

the personality traits possessed by them.* This is ~ u i t e

true of Tommy Wilhelm, the protagonist in Seize the Day

who becomes a total misfit in adulthood.

In Henderson the Rain Kinq a hostile father has an

aggressive, hostile offspring who in turn begets a

problematic daughter. Henderson's daughter by his first

marriage, Ricey comes home one day with a foundling.

Stiff opposition makes her run away with the child. She

goes to her school and "claims to be the mother" (35). It

is interesting to note here a research finding on this

kind of behaviour:

Institutionalized babies . . . suffer from what

University of Massachusetts educator Dr Sidney B.

Simon calls 'skin hunger.' There are [also] all

those people who live in cold, distant families,

who suffer from the same kind of emotional

starvation. 3

By her action Ricey tries to draw attention to her

neglected self. That Ricey would have to leave the

institution as she had already been on probation for quite

a while shows that marital instability and lack of genuine

love at home had turned her into a problem child.

Bellow shows how early childhood is of vital

importance in one's personality build-up. Serious

set-backs at this stage can cause lasting damage like

psycho-neuroses and psychotic disorders. Feelings of

inferiority and inadequacy are symptomatic of psycho-

neuroses. In Dangling Man and Henderson the Rain Kinq,

the heroes Joseph and Henderson display a sense of

inferiority and inadequacy, the former because of

unemployment and the latter owing to his inability to

satisfy the demands of his inner soul. Instances of

severe personality disorganisation with frequent

delusions, hallucinations and disorientation of time,

place or person can be discerned in the behaviour of

Herzog who is a typical example of a person suffering from

psychosis. His hallucinations and delusions are very

often scrawled in tiny bits of papers in the form of

letters to eminent people.

Meaningful interpersonal relationships (MIRs), which

include within their ambit not only the formative

influences on a person but also other remarkable

influences, are of vital importance in the development of

the personality. Divorce and family quarrels may

radically change the MIRs between members of a family

as in Dangling Man, Seize the Day, The Adventures of

Augie March, The Victim, Henderson the Rain Kinq,

Herzoq, Mr Sammler's Planet, and Humboldt's Gift.

In Seize the Day, for instance, Tommy Wilhelm's failure to

develop a secure and healthy MIR with his mother in

infancy and early childhood prevents him from developing a

positive MIR attitude to his father, Dr Adler.

This leads to the theme of adfustment in marital

life. Adjustment in terms of mental health criteria

depends to a great extent on how a person interacts with

his environment, his social environment in particular, in

satisfying his needs and in meeting the demands placed

upon him. The Dictionary of Modern Society defines

marital adjustment as

changes in the marital partners' attitudes and

behaviours such that the partners may mutually

fulfill their marriaye expectations and hopes,

sometimes operationally defined as a complex of

factors believed to be associated with the

happiness or success of given marriages. 4

Le Masters says that "marital adjustment can be

conceptualized as the capacity for adjustment or

adaptation, as ability to solve problems rather than

absence of problems. "5 Lack of marital adjustment can be

discerned in Dangling Man, The Victim, Seize the Day, - The

Adventures of Auyie March, Herzoq, Henderson the Rain

Kinq, Mr Sammler's Planet, Humboldt's Gift, More Die of

Heartbreak and A Theft. Maladjustments often lead to cold

relationships, brief separations and in extreme cases even

divorces.

Bellow's novels show how maladjustments can cause

conflicts which set off a chain of reactions. Conflicts

occur when couples have incompatible goals and when one

person's pursuit of his or her goals is contrary to the

other's. According to psychologist Betsy Stone, "when

intimacy in a marriage is an impossibility--when talking

about one's fears, needs, desires, sexual requests, etc.

