chapter i,ii,iii

8/8/2019 Chapter i,II,III

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Southern Luzon State UniversityCollege of Allied Medicine

Lucban, Quezon

CASE STUDYMYOCARDIAL INFARCTION

Presented to:

Mrs. Lorna Quevedo

COAM- Clinical Instructor

PRESENTED BY:

Cuevas, Deanne M.

Group 5

BSN IV-B

2010


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CHAPTER I

A. OBJECTIVES

A.1 GENERAL OBJECTIVES

After providing care to the client and conducting a careful and thorough study

of the clients condition, the student will be able to gain knowledge, develop skills

and enhance attitude in rendering quality nursing care in actual situation to the

patient with diagnosis of MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION.

A.2 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

1. Define what Myocardial Infarction is.

2. Enumerate the clinical manifestations shown by the client.

3. Trace the pathophysiology of the disease condition.

4. Establish a therapeutic nurse-patient relationship.

5. Determine the clients status through:

a. General and Demographic datab. Present History of the Illness

c. Family Health History

d. Personal and Social History

e. Physical Assessment

6. Analyze laboratory results and correlate it with the clients present condition and

manifestations.

7. Familiarize self with the diagnostic procedures done to the patient in determining

the present illness.

8. Identify and understand the importance of pharmacological interventions to the

patients present condition.

9. Render quality nursing care through implementation of nursing care plan.

10. Evaluate the effectiveness of the nursing care plan and medical management.


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B. INTRODUCTION

The world today is far different from what our ancestors were used to. Today,

several innovations and technology emerges creating a new and modern culture far

beyond what we know before. This change is accompanied by changes in lifestyle and

living of people thus, making us more susceptible to illness brought by our lifestyle. One

of these diseases is Myocardial Infarction.

Myocardial infarction is a major cause of death and disability worldwide. Coronary

atherosclerosis is a chronic disease withstable and unstable periods. During unstable

periods with activated inflammation in the vascular wall, patients may develop a

myocardial infarction. Myocardial infarction may be a minor event in a lifelong chronic

disease, it may even go undetected, but it may also be a major catastrophic event

leading to sudden deathor severe hemodynamic deterioration.

A myocardial infarctionmay be the first manifestation of coronary artery disease,

or it may occur, repeatedly, in patients with established disease. Information on

myocardial infarction attack rates can provide useful data regarding the burden of

coronary artery disease within and across populations, especially if standardized data

are collected in a manner that demonstrates the distinction

between incident andrecurrent events. From the epidemiological point of view, the incidence of myocardial

infarction in a populationcan be used as a proxy for the prevalence of coronary artery

disease in that population.

Furthermore, the term myocardial infarction has major psychological and legal

implications forthe individual and society. It is an indicator of one of the leading health

problems in the world, and it is an outcome measure in clinical trials and observational

studies. With these perspectives,myocardial infarction may be defined from a number of

different clinical, electrocardiographic, biochemical, imaging, and pathological

characteristics.


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CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE

The term "myocardial infarction" focuses on the heart muscle, which is called the

myocardium, and the changes that occur in it due to the sudden deprivation of

circulating blood. This is usually caused by arteriosclerosis with narrowing of the

coronary arteries, the culminating event being a thrombosis (clot). The main change is

death (necrosis) of myocardial tissue.

The word "infarction" comes from the Latin "infarcire" meaning "to plug up or

cram." It refers to the clogging of the artery, which is frequently initiated by cholesterol

piling up on the inner wall of the blood vessels that distribute blood to the heart muscle.

Myocardial infarction reflects cell death of cardiacmyocytes caused by ischemia,

which is the result of a perfusionimbalance between supply and demand. Ischemia in a

clinicalsetting most often can be identified from the patientshistory and from the ECG.

Possible ischemic symptoms include various combinations of chest, upper extremity,

jaw, or epigastric discomfort with exertion or at rest. The discomfort associated with

acute myocardial infarction usually lasts at least 20 min.

Often, the discomfort is diffuse,not localized, not positional, not affected by movement of the region, and it may be

accompaniedby dyspnea, diaphoresis, nausea, or syncope.

These symptoms are not specific to myocardial ischemia and can be

misdiagnosed and thus attributed to gastrointestinal, neurological, pulmonary, or

musculoskeletal disorders. Myocardial infarctionmay occur with atypical symptoms, or

even without symptoms,being detected only by ECG, biomarker elevations, or cardiac

imaging.

The following prevalence estimates are for people age 18 and older from a survey in

2005:

Among whites only, 12.0% have heart disease, 6.6% have CHD, 21.0% have

hypertension and 2.3% have had a stroke.

Among blacks, 10.2% have heart disease, 6.2% have CHD, 31.2% have


Among Hispanics or Latinos, 8.3% have heart disease, 5.9% have CHD, 20.3%

have hypertension and 2.2% have had a stroke.

Among Asians, 6.7% have heart disease, 3.8% have CHD, 19.4% have

http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=2336http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=7250http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=25023http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=4514http://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Heart_diseasehttp://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Heart_diseasehttp://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/CHDhttp://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Hypertensionhttp://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Strokehttp://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Heart_diseasehttp://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/CHDhttp://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Hypertensionhttp://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Strokehttp://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Heart_diseasehttp://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/CHDhttp://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Hypertensionhttp://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Strokehttp://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Heart_diseasehttp://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/CHDhttp://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Hypertensionhttp://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Strokehttp://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=2336http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=7250http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=25023http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=4514http://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Heart_diseasehttp://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/CHDhttp://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Hypertensionhttp://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Strokehttp://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Heart_diseasehttp://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/CHDhttp://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Hypertensionhttp://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Strokehttp://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Heart_diseasehttp://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/CHDhttp://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Hypertensionhttp://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Strokehttp://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Heart_diseasehttp://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/CHDhttp://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Hypertensionhttp://www.wikidoc.org/index.php/Stroke


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Among Native Hawaiians or other Pacific Islanders, 22.4% have hypertension

(other prevalence estimates considered unreliable).

