Introduction to plant

and its review of

literature

Chapter-III

"The real act of discovering is not in finding in new lands, but in seeing with new eyes."

Chapter-3 Review of Literature

Bhagwant University PhD Thesis 41

3. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

3.1 Syzygium cumini Linn.

Jamun is a very common, large evergreen beautiful tree of Indian subcontinent. The

scientific name of Jamun is Eugenia jambolana Lam. or Syzygium cumini Linn. and it

belongs to the family myrtaceae. Common names are Java plum, Black plum, Jambul

and Indian Blackberry1,2

.

A. Common names from world wide

Brazil - Azeitona

Pakistan - Jaman

West Indies - Jambol

Nepal - Java plum

Thailand - Lukwa

Japan - Madan

Madagascar - Rotra

B. Other names

Hindi - Jaman, Jam

Bengali - Jam, Kalajam

Gujarati - Jambu, JamLi

Telugu - Jambuvu

Marathi - Jaman, Jambul

C. Taxonomic classification3

Kingdom: Plantae

Division : Magnoliophyta

Class : Magnoliopsida

Order : Myrtales

Family : Myrtaceae

Genus : Syzygium

Species : Cumini

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Figure 3.1: Jamun leaves with fruit

D. Occurrence and distribution

The original home of jamun is India, distributed throughout India, in forest up

to 1800m usually along the bank and moist localities, also cultivated as shade trees

along road sides. It is widely cultivated in Haryana as well as the rest of the Indo-

Gangetic plains on a large scale. Its habitat starts from Myanmar and extends up to

Afghanistan.

It is also found in Thailand, Philippines, Madagascar and some other country.

The plant has been successfully introduced into many other tropical countries such as

the West Indies, West Africa and some subtropical regions including Florida,

California, Algeria and Israel4. It was cultivated in England by Miller in 1768

5.

E. Description6,7

Plant introduction

Botanical name : Syzygium cumini Linn or Eugenia jambolana Lam

Family : Myrtaceae

Synonym : Black plum, Java plum, Jaman, Jambolan.

Distribution : Native of India and Indonesia

Botanical characters

Habitat : Tropical Asia (mainly India and Indonesia)

Leaves : Leaves are opposite simple, glossy, smooth, somewhat leathery,

coriaceous, shiny, entire, oval, Elliptic-oblong, and lanceolate, 7.5 to

15 cm long

Bark : Bark is scaly gray or brown and smooth.

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Flowers: Are greenish white, tetramerous, in 3- flowered cymes, arranged in

broad trichotomous panicles

Fruit : Berry oblong or subglobose, purple or black, succulent, Smooth when

ripe

Seed : cream colored, coriaceous covering, smooth, oval or roundish.

F. Chemical constituents

Leaves of E. jambolana contain isolated 15 polyphenols and two acetylated flavonol

glycosides identified as 3-O- (4”-Oacetyl)- alpha-L-rhamnopyranosides of mearnsetin

(myricetin 4’-methyl ether) and myricetin 3-O- (4”-Oacetyl-2”-O-galloyl)–alpha-L-

rhamnopyranoside from8 and subsequently Timbola et al

9 isolated quercetin

(0.0085%), myricetin (0.023%), myricitrin (0.009%), and a flavonol glycosides

myricetin 3-O-(4”-acetyl)-α- L-rhamnopyranosides (0.059%) from its leaves.

Seeds of E. jambolana contain glycosides, a trace of pale yellow essential oil, fat,

resin, albumin, chlorophyll2, an alkaloid- jambosine

3, gallic acid, ellagic acid,

corilagin and related tannin,3,6-hexahydroxydiphenoylglucose and its isomer 4,6-

hexahydroxydiphenoylglucose, 1-galloylglucose, 3-galloylglucose, quercetin10

and

elements such as zinc, chromium, vanadium, potassium and sodium11

.Unsaponifiable

matter of seed fat contains β-sitoterol12

.