to the partner is out of the question--the unheard person

begins feeling powerless, resigned, alienated. "6 Baucom,

Epstein, Sayers, and Sher describe five types of

cognitions that can influence marital conflict and

distress. These are selective attention, attributions,

expectancies, assumptions and standards. In Danqlinq

Man, Joseph who is groomed in patriarchal traditions, - finds fault with Iva's ways. He engages in "negative

tracking" which produces distress and discord in the

relationship. In Henderson the Rain Kinq and Herzog, the

couple's causal attributions (regarding who caused a

problem, and how stable and global the cause is) focus on

partner traits as the source of the problems. It is

presumed that individuals who have low expectations in

solving relationship problems would engaye in fewer

problem solving behaviours and exhibit more learned

helplessness responses than those with high efficacy

expectations. More Die of Heartbreak is a classic example

of discrepant expectations. Benn Crader's dreams of a

quiet home with a warm and loving wife remains unfulfilled

while Matilda is quite content as an idle, pampered girl

who has lately been raised socially by her marriage. This

leads to the theme of sexual incompatibility as one of the

reasons for marital discord. In her book Disorders of

Sexual Desire Dr Kaplan lists the following as some of the

common underlying reasons for ISD (inhibited sexual

desire) :

fear of success, pleasure and love; intense

performance fears, fears of rejection, neurotic

power struggle based on infantile transference

toward the partner; anger, mistrust and envy of

the partner; fears of intimacy; deep sexual

conflicts that have their roots in the patient's

early development; and anger caused by poor

communication between the couple. 8

Matilda is described by her father Dr Layamon in More Die

of Heartbreak as "demanding, moody, contrary, tetchy, a

complainer and a schemer" ( 7 3 ) . Her lack of love and

sexual understanding can be attributed to the fact that

there is no "body-clock compatibility." According to

sociologists, "some of us are 'morning people,' some of us

are 'night people' . . . ; some out-of-phase couples have

less serious conversation, fewer shared activities. less

sex, poorer marital adjustment, and more unmanaged

conflict. "' Hence "sexuality is understood to be an

essential component of marriages. "I0 The strongest

statement on this subject comes from Whitaker and Keith:

Passion and sexuality are the voltage in a family

system. Matilda in More Die of Heartbreak is a typical

example of sexual dysfunction as she succumbs to sexual

frigidity and emotive indifference in her relationship

with Benn.

Psychology distinguishes seven sequential stages in

marital conflicts. According to Andrew Christensen and

Lauri Pasch, l2 the first stage is conflict of interest

between the spouses. The second is stressful

circumstances during which the couple get tired,

irritated, and depleted from the stressful demands. The

third feature is a precipitatinq incident when some

provocative incident or behaviour by one or other starts

off an overt conflict. In the fourth phase, the couple

either avoid or enqage in discussion of the issue.

Conflict which is so far in the simmering stage now

becomes more pronounced with the fifth phase which is

interactional scenario when negative behaviour like - accusations and insults are hurled at. At some stage, the

conflictual topic is let to rest, which marks the sixth

phase namely immediate outcome. The aftermath of a

conflict is studied distance from each other which can

bring forth new conflicts or reignite the old one. A

process of reconciliation takes place which is the seventh

stage leading to a return to normal. A close perusal of

Bellow's novels would show us that almost all Bellovian

couples undergo this process very often driving one or

both to seek extra-marital relationships or plain divorce.

Conflicts also arise where there is inconsistency or

contradiction in attitudes or expectations. In most of

Bellow's middle class family novels, men are overtly

concerned about their occupation, very often at the

expense of a healthy marital or family life. In their

studies of male development, psychologist Daniel J.

Levinson and his colleagues at Yale University point to

the way "men choose an occupational path partly to

prove and validate themselves as men, partly to

define their dreams for the future, partly to support a

wife and children, and also . . . for a variety of

reasons. . . . , , 1 3 In The Adventures of Auqie March,

occupational success as well as failure has its

repercussions in Simon's life. At the same time, women in

most of the novels are not so ready to accept their

subordination in the home, especially in the changed life-

style where more and more women are forced to work

outside the home as well as look after children.

Ivy Baker Priest remarks:

Any woman who has a career and a family

automatically develops something in the way of

two personalities, like two sides of a dollar

bill, each different in design . . . . Her

problem is to keep one from draining the life

from the other. She can achieve happiness only

as long as, she keeps the two in balance. 14

Employment of the wife, as Ross J. Eshleman points out, is

certain to bring about changes in the husband-wife

relationship. Changes in the role of companion,

housewife, entertainer, lover and the like are certain to

require readjustments on the part of both spouses. 15

There are, therefore, increasing demands upon men to share

in the housework. This creates new tensions and conflicts

as men, well-qrounded in traditional patriarchal

practices, are in no mood to redefine their identity as

men. They feel threatened by this new independence of

women like Madeleine and Clara Velde and feel the need to

reassert their own power and show 'whols boss.' According

to Adler, both men and women indulge in "masculine

protest, " a form of over-compensation when they feel

inadequate or insecure. l6 The final goal of a11 humans is

superiority or "the great upward drive" which irrespective

of gender differences is the prime motivator in both male

and female. "All our functions follow its direction.