Epidemiology and Demographics of ST Elevation MI

Myocardial infarction is a common presentation of ischemic heart disease. The

World Heart Organization (WHO) estimated in 2002 that, 12.6 percent of deaths

worldwide were from ischemic heart disease. Ischemic heart disease is the leading

cause of death in developed countries, but third to AIDS and lower respiratory infections

in developing countries. Although it is difficult to ascertain the true incidence of ST

elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI), according to studies, a conservative estimate is

that approximately 500,000 patients suffer STEMI each year. The incidence ofSTEMI

has decreased over time. In an observational study of 5,832 patients spanning from

1975 to 1997, the incidence of STEMI decreased from 171/100,000 to 101/100,000.

Risk Factors for ST Elevation Myocardial Infarction

Important ST elevation myocardial infarction risk factors are a previous history of

vascular disease such as atherosclerotic coronary heart disease and/or angina, a

previous heart attack orstroke, advanced age, smoking, the abuse of certain illicit drugs

such as cocaine, high LDL ("Low-density lipoprotein") and low HDL ("High density

lipoprotein"), diabetes, high blood pressure, obesity and family history ofcoronary artery

disease.

Other risk factors forSTEMI mirror those forcoronary artery disease (CAD) and

include diabetes mellitus, cerebrovascular disease manifested by stroke or transient

ischemic attack, peripheral arterial disease, aortic atherosclerosis and aneurysm, age

(male 45 years old, female 55 years old), family history of premature CAD (MI orsudden death before age 55 in a first-degree male relative or before age 65 in a first-

degree female relative), tobacco abuse, hypertension andhyperlipidemia.

The mortality among patients who suffer STEMI has progressively declined in

recent years. From 1975 to 1997, one observational study reported that the in-hospital

mortality decreased from 24% to 14%. In the Global Registry of Acute Coronary Events

(GRACE), a multinational cohort study that includes 16,814 patients with STEMI were

enrolled and followed up in 113 hospitals in 14 countries between 1999 and 2006, in-

hospital mortality declined from 8.4% in 1999 to 4.6% in 2005.

The reason for this decline in mortality is likely multifactorial and includes, but is

certainly not limited to, decline in symptom onset-to-presentation time, more widespread
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use of primary PCI, improvements in time to reperfusion (door-to-needle and door-to-

balloon times and improved medical therapy, including increases in the use of evidence-

based therapies such as aspirin beta blockers, clopidogrel, statins and angiotension

converting enzyme inhibitors orangiotensin receptor blockers.

Triggers of ST Elevation Myocardial Infarction

A trigger is an activity or environmental condition that produces short-term

physiological changes that may lead directly to onset of STEMI. ST elevation

myocardial infarction triggers include physical exertion, psychological stress, sexual

activity, diurnal (daily) variations in cortisol and platelet aggregation and circannual

(yearly) variations in lipids and infectious etiologies, exposure to pollution and or

particulate matter, cocaine and ingestion of a recent fatty meal.

Frequency

United States

MI is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in the United States.

Approximately 1.3 million cases of nonfatal MI are reported each year, for an annual

incidence rate of approximately 600 cases per 100,000 people. The proportion ofpatients diagnosed with NSTEMI compared with STEMI has progressively increased.

International

Cardiovascular diseases account for 12 million deaths annually worldwide. MI

continues to be a significant problem in industrialized countries and is becoming an

increasingly significant problem in developing countries.

Mortality/Morbidity

Approximately 500,000-700,000 deaths are caused by ischemic heart disease

annually in the United States.

One third of patients who experience STEMI die within 24 hours of the onset of

ischemia, and many of the survivors experience significant morbidity. For many

patients, the first manifestation of coronary artery disease is sudden death likely from

malignant ventricular dysrhythmia.

More than one half of deaths occur in the prehospital setting.

In-hospital fatalities account for 10% of all deaths. An additional 10% of deaths

occur in the first year postinfarction.
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A steady decline has occurred in the mortality rate from STEMI over the last

several decades. This appears to be due to a combination of a fall in the

incidence of MI (replaced in part by an increase in the incidence of unstable

angina) and a reduction in the case-fatality rate once an MI has occurred.

Sex

A male predilection exists in persons aged 40-70 years. Evidence exists that

women more often have MIs without atypical symptoms. The atypical presentation in

women might explain the sometimes delayed diagnosis of MIs in women.

In persons older than 70 years, no sex predilection exists.

Age

MI most frequently occurs in persons older than 45 years. Certain subpopulations

younger than 45 years are at risk, particularly cocaine users, persons with type 1

diabetes mellitus, patients with hypercholesterolemia, and those with a positive family

history for early coronary disease. A positive family history includes any first-degree

male relative aged 45 years or younger or any first-degree female relative aged 55

years or younger who experienced a myocardial infarction. In younger patients, the

diagnosis may be hampered if a high index of suspicion is not maintained.

CLINICAL

History

The history is critical in making the diagnosis of MI and sometimes may provide

the only clues that lead to the diagnosis in the initial phases of the patient presentation.

Chest pain, usually across the anterior pericardium is typically described as

tightness, pressure, or squeezing.

Pain may radiate to the jaw, neck, arms, back, and epigastrium. The left arm is

more frequently affected; however, a patient may experience pain in both arms.