Fruits of E. jambolana have been reported with raffinose, glucose, fructose13

, citric

acid14

, mallic acid and gallic acid15

. The sourness of fruits may be due to presence of

gallic acid. Venkateswarla (1952) reported that the color of the fruits might be due to

the presence of anthocyanins namely delphinidin-3-gentiobioside and malvidin-3-

laminaribioside along with petunidin-3-gentiobioside16,17

. Betulinic acid, friedelin,

friedelan-3-α-ol and β-sitosterol from petroleum ether extract and kaempferol and its

3-o-glycoside, β-sitosterol-Dglucoside, sucrose, gallic acid, ellagic acid, gallotannin

and ellagitannin from alcohol extract18

and myricetine in small amount have been

reported from stem bark of E. jambolana19

.

Bark

Tannins like gallic and ellagic acid and derivatives including 3-3 di-o-methyl ellagic

acid.

Steroids: sterols including -sitosterol, -sitosterol glucoside.

Triterpenes: betulinic acid, friedelin, friedelan-3--ole, epi-triedelanol eugenin.

Flavanoids: including myricetin, kaempferol, quercetin, astragalin15

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Roots of syzygium cumini contain myricetin 3-o-glucoside and the new flavanoid

myricetin 3-o-robinoside17

.

G. Traditional uses

Most of the plant parts of E. jambolana are used in traditional system of

medicine in India. According to Ayurveda, its bark is acrid, sweet, digestive, and

astringent to the bowels, anthelmintic and in good for sore, throat, bronchitis, asthma,

thirst, biliousness, dysentery, blood impurities and to cure ulcers1. Its bark is used as

decoction in case of chronic diarrhoea and dysentery. It is also acts as a gargle in sore

throat, spongy gums etc. and when externally used, bark shows good wound healing

properties2,3

.

The fruits are acrid and sweet, cooling, dry and astringent to bowels. They

increase Vata” and remove bad smell from the mouth. The riped fruits are considered

to be the good diet in convalescence diarrohea and dysentery. Syrup or vinegar

prepared from them is also useful in spleen enlargement and it is effective in chronic

diarrhoea2. As per Unani system of medicine they acts as liver tonic, enriches blood,

strengthens teeth and gums and forms good lotion for removing ringworm infection of

the head.

The seeds are sweet, astringent to bowels and good for diabetes. The sprouts

are refrigerant, carminatives & astringent to bowels. Powdered seeds are used as a

remedy in diabetes and in metrorrhagia1,2,3

. Seed powdered in combination with

mango kernels were administered with curd to overcome the problem of diarrohea and

dysentery, enlargement of spleen and as diuretic in scanty20

.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Kirtikar and Basu1 have suggested that according to Ayurveda, jamun bark is

acrid, sweet, digestive, astringent to the bowels, anthelmintic and in good for sore,

throat, bronchitis, asthma, thirst, biliousness, dysentery, blood impurities and to cure

ulcers. Leaves are acts as liver tonic, enrich blood, strengthen teeth and gums and

forms good lotion for removing ringworm infection of the head.

Priyavtra Sharma and Mehta3 described fruits are acrid and sweet, cooling, dry

and astringent to bowels. They increase “Vata” and remove bad smell from the

mouth. As per Unani system of medicine they acts as liver tonic, enriches blood,

strengthens teeth and gums and forms good lotion for removing ringworm infection of

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Bhagwant University PhD Thesis 45

the head. The vinegar prepared from the fruit is tonic, astringent, carminative and

useful in spleen diseases. The seeds are sweet, astringent to bowels and good for

diabetes. The sprouts are refrigerant, carminatives & astringent to bowels.

Nadkarni2 has investigated powdered seeds are used as a remedy in diabetes

and in metrorrhagia. Seed powdered in combination with mango kernels were

administered with curd to overcome the problem of diarrohea and dysentery,

enlargement of spleen and as diuretic in scanty or suppressed urine and oil of leaves is

useful in skin diseases.