They strive for conquest, security, increase either in the

right or in the wrong direction. The impetus from minus

to plus never ends. The urge from below to above never

ceases. ,,I I This is quite a plausible reason for Bellow's

focus on career-aspirant women characters. This also

leads to a very pertinent theme: the marital and social

mobility of couples and related conflicts. Earlier, the

social class of women was determined by the occupational

class of their fathers before marriage and by their

husbands after it. Therefore, studies on "marital

mobility" focused on the wife's class mobility through

marriage but not on that of the husband. Later on, it was

suggested that a man's social class might or might not be

enhanced through marriage as it does or does not prove by

his occupational attainment. Hence to understand the

social mobility of men as well as women, it is important

to consider their home circumstances, including their

domestic responsibilities and their choice of spouse. 18

While the pattern of occupational class mobility among

women was studied for the first time by Martin and Roberts

in 1984 and Dex in 1985, the pattern of marital mobility

among men was examined for the first time by McRae in

1986. l9 McRae's classification "Occupationally-Upwardly

Mobile Wife" 20 can be applied to Iva in Dangling Man,

Madeleine in Herzoq and ~ l a r a Velde in A Theft as each

represents an educationally or work-route mobile working-

class wife. The term "Occupationally-Downwardly Mobile

Husband" can be applied to the jobless Joseph in Danylin3

!=, the social misfit Tommy Wilhelm in Seize the Day, the

degenerated professor Herzoy in Herzog, the emaciated

artist Humboldt Fleisher in Humboldt's Gift and the

inertia-infected Wilder Velde in A Theft. There is social

mobility with a class-wise upward trend in the females in

the post-marriage phase in some of Bellow's novels.

Madeleine in Herzoq, Lily in Henderson the Rain Kinq,

Kathleen in Humboldt's Gift and Matilda in More Die of

Heartbreak all assume higher social status as a result of

their marriages. Bellow seems to project a balanced

social mobility only in the case of Dean Corde and his

wife Minna who are well-placed both occupationally and

socially. A restoration of lost social status can be

noticed in The Victim where Asa Leventhal and Mary call

off their separation and come together, and Margotte in

Mr Sammler's Planet retrieves her lost social prestige by

her second marriage to the Indian scieritist, Dr Lal.

Kirby Allbee in The Victim, Amos in Danqlinq Man, and

Simon in The Adventures of Augie March are examples of

socially upwardly mobile trend as a result of their

~narriage to rich women.

Cultural, economic and environmental factors can

trigger off a series of reactions in both the male and the

1-emale. Reactions like escape-mechanism, rationalization,

displacement, projection, emotional insulation,

sympathism, anxiety, persistent behaviour, aggression,

reaction-formation, fixations or regressions like mother

complex, male violence and wife-battering all stem from

psycho-social factors. In Herzog, Bellow makes the

protagonist scribble notes incessantly as a form of escape

mechanism or as a refusal to acknowledge that an

intolerable condition exists, while Henderson in Henderson

the Rain King takes to "regression" when all on a sudden

to escape responsibility for Miss Lennox's sudden death he

goes on an African tour. "Rationalization" is, perhaps,

the most common of the mechanisms employed to disguise

motives. It consists of giving plausible reasons to cover

mistakes, failures or disapproved behaviour. Most of

Bellow's male and female characters like Joseph, Asa

Leventhal, Allbee, Tommy Wilhelm, Adler, Henderson, Lily,

Herzog, Madeleine, Shula, Angela Gruner, Humboldt, Charlie

Citrine, Dean Corde, Benn Crader, Kenneth Trachtenberg and

Clara Velde resort to rationalization of their actions.