Dyspnea, which may accompany chest pain or occur as an isolated complaint,

indicates poor ventricular compliance in the setting of acute ischemia. Dyspnea

may be the patient's anginal equivalent, and, in an elderly person or a patient

with diabetes, it may be the only complaint.

Nausea, abdominal pain, or both often are present in infarcts involving the

inferior or posterior wall.


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Anxiety

Lightheadedness with or without syncope

Cough

Nausea with or without vomiting

Diaphoresis

Wheezing

Elderly patients and those with diabetes may have particularly subtle

presentations and may complain of fatigue, syncope, or weakness. The elderly

may also present with only altered mental status. Those with preexisting altered

mental status or dementia may have no recollection of recent symptoms and may

have no complaints whatsoever.

As many as half of MIs are clinically silent in that they do not cause the classic

symptoms described above and consequently go unrecognized by the patient. A

high index of suspicion should be maintained for MI especially when evaluating

women, patients with diabetes, older patients, patients with dementia, and those

with a history of heart failure. Patients with a permanent pacemaker in place may

confound recognition of STEMI by 12-lead ECG due to the presence of paced

ventricular contractions.

Physical Examination

The physical examination can often be unremarkable.

Patients with ongoing symptoms usually lie quietly in bed and appear pale and

diaphoretic.

Hypertension may precipitate MI, or it may reflect elevated catecholamine levels

due to anxiety, pain, or exogenous sympathomimetics.

Hypotension may indicate ventricular dysfunction due to ischemia. Hypotension

in the setting of MI usually indicates a large infarct secondary to either decreased

global cardiac contractility or a right ventricular infarct.

Acute valvular dysfunction may be present. Valvular dysfunction usually results

from infarction that involves the papillary muscle. Mitral regurgitation due to

papillary muscle ischemia or necrosis may be present.

Rales may represent congestive heart failure.

Neck vein distention may represent pump failure. With right ventricular failure,

cannon jugular venous a waves may be noted.

Third heart sound (S3) may be present.

A fourth heart sound is a common finding in patients with poor ventricular

compliance that is due to preexisting heart disease or hypertension.


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Dysrhythmias may present as an irregular heartbeat or pulse.

Low-grade fever is not uncommon.

Causes

The most frequent cause of myocardial infarction (MI) is rupture of an

atherosclerotic plaque within a coronary artery with subsequent arterial spasm and

thrombus formation.

Other causes include the following:

Coronary artery vasospasm

Ventricular hypertrophy Hypoxia due to carbon monoxide poisoning or acute pulmonary disorders

Coronary artery emboli, secondary to cholesterol, air, or the products of sepsis

Cocaine, amphetamines, and ephedrine

Arteritis

Coronary anomalies, including aneurysms of the coronary arteries

Increased afterload or inotropic effects, which increase the demand on the

myocardium

Aortic dissection, with retrograde involvement of the coronary arteries

Although rare, pediatric coronary artery disease may be seen with Marfan

syndrome, Kawasaki disease, Takayasu arteritis, progeria, and cystic medial

necrosis

Killip Classification

The Killip classification is a system used in individuals with an acute

myocardial infarction (heart attack), in order to risk stratify them. Individuals with a low

Killip class are less likely to die within the first 30 days after their myocardial infarction

than individuals with a high Killip class.

The study was a case series with unblinded, unobjective outcomes, not adjusted

for confounding factors, nor validated in an independent set of patients. The setting was

the coronary care unit of a university hospital in the USA.

250 patients were included in the study (aged 28 to 94; mean 64, 72% male) with

a myocardial infarction. Patients with a cardiac arrest prior to admission were excluded.

Patients were ranked by Killip class in the following way:
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Killip class I includes individuals with no clinical signs ofheart failure.

Killip class II includes individuals with rales or crackles in the lungs, an S3

gallop, and elevated jugular venous pressure.

Killip class III describes individuals with frank acute pulmonary edema.

Killip class IV describes individuals in cardiogenic shock or hypotension

(measured as systolic blood pressure lower than 90 mmHg), and evidence of

peripheral vasoconstriction (oliguria, cyanosis or sweating).

Conclusions

The numbers below were accurate in 1967. Nowadays, they have diminished by

30 to 50% in every class.

Within a 95% confidence interval the patient outcome was as follows:

Killip class I: 81/250 patients; 32% (2738%). Mortality rate was found to be at

6%.

Killip class II: 96/250 patients; 38% (3244%). Mortality rate was found to be at

17%.

Killip class III: 26/250 patients; 10% (6.614%). Mortality rate was found to be at

38%.

Killip class IV: 47/250 patients; 19% (1424%). Mortality rate was found to be at

81%.

The Killip-Kimball classification has played a fundamental role in classic

cardiology, having been used as a stratifying criterion for many other studies.

Worsening Killip class has been found to be independently associated with increasing

mortality in several studies.

Killip class 1 and no evidence of hypotension or bradycardia, in patients

presenting with acute coronary syndrome, should be considered for immediate IVbeta

blockade.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congestive_heart_failurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart_sounds#Third_heart_sound_S3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acute_pulmonary_edemahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiogenic_shockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypotensionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systolic_blood_pressurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasoconstrictionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliguriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confidence_intervalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bradycardiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acute_coronary_syndromehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intravenoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_blockerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_blockerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congestive_heart_failurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heart_sounds#Third_heart_sound_S3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acute_pulmonary_edemahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiogenic_shockhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypotensionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systolic_blood_pressurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasoconstrictionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliguriahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanosishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confidence_intervalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bradycardiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acute_coronary_syndromehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intravenoushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_blockerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beta_blocker


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A. ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

SIZE, FORM AND LOCATION OF THE HEART

The adult heart is shaped like a blunt cone and is approximately the size of a

closed fist. It is larger in physically active adults than in less active but otherwise healthy

adults, and it generally decreases in size after approximately age 65, especially in those

who are not physically active.