Chopra et al9 has determined that the bark is used in diarrhoea and dysentery,

astringent to bowels, carminative, diuretic, digestive, febrifuge, constipating,

anthelmintic, good for bronchitis, asthama, thrist, fever, gastropathy, dermatopathy, to

treat sore throat, diabetes and blood impurities. Seeds are hypoglycemic and allay

thrist in diabetes. It has astringent and carminative properties, diuretic, stops urinary

discharge (yunani), powdered seeds are mainly used in diabetes and reduce the

quantity of sugar in urine.

Prajapati et al8 has suggested that seeds are hypoglycaemic and allays thrist in

diabetes. It has astringent and carminative properties, diuretic, stops urinary discharge

(yunani), powdered seeds are mainly used in diabetes and reduce the quantity of sugar

in urine, fruits and seeds are tonic, used in diabetes, diarrhoea, splenopathy,

ringworm, pharyngitis, The roots are reported to be antidiuretic in nature. Fruits juice

used as carminative, diuretic and stomachic, als used in diarrhoea and spleen

enlargement.

Parrotta9 has found that leaves are antidysentric, antibacterial. Ash of leaves is

used for strengthing the teeth and gums.seeds are hypoglycaemic and allays thrist in

diabetes. It has astringent and carminative properties, diuretic, stops urinary discharge

(Unani), powdered seeds are mainly used in diabetes and reduce the quantity of sugar

in urine, fruits and seeds are tonic, the bark is used in diabetes, diarrhoea,

splenopathy, ringworm, pharyngitis. Diabetes and blood impurities, used for making

mouth wash and gargles, also acts as antibacterial.

Elizabeth and Williamson7 has evaluated the bark is acrid and sweet,

decoction is used in diarrhoea and dysentery, astringent to bowels, carminative,

diuretic, digestive, febrifuge, constipating, anthelmintic, good for bronchitis, asthama,

thrist, fever, gastropathy, dermatopathy, to treat sore throat, diabetes and blood

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impurities, used for making mouth washes and gargles, also acts as antibacterial.

Leaves are antidysentric, antibacterial. Ash of leaves is used for strengthing the teeth

and gums. Tender leaves for vomiting. Fruits and seeds are tonic, used in diabetes,

diarrhoea, splenopathy, ringworm, pharyngitis.

Chopra9 has found that seeds are hypoglycaemic and allays thrist in diabetes.

It has astringent and carminative properties, diuretic, stops urinary discharge (Unani),

powdered seeds are mainly used in diabetes and reduce the quantity of sugar in urine,

fruits and seeds are tonic, used in diabetes, diarrhoea, splenopathy, ringworm.

Longman21

has described, the bark is acrid and sweet, decoction is used in

diarrhoea and dysentery, astringent to bowels, carminative, diuretic, digestive,

febrifuge, constipating, anthelmintic, good for bronchitis, asthama, thrist, fever,

gastropathy, dermatopathy, to treat sore throat, diabetes and blood impurities, Leaves

are antidysentric, antibacterial. Ash of leaves is used for strengthing the teeth and

gums. Tender leaves for vomiting. The seeds and fruits are used in the treatment of

diabetes, pharyngitis, splenopathy.

Tirtha22

has written in the text that the bark is used in diarrhoea and

dysentery, astringent to bowels, carminative, diuretic, digestive, febrifuge,

constipating, anthelmintic, good for bronchitis, asthama, thrist, fever, gastropathy,

dermatopathy, to treat sore throat, diabetes and blood impurities. Seeds are

hypoglycaemic and allay thrist in diabetes discharge (Unani), powdered seeds are

mainly used in diabetes and reduce the quantity of sugar in urine.

Scartezzini and Speroni23

have discussed that seeds are hypoglycaemic and

allays thrist in diabetes. It has astringent and carminative properties, diuretic, stops

urinary discharge (yunani), powdered seeds are mainly used in diabetes and reduce

the quantity of sugar in urine, fruits and seeds are tonic, used in diabetes, diarrhoea,

splenopathy, ringworm, pharyngitis.