Instances of "displacement," which is directing hostility

or other feelings toward substitute objects or persons,

can be traced in Henderson the Rain King, Herzog,

Hurnboldt's Gift, Mr Sammler's Planet, and A Theft. While - Herzog takes to "projection," which is imputing one's

unacknowledged faults or unacceptable motives to others,

Benn Crader in More Die of Heartbreak is a typical example

of "emotional insulation" as he withdraws into passivity

to protect himself from hurt in his relationship with

Matilda. Tommy CJilhelm exhibits "sympathism" in his

effort to gain sympathy from others, thereby bolstering up

feelings of self-worth despite failures. Symptoms of

"anxiety" can be discerned at one time or another in most

characters in the Bellovian novels but it is more

pronounced in Danglinq Man, Henderson the Rain Kinq,

Herzoq, and Humboldt's Gift, where the characters display

oscillating behaviour, apprehensiveness, uneasiness,

dread, worry and diffuse, non-specific feelings of tension

and pain.

Perhaps the most obvious of all defense-oriented

reactions is aggression. "Aggressiveness is self-

destruction turned outward against substitute objects. ,,20

Although the chief function of aggression is defensive, in

that it relieves stress and anxiety by permitting release

of emotions as in Dangling Man where Joseph thrashes his

niece for calling him names, occasionally aggression does

satisfy an original motive and is adopted by the person as

a task-oriented problem-solving behaviour. This can be

seen in The Victim and Humboldt's Gift. Asa Leventhal

takes to aggressive measures to oust Allbee and a call-

girl from his apartment and Humboldt Fleisher adopts

coercion or aggression to pinch money out of Charlie

Citrine. Sometimes a character adopts "reaction

formation" which involves the replacement in consciousness

of an anxiety producing impulse or feeling by its

opposite. Usually a "reaction-formation" is marked by

extreme forms of behaviour like extravagant showiness and

compulsiveness. In Henderson the Rain King, the

protagonist play-acts the role of a do-gooder and

benefactor in the wilds of Africa as a penance for his

misconduct back at home. Sometimes landmark events of the

past can trigger off reactions as in The Adventures of

Auqie March. Augie's miserable failure in his first

sexual encounter with a better experienced woman develops

into a "landmark" or important event in his life. Pioneer

sex researcher William H. Master explains it thus:

There are particular times in people's lives that

are especially significant, but it's weight the

individual gives them.that makes them important.

. . . For example, if the first coital activity

is a disaster--if a man [fails] . . . this

individual will give a great deal of' importance

LI to this landmark. . . .

Later on, Augie almost turns maniacal in this aspect

probably to prove himself otherwise in his relationships

with other women characters.

In Bellow's novels, there are many instances of male

characters who are guided by mother-fixation. In Herzog

Bellow employs the Freudian theory of Oedipal complex or

mother-fixation and Electra complex. While Herzog is

dominated by the mother-figure, the father-figure

is ruthlessly despised by his wife, Madeleine.

L. H. Goldman, who goes into the psychological inner-

workings of Madeleine, has this to say:

Madeleine who feels rejected as a daughter . . . rejects all forms of the patriarchal

structure. . . . Madeleine is not a normal woman. Herzog is a father-figure to her, and she hates

her father. Consequently, she almost destroys

Herzog. 2 2

If there is a negation of Electra-complex in Madeleine, it

is quite interesting to observe that almost all male

protagonists are influenced by the Oedipal complex.

Joseph McCadden argues:

The most life-affirming female figure to the

Bellow hero is his mother, who is remembered

fondly for her generous love . . . and he looks

for similar acknowledgement of his importance in

other relationships with women. 23

Bellow's male sometimes seems to nurture an archetypal

image of the mother of which Jung elaborates in his theory

of "mother complex." Jung remarks:

Someone whose personality is dominated by the

mother is said to have a strong mother complex.

Their thoughts, feelings, and actions will be

guided by the conception of the mother, what she

says and what she feels will mean a great deal to

the person, and her image will be uppermost in

his mind. 2 4

One of the reasons for marital disharmony in the Bellovian

novels is the male-characters' attempt to judge their

wives in the light of their mother images.