APEX- blunt, rounded point of the cone

BASE- larger, flat part at the opposite end of the cone

The heart is located at in the thoracic cavity between the two pleural cavities,

which surround the lungs. The heart lies obliquely in the mediastinum, with its base

directed posteriorly and slightly superiorly and the apex directed anteriorly and slightly

inferiorly. The apex is also directed to the left so that approximately two-thirds of thehearts mass lies to the left of the midline of the sternum. The base of the heart is

located deep to the sternum and extends to the level of the second intercostal space.

The apex is located deep to the left fifth intercostal space, approximately 7-9cm. to the


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left of the sternum near the midclavicular line, which is perpendicular line that extends

down from the middle of the clavicle.

ANATOMY OF THE HEART

The heart is the muscular organ of the circulatory system that constantly pumps

blood throughout the body. Approximately the size of a clenched fist, the heart is

composed ofcardiac muscle tissue that is very strong and able to contract and relax

rhythmically throughout a person's lifetime.

The heart has fourseparate compartments orchambers:

ATRIUM -upper chamber on each side of the heart -receives and collects the blood coming to the heart.

-atrium then delivers blood to the ventricle

VENTRICLE- powerful lower chamber

-pumps blood away from the heart through powerful, rhythmic

contractions.

The human heart is actually two pumps in one. The right side receives oxygen-

poor blood from the various regions of the body and delivers it to the lungs. In the lungs,

oxygen is absorbed in the blood. The left side of the heart receives the oxygen-rich

blood from the lungs and delivers it to the rest of the body.

a) Coronary Arteries- network of blood vessels that carry oxygen- and nutrient-rich

blood to the cardiac muscle tissue.

The blood leaving the left ventricle exits through the aorta, the bodys main

artery. Two coronary arteries, referred to as the "left" and "right" coronary arteries,

emerge from the beginning of the aorta, near the top of the heart.

left main coronary- initial segment of the left coronary artery

-approximately the width of a soda straw and is

less

than an inch long.

-branches into two slightly smaller arteries: the left

anterior descending coronary artery and the left

circumflex coronary artery.

The left anterior descending coronary artery is embedded in the surface of the

front side of the heart.


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The left circumflex coronary artery circles around the left side of the heart and is

embedded in the surface of the back of the heart.

Just like branches on a tree, the coronary arteries branch into progressively

smaller vessels. The larger vessels travel along the surface of the heart; however, the

smaller branches penetrate the heart muscle. The smallest branches, called capillaries,

are so narrow that the red blood cells must travel in single file. In the capillaries, the red

blood cells provide oxygen and nutrients to the cardiac muscle tissue and bond with

carbon dioxide and other metabolic waste products, taking them away from the heart for

disposal through the lungs, kidneys and liver.

When cholesterol plaque accumulates to the point of blocking the flow of bloodthrough a coronary artery, the cardiac muscle tissue fed by the coronary artery beyond

the point of the blockage is deprived of oxygen and nutrients. This area of cardiac

muscle tissue ceases to function properly. The condition when a coronary artery

becomes blocked causing damage to the cardiac muscle tissue it serves is called a

myocardial infarction or heart attack.

b) Superior Vena Cava- one of the two main veins bringing de-oxygenated blood

from the body to the heart. Veins from the head and upper body feed into the

superior vena cava, which empties into the right atrium of the heart.

c) Inferior Vena Cava- one of the two main veins bringing de-oxygenated blood

from the body to the heart. Veins from the legs and lower torso feed into the

inferior vena cava, which empties into the right atrium of the heart.

d) Aorta- largest single blood vessel in the body. It is approximately the diameter of

your thumb. This vessel carries oxygen-rich blood from the left ventricle to thevarious parts of the body.

e) Pulmonary Artery- vessel transporting de-oxygenated blood from the right

ventricle to the lungs. A common misconception is that all arteries carry oxygen-

rich blood. It is more appropriate to classify arteries as vessels carrying blood

away from the heart.

f) Pulmonary Vein- vessel transporting oxygen-rich blood from the lungs to the left

atrium. A common misconception is that all veins carry de-oxygenated blood. It is

more appropriate to classify veins as vessels carrying blood to the heart.

g) Right Atrium- receives de-oxygenated blood from the body through the superior

vena cava (head and upper body) and inferior vena cava (legs and lower torso).


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h) Right Ventricle- receives de-oxygenated blood as the right atrium contracts.

i) Left Atrium- receives oxygenated blood from the lungs through the pulmonary

vein.

j) Left Ventricle- receives oxygenated blood as the left atrium contracts.

k) Papillary Muscles- attach to the lower portion of the interior wall of the

ventricles. They connect to the chordae tendineae, which attach to the tricuspid

valve in the right ventricle and the mitral valve in the left ventricle. The

contraction of the papillary muscles opens these valves. When the papillary

muscles relax, the valves close.

l) Chordae Tendineae- are tendons linking the papillary muscles to the tricuspid

valve in the right ventricle and the mitral valve in the left ventricle. As the papillary

muscles contract and relax, the chordae tendineae transmit the resulting

increase and decrease in tension to the respective valves, causing them to open

and close. The chordae tendineae are string-like in appearance and are

sometimes referred to as "heart strings."

m) Tricuspid Valve- separates the right atrium from the right ventricle. It opens to

allow the de-oxygenated blood collected in the right atrium to flow into the right

ventricle. It closes as the right ventricle contracts, preventing blood from returning

to the right atrium; thereby, forcing it to exit through the pulmonary valve into the

pulmonary artery.

n) Mitral Value- the left atrium from the left ventricle. It opens to allow the

oxygenated blood collected in the left atrium to flow into the left ventricle. It

closes as the left ventricle contracts, preventing blood from returning to the left

atrium; thereby, forcing it to exit through the aortic valve into the aorta.

o) Pulmonary Valve- separates the right ventricle from the pulmonary artery. As

the ventricles contract, it opens to allow the de-oxygenated blood collected in the

right ventricle to flow to the lungs. It closes as the ventricles relax, preventing

blood from returning to the heart.

p) Aortic Valve- separates the left ventricle from the aorta. As the ventricles

contract, it opens to allow the oxygenated blood collected in the left ventricle to

flow throughout the body. It closes as the ventricles relax, preventing blood from

returning to the heart.