Trease and Evans24

have shown that the seeds are astringent, diuretic and stops

urinary discharge. Powdered seeds are used as a remedy in diabetes and in

metrorrhagia. Ash of leaves is used for strengthing the teeth and gums. Tender leaves

for vomiting. Fruits juice used as carminative, diuretic and stomachic, also used in

diarrhoea and spleen enlargement. The seeds and fruits are used in the treatment of

diabetes.

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Anti diabetic

Sharma et al25

was investigated the oral antihyperglycemic effect of the water

and ethanolic extracts of the fruit-pulp of Eugenia jambolana (EJ) in alloxan-induced

diabetic with fasting blood glucose between 120 and 250 mg/dl as well as severely

diabetic rabbits (fasting blood glucose above 250 mg/dl).Water extract was found to

be more effective than the ethanolic extract in reducing fasting blood glucose and

improving blood glucose in glucose tolerance test.

Ravi et al26

has evaluated the hypoglycemic activity of the inorganic part of E.

jambolana seeds on streptozotocin-induced diabetes and analyze the inorganic trace

elements present in Eugenia jambolana seeds. The conclusion that the inorganic

constituents might play a important role in the antidiabetic nature E. jambolana seeds

was reached.

Prince et al27

has designed the antidiabetic and antihyperlipidaemic effect of

an alcoholic extract of Syzigium cumini seeds (JSEt) in alloxan diabetic rats. Thus, our

investigation clearly shows that alcoholic JSEt has both antidiabetic and

antihyperlipidaemic effects.

Sharma et al28

has investigated the hypoglycaemic and hypolipidemic effect of

ethanolic extract obtained from seeds of E. jambolana in alloxan-induced diabetic

rabbits. The ethanolic extract of seeds also exhibited significant hypolipidemic effect

as evident from fall in total serum cholesterol (TC)/high density lipoprotein

cholesterol (HDL-c) ratio, serum low density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-c) levels

and decreased activity of HMG-CoA reductase.

Vikrant et al29

has undertaken the study to find out the effects of different

doses (100,200 and 400 mg per day) of alcoholic and aqueous extracts of Momordica

charantia (MC) and Eugenia jambolana (EJ) on the metabolic parameters (body

weight and serum glucose, insulin and triglycerides levels) of fructose fed rats.

Treatment with 400 mg per day of aqueous extracts of MC and EJ for 15 days

substantially prevented hyperglycemia and hyperinsulinemia induced by a diet high in

fructose.

Pepato et al30

has shown lack of antidiabetic effect of a Eugenia jambolana

leaf decoction on rat streptozotocin diabetes. We conclude that, at least in this

experimental model, Eugenia jambolana leaf decoction has no antidiabetic activity.

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Bhagwant University PhD Thesis 48

Prince et al31

has shown that Jamun seed extract (JSEt) has hypoglycaemic

action. The effect of JSEt was most prominently seen in the case of animals given 5.0

g/kg body weight. JSEt was more effective than glibenclamide.

Antiulcer

Chaturvedi et al32

has studied the effect of ethanolic extract of seeds of E.

jambolana (EJE) against gastric ulcers in rats. The result of the present study indicates

that E. jambolana seed has gastro-protective properties mainly through promotion of

mucosal defensive factors and antioxidant status and decreasing lipid peroxidation.

Ramirez and Roa33

has determined the gastroprotective effect of quantified

tannins (13.4%) from Syzygium cumini. These findings suggest that tannins extracted

from S. cumini have gastroprotective and anti-ulcerogenic effects.

Anti-inflammatory

Muruganandan et al34

investigated the ethanolic extract of the bark of

Syzygium cumini for its anti-inflammatory activity in animal models. Thus, the

present study demonstrated that S. cumini bark extract has a potent anti-inflammatory

action against different phases of inflammation without any side effect on gastric

mucosa.

Modi et al35

has evaluated anti-inflammatory activity of the methanolic and

aqueous extracts of the seeds of Syzygium cumini Linn in wistar rats using the

carrageenan induced left hind paw edema. The methanolic and aqueous extracts of

Syzygium cumini at the dose of 250mg/kg body wt reduced the edema induced by

carrageenan by 48.29 % and 68.85 % respectively on oral administration of 250

mg/kg body wt, as compared to the untreated control group. Diclofenac sodium at 100

mg/kg body wt inhibited the edema volume by 75.08 %. The results indicated that the

aqueous extract shows more significant anti-inflammatory activity then methanolic

extracts when compared with the standard and untreated control.