Psycho-sociologists ascribe different reasons for

male violence in marital life. Inferiority complex, lack

of self-confidence, personality disorders, wrong

interpersonal relationships, poor coping skill and low

problem solving skill are some of the reasons for male

violence. Apart from this, violence is resorted to

deliberately to prove one's manliness. Anne-Marie Fearon

strongly believes that

all human beings, even male ones, are born

sensitive, loving, intelligent, open and

r e . . . . They don't stay that way for long

and . . . males in particular tend to grow up

arrogant, insensitive, alienated and, above all,

violent. 2 5

Very often, men resort to violence to remove feelings of

vulnerability and need which are made out as signs of

weakness. "Masculinity is . . . always something you have to be ready to defend and prove. "26 Male violence can

also be a sign of impotence and frustration. Scorsese's

Raging Bull, for instance, shows how male violence works - in the Jake and Vikki relationship. The restrictions that

the former places upon the latter's freedom and the

intensity of his jealousy whenever she makes contact with

other men are similar to Humboldt's paranoiac treatment of

his wife, Kathleen. Godard in his film Number - 2 also

brings out quite graphically the contradictions and

tensions produced in men at work. 2 7 Their anger and

resentment very often spill over in the family

environment. Therefore issues of physical and sexual

violence and abuse cannot be exclusively considered to be

issues of communication within the family unless they are

also connected to issues of masculinity as these emerge

out of central tensions within the culture and society.

There is male violence in N i n g Man, The Adventures of

Auqie March, Henderson the Rain Kinq and Her202 while in

extreme cases, instances of wife-battering are noted in

the Shula-Eisen relationship in Mr Sammler's Planet and in

the Humboldt-Kathleen tie in Humboldt's Gift.

Traditional patriarchal values promoted spouse-

battering claiming it to be one of the masculine rights.

"Wife batterers are often found to have poor communication

skills, report higher levels of hostility, and have less

control over expression of anger. " 2 8 Eisen's behaviour in

Mr Sammler's Planet proves true the fact that batterers

qenerally indicate a greater degree of deviance, showing

anti-social, narcissistic, asocial, and passive aggressive

characteristics.

It must, therefore, be surmised that all these

psycho-social reactions in man-woman relationship emanate

from a lack of androgynous qualities which represent a

combination of expressive and instrumental traits in the

male and the female. Jung's perception of "anima" and

"animus" is also similar in thought. He ascribes the

feminine side of man's personality and the masculine side

ctf woman's personality to archetypes. The feminine

archetype in man is called the anima, the masculine

archetype in woman is called the -- animus. By living with

woman throughout the ages, man has become feminized; by

living with man, woman has become masculinized to some

extent. Man apprehends the nature of woman by virtue of

his anima while woman understands the nature of man by

virtue of her animus. 2 9

Jung makes it a point to emphasize that the same

anima and animus can lead to misunderstanding and discord

if a man attempts to ident.ify his idealized image of woman

with an actual woman and does not regard the discrepancies

between the ideal and the real. This is also the message

in Bellow's novels. Adaptability and flexibility in

marriage can teach couples how to make a compromise

between the ideal and the real. This, in effect, is what

happens at the end of almost all Bellovian novels.

Bellow seems to be quite abreast of all the different

schools of psychological thought ranging from those

enunciated by Sigmund Freud to those by Carl Gustav Jung,

Alfred Adler, Eric Erikson, William Reich, Rudolf Steiner,

Heinz Hartmann and the more recent humanists like Carl

Rogers and Abraham Maslow. For instance, the optimistic

note expressed by the reformed protagonists at the end of

every Bellovian novel seems to reflect the more recent

humanistic theory which

emphasizes people's basic goodness and their

tendency to grow to higher levels of functioning.

It is this conscious, self-motivated ability to

change and improve, along with people's unique

creative impulse, that makes up the core of

personality. 3 0

Like Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow and other humanist

theorists, Bellow also believes that "there is a need for

positive regard which reflects a universal requirement to

be loved and respected. 31 Like them, he believes in the

inherent goodness of man and suggests that "people are

naturally inclined to develop toward higher levels of

functioning and that, if given the opportunity, they will

strive to reach their full potential. "32 Carl Rogers'

ideal self which is similar to Freud's ego-ideal is the -- - representation of what one would like to be. The closer

the ideal self is to the real self, the more fulfilled and

happy the individual would be, leading to self-

actualization or self-fulfilment. 3 3 For Bellow too, an

approximation between the ideal self and the real self in

marital life is necessary for the achievement of

androgyny. In the ultimate analysis, Bellow subscribes to

the view that religion and spirituality are also essential

to uphold the sanctity of matrimony.