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q) Heart Wall

The heart wall is divided into three layers:

Epicardium- describes the outer layer of heart tissue (from Greek; epi- outer,

cardium heart). When considered as a part of the pericardium, it is the inner

layer, or visceral pericardium.Its largest constituent is connective tissue and

functions as a protective layer. The visceral pericardium apparently produces the

pericardial fluid, which lubricates motion between the inner and outer layers of

the pericardium.During ventricular contraction, the wave of depolarization moves

from endocardial to epicardial surface.

Myocardium- muscular middle layer of the wall of the heart. Composed of

spontaneously contracting cardiac muscle fibers which allow the heart to

contract. Stimulates heart contractions to pump blood from the ventricles and

relaxes the heart to allow the artriato receive blood. The walls of the heart are

largely made from myocardium, which is a special kind of muscle tissue. This

muscle is so constructed that it is able to perform the 60 to 70 contractions which

the healthy adult human heart undergoes every minute. It is the muscular tissue

responsible for the contraction of the heart

Endocardium-innermost layer of tissue that lines the chambers of the heart. Its

cells are embryologically and biologically similar to the endothelial cells that line

blood vessels.
http://biology.about.com/library/organs/heart/blepicardium.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hearthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pericardiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connective_tissuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pericardial_fluidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pericardiumhttp://biology.about.com/library/organs/heart/blmyocardium.htmhttp://biology.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://www.vetmed.wsu.edu/VAn308/cardiac.htmhttp://biology.about.com/library/organs/heart/blventricles.htmhttp://biology.about.com/library/organs/heart/blatria.htmhttp://biology.about.com/library/organs/heart/blatria.htmhttp://biology.about.com/library/organs/heart/blendocardium.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embryologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endotheliumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_vesselhttp://biology.about.com/library/organs/heart/blepicardium.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hearthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pericardiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connective_tissuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pericardial_fluidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pericardiumhttp://biology.about.com/library/organs/heart/blmyocardium.htmhttp://biology.about.com/gi/dynamic/offsite.htm?site=http://www.vetmed.wsu.edu/VAn308/cardiac.htmhttp://biology.about.com/library/organs/heart/blventricles.htmhttp://biology.about.com/library/organs/heart/blatria.htmhttp://biology.about.com/library/organs/heart/blendocardium.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_(biology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embryologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endotheliumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_vessel


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B. OVERVIEW OF THE DISEASE

Myocardial infarction (MI) or acute myocardial infarction (AMI), commonly known

as a heart attack, is the interruption ofblood supply to part of the heart, causing some

heart cells to die. This is most commonly due to occlusion (blockage) of a coronary

artery following the rupture of a vulnerable atherosclerotic plaque, which is an unstable

collection of lipids (fatty acids) and white blood cells (especially macrophages) in the

wall of an artery. The resulting ischemia (restriction in blood supply) and oxygen

shortage, if left untreated for a sufficient period of time, can cause damage or death

(infarction) of heart muscle tissue (myocardium).

Classification

There are two basic types of acute myocardial infarction:

Transmural: associated with atherosclerosis involving major coronary artery. It

can be subclassified into anterior, posterior, or inferior. Transmural infarcts

extend through the whole thickness of the heart muscle and are usually a result

of complete occlusion of the area's blood supply.

Subendocardial: involves small area in the subendocardial wall of the leftventricle, ventricular septum, or papillary muscles. Subendocardial infarcts are

thought to be a result of locally decreased blood supply, possibly from a

narrowing of the coronary arteries. The subendocardial area is farthest from the

heart's blood supply and is more susceptible to this type of pathology.

Clinically, myocardial infarction is further subclassified into ST elevation

MI versus non ST elevation MI based on ECG changes.

Signs and Symptoms

Not all people who have heart attacks experience the same symptoms or

experience them to the same degree. Many heart attacks aren't as dramatic as the ones

you've seen on TV. Some people have no symptoms at all. Still, the more signs and

symptoms you have, the greater the likelihood that you may be having a heart attack.

Common heart attack symptoms include:

Pressure, a feeling of fullness or a squeezing pain in the center of your

chest that lasts for more than a few minutes

Pain extending beyond your chest to your shoulder, arm, back, or even to

your teeth and jaw
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_flowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hearthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronary_arteryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronary_arteryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulnerable_plaquehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipidshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_blood_cellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrophagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arteryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ischemiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypoxia_(medical)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypoxia_(medical)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infarctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myocardiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blood_flowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hearthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronary_arteryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronary_arteryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulnerable_plaquehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipidshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_blood_cellhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrophagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arteryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ischemiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypoxia_(medical)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypoxia_(medical)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infarctionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myocardium


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Increasing episodes of chest pain

Prolonged pain in the upper abdomen

Shortness of breath

Sweating

Impending sense of doom

Fainting

Nausea and vomiting

Additional, or different, heart attack symptoms in women may include:

Abdominal pain or heartburn

Clammy skin

Lightheadedness or dizziness

Unusual or unexplained fatigue

Causes

A heart attack occurs when one or more of the arteries supplying your heart with

oxygen-rich blood (coronary arteries) become blocked. Over time, a coronary artery can

become narrowed from the buildup of cholesterol. This buildup collectively known as

plaques in arteries throughout the body is called atherosclerosis.