Kumar et al36

has evaluated the anti-inflammatory activity of ethyl acetate and

methanol extracts of S. cumini seed in carrageenan induced paw oedema in wistar rats

at the dose level of 200 and 400 mg/kg administrated orally. Both the extracts

exhibited significant anti-inflammatory activity, which supports the traditional

medicinal utilization of the plant. This study established anti-inflammatory activity of

the seed of S. cumini.

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Antioxidant

Veigas et al37

has studied anthocyanin pigments from Syzygium cumini fruit

peels were characterized and evaluated for their antioxidant efficacy.

Sunilu Vasi and Anoop Austin38

have studied the Antioxidant potential of

Eugenia jambolana using various in vitro models. Ethanolic (50%) extract showed

maximum scavenging activity in all models. The finding justifies the therapeutic

application of the plant in the indigenous system of medicine, augmenting its

therapcutic value.

Bhatia et al39

has described that jamun leaf and seed contain gallic acid,

ellagic acid, chebulic acid, corilagin and related ellagitannins and its two isomeric

forms, galloylglucose and quercetin, The presence of gallic acid,

hexahydroxydiphenic acid, chebulic acid and isohexahydroxydiphenic acid as the

building blocks of the tannins in the seeds has been confirmed from chromatographic

studies of the tannin hydrolysates.

Antipyretic activity

Vila-Pena et al40

has evaluated analgesic potential of leaf hydro-alcoholic

extracts in rats by hot plate and formalin tests. In the hot plate test, Syzygium jambos

extract produced a significant increase in the withdrawal response latencies in a dose-

dependent manner and with a maximal effect (analgesic efficacy) similar to that of

morphine. The extract (i.p.) significantly reduced pain scores in all the phases of the

formalin test with an analgesic efficacy higher than that shown by diclofenac.

Moresco et al41

has designed study to evaluate the effect of the aqueous

Syzygium cumini leaf extract, given either as a single dose or by 7 days of

pretreatment, on hepatotoxicity induced by carbon tetrachloride in rats. This suggests

that the extract may be useful for liver protection but needs to be given over a

significant period and prior to liver injury.

Jasmineet et al42

has revealed that crude extracts of seeds of this plant

demonstrated zones of inhibition in the range of 14– 21 mm against the isolated β-

lactamase-producing drug-resistant bacteria. Thus, the use of this plant by tribals to

treat bacterial infections has some scientific basis.

Kumar et al43

was intended to evaluate the anti-inflammatory activity of ethyl

acetate and methanol extracts of S. cumini seed in carrageenan induced paw oedema

in wistar rats at the dose level of 200 and 400 mg/kg administrated orally. Both the

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Bhagwant University PhD Thesis 50

extracts exhibited significant anti-inflammatory activity, which supportsthe traditional

medicinal utilization of the plant.

3.2. Cissus quadrangularis Linn.

Cissus quadrangulairs (Vitaceae) is an indigenous medicinal plant of India.

Cissus quadrangularis L. (A genus of about 200 species found in tropical and warm

locations.)44

. This perennial climber with a thick, succulent, quadrangular stem that is

winged, but constricted at the nodes, is nearly leafless, except on new growth. Its

tendrils are long, slender and simple. The deciduous leaves are variable, ranging from

ovate to cordate to tri-lobed and from 3-5 cm in length. The inflorescence is a

compound cyme, with four-petaled pink or white 2 mm long flowers. The 6-10 mm in

diameter fruit is a very acidic, globose, one-seeded red berry45

.

It has been prescribed in ancient Ayurvadic texts by Bhava Prakash and

Chakra Dutt as a general tonic especially for the fractured patient46

. The stem is also

reputed in Ayurvadic alterative, anthelmintic, dyspeptic, digestive, tonic, analgesic in

eye and ear diseases, in the treatment of irregular menstruation and asthma, and in

complaints of the back and spine47,48,49

.