NOTES

Kundu 88.

2 Barlinge, quoted in Kundu 85-87.

Sidney B. Simon, quoted in Olds 36.

T. F. Hoult, The Dictionary of Modern Society

(Totowa, N. J.: Littlefield, Adams, 1969) 192.

E. E. Le Masters, Modern Courtship and Marriage

(New York: Macmillan, 1957 (b) ) 229.

Betsy Stone, quoted in Strong and De Vault 225.

Baucom, et al., quoted in "Treatment of Marital

Conflict: A Cognitive-Behavioral Approach," Norman

Epstein, Donald H. Baucom and Lynn A. Rankin in Clinical

Psycholoqy Review 13 (1993): 46. See also "Longitudinal

Study of Marital Interaction and Dysfunction: Review and

Analysis," by Thomas N. Bradbury and Benjamin R. Karney

in the same issue of Clinical Psychology Review. This

aa-ticle reviews longitudinal research on marital conflict

and concludes that, while there is some evidence to show

that behaviour exhibited during conflict (e-g., wives'

resignation, sadness or sulking) foreshadows marital

deterioration, many important issues must be addressed

before the longitudinal association between conflict and

marital satisfaction is well understood.

* Kaplan, quoted in Olds 200.

Cromwell, et al., 1976 and Adams & Cromwell, 1978,

quoted in Knox 237.

lo Framo, 1981, Hinchcliffe, et al., 1978 and

Skynner, 1976, quoted in Morgan 46.

C. A. Whitaker and D. V. Keith, "Symbolic-

experiential Family Therapy," Handbook of Family Therapy,

eds. A. S. Gurman and 0. P. Kniskern (New York, Brunner/

Plazel, 1981) 192.

Andrew Christensen and Lauri Pasch, "The Sequence

of Marital Conflict: An Analysis of Seven Phases of

Marital Conflict in Distressed and Non-distressed

('ouples," Clinical Psychology Review 13 (19931: 3.

l3 Daniel J. Levinson, quoted in Olds 110.

l4 Ivy Baker Priest, quoted in Knox 295.

l5 Eshleman 134.

l6 Adler cited in Theories of Personality by Calvin

S. Hall and Gardner Lindzey, 3rd ed. (New Delhi: Wiley

Eastern Ltd., 1989) 161.

l7 Alfred Adler, "Individual Psychology, " Psycho-

loqies of 1930, ed. C. Murchison (Worcester, Mass: Clark

UP, 1930) 398.

Gill Jones, "Marriage Partners and their Class

Trajectories," The Social Mobility of Women: Beyond Male

Mobility Models, eds. Geoff Payne and Pamela Abbott

(London: The Falmer P, 1990) 102.

l9 Jones 113.

LU Hall and Lindzey 43.

21 William H. Masters, quoted in Olds 24.

L L Goldman 138.

23 McCadden 7.

2 4 Hall and Lindzey 118.

25 Anne-Marie Fearon, quoted in Victor J. Seidler,

Recreating Sexual Politics: Men, Feminism, Politics

(London: Routledge, 1991) 131.

26 Seidler 132.

27 Seidler 43.

28 Stephen IT. Dinyiddie, "Psychiatric Disorders Among

Wife Batterers," Comprehensive Psychiatry 33.6 (Nov./Dec.

1992): 411. See Gayla Margolin's and Bonnie Burman's

feminist, social-learning, and family therapy approach to

wife abuse in their article "Wife Abuse Versus Marital

Violence: Different Terminologies, Explanations, and

Solutions," Clinical Psycholoqy Review 13 (1993): 59-73.

The purpose is to promote awareness of the problem of wife

battering which could be owing to the societal norms that

legitimize family violence and permit wife abuse, or the

interpersonal relationships that serve as the context for

the violence.

29 Jung, quoted in Hall and Lindzey 123.

30 Robert S. Feldman, Understandinq Psycholo% (New

York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1987) 417.

31 Feldrnan 417-18.

32 Feldman 418.

33 Ernest R. Hilgard, Rita Atkinson and Richard

Atkinson, Introduction to Psycholoqy 7th ed. (New York:

Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc., 1953) 394.