During a heart attack, one of these plaques can rupture and a blood clot forms on

the site of the rupture. If the clot is large enough, it can block the flow of blood through

the artery. When your coronary arteries have narrowed due to atherosclerosis, the

condition is known as coronary artery disease. Coronary artery disease is the major

underlying cause of heart attacks.

An uncommon cause of a heart attack is a spasm of a coronary artery that shuts

down blood flow to part of the heart muscle.

A heart attack is the end of a process that typically evolves over several hours.

With each passing minute, more heart tissue is deprived of blood and deteriorates or

dies. However, if blood flow can be restored in time, damage to the heart can be limited

or prevented.

Risk Factors


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Certain factors contribute to the unwanted buildup of fatty deposits

(atherosclerosis) that narrow arteries throughout your body, including arteries to your

heart. You can improve or eliminate many of these risk factors to reduce your chances

of having a first or second heart attack.

Heart attack risk factors include:

Age. Men who are 45 or older and women who are 55 or older are more likely to

have a heart attack than younger men and women.

Tobacco. Smoking and long-term exposure to secondhand smoke damage the

interior walls of arteries including arteries to your heart allowing deposits of

cholesterol and other substances to collect and slow blood flow. Smoking also

increases the risk of deadly blood clots forming and causing a heart attack.

Diabetes. Diabetes is the inability of your body to adequately produce or respond

to insulin properly. Insulin, a hormone secreted by your pancreas, allows your

body to use glucose, which is a form of sugar from foods. Diabetes can occur in

childhood, but it appears more often in middle age and among overweight

people. Diabetes greatly increases your risk of a heart attack.

High blood pressure. Over time, high blood pressure can damage arteries that

feed your heart by accelerating atherosclerosis. The risk of high blood pressure

increases as you age, but the main culprits for most people are eating a diet too

high in salt and being overweight. High blood pressure can also be an inherited

problem.

High blood cholesterol or triglyceride levels. Cholesterol is a major part of the

deposits that can narrow arteries throughout your body, including those that

supply your heart. A high level of the wrong kind of cholesterol in your blood

increases your risk of a heart attack. Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol

(the "bad" cholesterol) is most likely to narrow arteries. A high LDL level is

undesirable and is often a result of a diet high in saturated fats and cholesterol. A

high level of triglycerides, a type of blood fat related to your diet, also is

undesirable. However, a high level of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol

(the "good" cholesterol), which helps the body clean up excess cholesterol, is

desirable and lowers your risk of heart attack.


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Family history of heart attack. If your siblings, parents or grandparents have

had heart attacks, you may be at risk, too. Your family may have a genetic

condition that raises unwanted blood cholesterol levels. High blood pressure also

can run in families.

Lack of physical activity. An inactive lifestyle contributes to high blood

cholesterol levels and obesity. People who get regular aerobic exercise have

better cardiovascular fitness, which decreases their overall risk of heart attack.

Exercise is also beneficial in lowering high blood pressure.

Obesity. Obese people have a high proportion of body fat (a body mass index of

30 or higher). Obesity raises the risk of heart disease because it's associated

with high blood cholesterol levels, high blood pressure and diabetes.

Stress. You may respond to stress in ways that can increase your risk of a heart

attack. If you're under stress, you may overeat or smoke from nervous tension.

Too much stress, as well as anger, can also raise your blood pressure.

Illegal drug use. Using stimulant drugs, such as cocaine or amphetamines, can

trigger a spasm of your heart muscle that causes a heart attack.

Test and Diagnosis

Electrocardiogram (ECG). This is the first test done to diagnose a heart attack.

It's often done while you are being asked questions about your symptoms. This

test records the electrical activity of your heart via electrodes attached to your

skin. Impulses are recorded as "waves" displayed on a monitor or printed on

paper. Because injured heart muscle doesn't conduct electrical impulsesnormally, the ECG may show that a heart attack has occurred or is in progress.

Blood tests. Certain heart enzymes slowly leak out into your blood if your heart

has been damaged by a heart attack. Emergency room doctors will take samples

of your blood to test for the presence of these enzymes.

Additional tests

Chest X-ray. An X-ray image of your chest allows your doctor to check the size

and shape of your heart and its blood vessels.


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Echocardiogram. This test uses sound waves to produce an image of your

heart. During an echocardiogram, sound waves are directed at your heart from a

transducer, a wand-like device, held on your chest. The sound waves bounce off

your heart and are reflected back through your chest wall and processed

electronically to provide video images of your heart. An echocardiogram can help

identify whether an area of your heart has been damaged by a heart attack and

isn't pumping normally or at peak capacity.

Nuclear scan. This test helps identify blood flow problems to your heart. Small

amounts of radioactive material are injected into your bloodstream. Special

cameras can detect the radioactive material as it flows through your heart and

lungs. Areas of reduced blood flow to the heart muscle through which less ofthe radioactive material flows appear as dark spots on the scan.

Coronary catheterization (angiogram). This test can show if your coronary

arteries are narrowed or blocked. A liquid dye is injected into the arteries of your

heart through a long, thin tube (catheter) that's fed through an artery, usually in

your leg, to the arteries in your heart. As the dye fills your arteries, the arteries

become visible on X-ray, revealing areas of blockage. Additionally, while the

catheter is in position, your doctor may treat the blockage by performing an

angioplasty, also known as coronary artery balloon dilation, balloon angioplasty

and percutaneous coronary intervention. Angioplasty uses tiny balloons threaded

through a blood vessel and into a coronary artery to widen the blocked area. In

most cases, a mesh tube (stent) is also placed inside the artery to hold it open

more widely and prevent re-narrowing in the future.