A. Vernacular names

Sanskrit : Vajravalli, Chaturdhara

Bengali : Hadjora

Gujrati : Hadasankala

Hindi : Hadjod

Marathi : Kandvel

Tamil : Perandai

B. Taxonomic classification

Kingdom : Planate

Division : Magnoliophyta

Class : Magnoliopsida

Order : Vitales

Family : Vitaceae

Genus : Cissus

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Stem:

Stern is quadrangular, 4-winged,

internodes constricted at nodes;

A tendril occasionally present at nodes;

Internodes 4-15 cm long and 1-2 cm thick;

Surface smooth, glabrous, buff coloured

with greenish tinge, angular portion

reddish-brown;

Taste: None

Odour: None.

Leaf:

Leafless when old, leaves are 5 – 15 cm

long, cordate, broadly ovate or reniform,

crenate – serrate, sometimes 3 – 7 lobes,

glabrous, 2.5 – 7.5 cm X 3 – 9 cm. Flowers are small, greenish white, in short

umbellate cymes. Berries are obovoid or globose in shape, succulent, very acrid, pea -

sized.

Figure 3.3: Leaves of Cissus quadrangularis

Figure 3.2: Stem of Cissus quadrangularis

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C. Description

B.S: Drug consists of dried stems of Cissus quadrangularis Linn.

Family: Vitaceae.

Habitat: It is found throughout the hotter parts of india.

Distribution: Cissus quadrangularis is an ancient medicinal plant native to the

hotter parts of Ceylon and India.

a) Macroscopic

Drug occurs as pieces of stem of varying lengths; stem quadrangular, 4-

winged, internodes constricted at nodes; a tendril occasionally present at nodes;

internodes 4-15 cm long and 1-2 cm thick; surface smooth, glabrous, buff coloured

with greenish tinge, angular portion reddish brown, no taste and odour 50

.

D. Chemical constituents51

:

The identification of chemical compounds have been reported such as

carotene, vitamin A, vitamin C, calcium oxalate crystal, triterpene, steroid,

tetracyclic, triterpenoid, saponins, flavonol, stilbene and miscellaneous

compound. Recent study found two new iridoids 6 – 0 [ 2,3 – dimethoxy] –

trans – cinnamoyl catalpol, 6 – O – meta – methoxy – benzyl catalpol along

with a known iridoid picoside 1, two stilbenes quadrangularis A, pallidol,

quercitin, quercitrin, beta sitisterol and beta – sitosterol glycoside were

isolated from Cissus quadrangularis.

Phytochemical tests on the plant revealed the presence of alkaloids, saponins,

tannins, flavonoids, glycosides with the absence of cyanogenic glycosides.

Terpenoids to large stilbene derivatives have been isolated from the plant, The

stem of plant has phenolics compound tannin, vitamin C and beta – carotene

that known to be excellent anti oxidants may have positive effects in oxidative

stress related pathologies.

Stilbene derivatives likr Quadrangularis A, Band C, resveratrol, piceatannol,

pallidol and parthenocissin are present in the stem.

E. Ethenomedical uses

Plant is bitter, sweet, sour, thermogenic, alternate, laxative, anthelmentic,

carminative, digestive, depurative, haemostatic, analgesic, antiinflammatory,

aphrodisiac, ophthalmic and useful in vitiated condition of vata, helminthiasis,

anorexia, dyspepsia, colic, flatulence, skin disease, leprosy, haemorrhages,

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ophthalmopathy, chronic ulcer, tumours, epilepsy, convulsion, fracture, swelling and

vitiated condition of kapha52,

53

. External as paste applied over fractures extract has

acetyl choline like action54

.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Anti-inflammatory and analgesic activity

Panthong et al55

has evaluated that Cissus quadrangularis is used for the

treatment of hemorrhoid. The effects associated with hemorrhoid, i.e. analgesic and

anti-inflammatory activities as well as the venotonic effect of the methanol extract of

C. quadrangularis (CQ) were assessed in comparison with reference drugs. In the

analgesic test, CQ provoked a significant reduction of the number of writhes in acetic

acid-induced writhing response in mice. CQ also significantly reduced the licking

time in both phases of the formalin test. The results obtained confirmed the traditional

use of C. quadrangularis for the treatment of pain and inflammation associated with

hemorrhoid as well as reducing the size of hemorrhoids.