Exercise stress test. In the days or weeks following your heart attack, you may

also undergo a stress test. Stress tests measure how your heart and blood

vessels respond to exertion. You may walk on a treadmill or pedal a stationary

bike while attached to an ECG machine. Or you may receive a drug

intravenously that stimulates your heart similar to exercise.

Stress tests help doctors decide the best long-term treatment for you. If

your doctor also wants to see images of your heart while you're exercising, he or

she may order a nuclear stress test, which is similar to an exercise stress test,

but uses an injected dye and special imaging techniques.

Cardiac computerized tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging

(MRI). These tests can be used to diagnose heart problems, including the extent


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of damage from heart attacks. In a cardiac CT scan, you lie on a table inside a

doughnut-shaped machine. An X-ray tube inside the machine rotates around

your body and collects images of your heart and chest. In a cardiac MRI, you lie

on a table inside a long tube-like machine that produces a magnetic field. The

magnetic field aligns atomic particles in some of your cells. When radio waves

are broadcast toward these aligned particles, they produce signals that vary

according to the type of tissue they are. The signals create images of your heart.

Complications

Heart attack complications are often related to the damage done to the heart

during a heart attack. This damage can lead to the following conditions:

Abnormal heart rhythms (arrhythmias). If your heart muscle is damaged from

a heart attack, electrical "short circuits" can develop resulting in abnormal heart

rhythms, some of which can be serious, even fatal.

Heart failure. The amount of damaged tissue in your heart may be so great that

the remaining heart muscle can't do an adequate job of pumping blood out ofyour heart. This decreases blood flow to tissues and organs throughout your

body and may produce shortness of breath, fatigue, and swelling in your ankles

and feet. Heart failure may be a temporary problem that goes away after your

heart, which has been stunned by a heart attack, recovers over a few days to

weeks. However, it can also be a chronic condition resulting from extensive and

permanent damage to your heart following your heart attack.

Heart rupture. Areas of heart muscle weakened by a heart attack can rupture,

leaving a hole in part of the heart. This rupture is often fatal.

Valve problems. Heart valves damaged during a heart attack may develop

severe, life-threatening leakage problems.

Treatment

Medications

With each passing minute after a heart attack, more heart tissue loses oxygen

and deteriorates or dies. The main way to prevent heart damage is to restore blood flow

quickly.


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Surgical and other procedures

Coronary angioplasty and stenting. Emergency angioplasty opens blocked

coronary arteries, letting blood flow more freely to your heart. Doctors insert a

long, thin tube (catheter) that's passed through an artery, usually in your leg, to a

blocked artery in your heart. This catheter is equipped with a special balloon tip.

Once in position, the balloon tip is briefly inflated to open up a blocked coronary

artery. At the same time, a metal mesh stent may be inserted into the artery to

keep it open long term, restoring blood flow to the heart. Depending on your

condition, your doctor may opt to place a stent coated with a slow-releasing

medication to help keep your artery open.

Coronary angioplasty is done at the same time as a coronary

catheterization (angiogram), a procedure that doctors do first to locate narrowed

arteries to the heart. When getting an angioplasty for heart attack treatment, the

sooner the better to limit the damage to your heart.

Coronary artery bypass surgery. In rare cases, doctors may perform

emergency bypass surgery at the time of a heart attack. Usually, your doctor maysuggest that you have bypass surgery after your heart has had time to recover

from your heart attack. Bypass surgery involves sewing veins or arteries in place

at a site beyond a blocked or narrowed coronary artery (bypassing the narrowed

section), restoring blood flow to the heart.

Once blood flow to your heart is restored and your condition is stable

following your heart attack, you may be hospitalized for observation. Visitors are

usually limited to family members and close friends.

Prognosis

The prognosis for patients with myocardial infarction varies greatly, depending on

the patient, the condition itself and the given treatment. Using simple variables which

are immediately available in the emergency room, patients with a higher risk of adverse

outcome can be identified. For example, one study found that 0.4% of patients with a

low risk profile had died after 90 days, whereas the mortality rate in high risk patients

was 21.1%.
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Prevention

It's never too late to take steps to prevent a heart attack - even if you've already

had one. Taking medications can reduce your risk of a second heart attack and help

your damaged heart function better. Lifestyle factors also play a critical role in heart

attack prevention and recovery.

Lifestyle changes

In addition to medications, the same lifestyle changes that can help you recover

from a heart attack can also help prevent future heart attacks. These include:

Smoking cessation

Controlling certain conditions, such as high blood pressure, high cholesterol

and diabetes

Staying physically active

Eating healthy foods

Maintaining a healthy weight

Reducing and managing stress


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CHAPTER III

CASE STUDY PROPER

A. GENERAL DATA

Name : Lorenzo Mendoza

Address : Sariaya, Quezon

Birthday : March 2, 1945

Birth place : Sariaya, Quezon

Age/Sex : 64 y/o

Religion : Roman Catholic

Civil Status : Married

Occupation : none

Mother : Zoraida Cruz

Father : Leonardo Mendoza

Admission Date : December 2, 2009 10:15am

Admitting Physician : Dra. Luce

Case Number : 09120563

Chief Complaint : chest pain PTA

Admitting Diagnosis : Unstable Angina

Final Diagnosis : Acute Myocardial Infarction

B. HISTORY OF PRESENT ILLNESS

Two months prior the admission the patient felt chest pain. He ignored the pain

thinking that it will be gone later on. One week prior to admission, the patient felt chest

pain that is severe. The pain scale is 8. It is now radiating to his left arm. He also

experienced difficulty of breathing. Thus, his family decided to bring him to the hospital

in Sariaya, Quezon. The doctor assessed the patient and was referred to the Quezon

Medical Center.


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C. FAMILY HEALTH HISTORY

Lorenzo Mendoza has a family history of Diabetes Mellitus specifically on both

his parents. His mother has hypertension and his father died because of a heart attack.

D. PAST MEDICAL HISTORY

Lorenzo Mendoza was never diagnosed to have any illness previously. His

common illnesses were just cough and colds and fever. He was never admitted in the

hospital and claims that it was his first time to be confined in the hospital. He also

claimed that he has a sedentary and unhealthy lifestyle.

E. PSYCHOSOCIAL HISTORY

Lorenzo Mendoza is fond of eating fatty foods, drinking alcohol and smoking.

Due to his age he also found exercising difficult and very tiring.

The patients daughter said his father doesnt have a regular bowel movement.

He seldom defecates. Whenever his daughter offers him fruits to help him defecate

regularly, hes just eating a small amount of those and just enjoys himself doing vicesand watching television shows.

During an ordinary day he usually hangs out with his friends, do some chat and

later that day, drinks alcohol or smokes. When he felt that there is something wrong in

his body and there is already pain in his chest, his routine changed and decided to

eliminate his vices eventually.

F. PHYSICAL EXAMINATION

I. General Survey

Lorenzo Mendoza was conscious and coherent, not in respiratory distress

II. Vital signs

DAY1

DAY2

DAY3

DAY4

DAY5

DAY6

DAY7

DAY8

TEMPERATURE 36.5C 37.1C 36.7C 36.5C 36.5C 36.6C 36.5C 36.7C

RESPIRATORY 32bpm 34bpm 30bpm 32bpm 29bpm 27bpm 25bpm 22bpm

PULSE 78bpm 80bpm 79bpm 75bpm 74bpm 75bpm 74bpm 75bpm

BLOODPRESSURE

170/110mmHg

160/100mmHg

140/90mmHg

180/120mmHg

130/90mmHg

130/90mmHg

140/90mmHg

130/90mmHg


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III. Integument

Skin

The skin is pale and slightly warm to touch. He has a fair skin turgor.

Hair

The patient has evenly distributed black and white and thick hair.

Nails

The nails are pale with capillary refill of 2-3 seconds. It has convex

curvature and with hard texture. It has intact epidermis. He has long and

uncut nails.

IV. HEENT

Head

The head is symmetrical with rounded skull contour.

Eyes

Eyebrows are evenly distributed, symmetrically aligned and with good eye

movement.

Eyelashes equally distributed and curled slightly outward.

The patient has slightly pinkish conjuctiva. No edema and redness over

the lachrymal glands.

The pupils are equally reactive to light accommodation and corneal reflex

are slightly present.

Ears

The auricles color is same as facial skin with symmetrical in size and

shape. It is inline to the outer canthus of the eyes and recoils after it is

folded.


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Cerumen noted on both ears.

Nose

The nose has the same color as the face.

It is symmetrical with nasal septum intact and on midline.

There is no redness and swelling noted in the nasal mucosa and no

discharges noted.

Mouth

The patient has slightly pale lips which is soft and dry texture.

The mouth has symmetrical contour.

V. Neck

The muscles are equal in size and strength.

No scars or palpable mass noted.

The thyroid is not visible on inspection.

VI. Thorax and lungs

The chest is symmetric with skin intact and has uniform temperature.

There is clear breath sounds heard on both lung fields upon auscultation.

Spine vertically aligned.

The patient is in respiratory distress, with elevated RR.

VII. Heart

The patient has slightly normal rhythm and heart rate is within the normal

range.

VIII. Abdomen

The patient has soft abdomen upon palpation with no scars noted.

Bowel sounds, 9-20 per minute.


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Occasional abdominal pain is noted.

IX. Lower Extremities

The patient has limited range of motion. Large blister noted at left foot.

G. COURSE IN THE WARD

Lorenzo Mendoza is a 64y/o man. He was admitted in QMCs Medicine Male

Cardio Ward on the 2nd day of December 2009, with a chief complaint of chest pain prior

to admission. Routine procedures like CBC and urinalysis were done immediately after

admission.

Dra. Luce as his admitting physician ordered for TPR monitoring every shift. He

was hooked with IVF of PNSS 1L x KVO. He was also ordered to have diet as tolerated.

The following medications were also ordered: Tramadol 50 mg amp IVP q8 PRN for

chest pain and Captopril 250mg 1 tab SL q6 if BP is 140/90mmHG. Exams like ECG,

CK-MB, and Prothrombin time were also instructed to be done.

On December 3, 2009 the doctor read the ECG result which revealed that there

is a poor R-wave progression V1-V3, lateral wall ischemia and LVA by voltage criteria.

On December 4, 2009 the result of CK-MB is 142 and was interpreted by Dra.

Luce. Same IVF was ordered.

On December 5, 2009 Clopidogrel 75mg 4 tabs now then OD, Clexane 0.4 SQ

BID, Imidapril 10mg 1 tab OD, Diazepam 5mg 1 tab BID and Aspilet 80mg 1 tab OD

were ordered.

On December 6, 2009 same IVF was ordered and also Tramadol was given due

to severe chest pain.

On December 7, same medications was ordered. ECG was repeated.

On December 8, 2009 his ECG result was followed up, if vital signs are normal

and there is no further complication, possible discharge for the next 2 days.


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chapter i,ii,iii

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