Rao et al56

has evaluated the effect of alcoholic extract of Cissus

quadrangularis (CQ) on the intrauterine growth of trabeculae in the long bones in

rats. Pregnant rats were administered with Ethanol extract of CQ, orally, at the dose of

750 mg/kg body weight from 9th

day of gestation till delivery. Femur bone of the

newborn pups were collected, decalcified and processed for paraffin sectioning.

Results showed a significantly increase in thickness of the cortical bone at mid shaft

level compared to control rats. The thickness of individual trabecula was increased

significantly. The present study demonstrates enhanced bone formation during fetal

growth by CQ, which may be related to rich content of calcium, phosphorus and

phytoestrogenic property of the plant.

Anti neoplastic activity

Opoku et al57

has evaluated that aqueous and methanol extracts of nine

traditional Zulu medicinal plants, all belonging to the [Vitaceae] family for their

anti neoplastic activity. The anti proliferative activity in vitro against HepG2 cells was

determined. Higher degrees of growth inhibition were found in aqueous root extracts

in comparison with the methanol extracts of the same plant parts. The results show

potential anti neoplastic activity, indicating some scientific validation for traditional

usage.

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Anti nociceptive activity

Mate et al58

has evaluated that chloroform:water (20:80) extract of Cissus

quadrangularis Linn. (Vitaceae) was centrally acting analgesics by using the hot plate

method, formalin test and acetic acid-induced writhing method for peripherally acting

analgesics. The doses administered were 250 mg/kg and 350 mg/kg. The animal that

administered both the doses showed significant analgesic activity. The animal that

administered a dose of 350 mg/kg has shown the maximum analgesic activity which

is comparable to the standard.

Anti osteoporotic activity

Thavani et al59

has evaluated that Clinical trial on 60 patients to prove the

efficacy of Cissus quadrangularis (CQ) in fracture healing. Fractures of long bones

were treated topically with CQ. CQ treated patients showed good callus formation in

30-40 percent less time than the non-treated.

Gharpure et al60

has studied that Cissus quadrangularis also known as Hadjod.

Asthisamhariis commonly used in Indian traditional medicine for bone healing.

Recent animal studies and human trials with its extract have shown promising results

in fracture healing and osteoporosis.

Potu et al61

has evaluated Cissus quadrangularis significantly increased the

force required to break the femur (p<0.001) and significantly increased the thickness

of both cortical (p<0.001) and trabecular bone (p<0.001). This action of CQ was

comparable to the action of raloxifene. The petroleum ether extract of CQ stem seems

to possess anti-osteoporotic activity in rats.

Potu et al62

has evaluated treatment with 100, 200 or 300 mg/mL petroleum

ether extract of Cissus quadrangularis enhanced the differentiation of marrow

mesenchymal stem cells into ALP-positive osteoblasts and increased extracellular

matrix calcification. Treatment with 300 µg/mL petroleum ether extract of Cissus

quadrangularis also enhanced the proliferation rate of the marrow mesenchymal stem

cells. Cissus quadrangularis stimulates osteoblastogenesis and can be used as

preventive/ alternative natural medicine for bone diseases such as osteoporosis.

Potu et al63

has evaluated petroleum ether extract of Cissus quadrangularis

Linn. (CQ) on an osteoporotic rat model developed by ovariectomy. The osteoclastic

activity was confirmed by TRAP staining, and the bone formation was assessed by

ALP staining in the femur sections. The color intensity of TRAP and ALP enzymes

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from the images were evaluated by image analysis software developed locally. The

effect of CQ was found to be effective on both enzymes, and it might be a potential

candidate for prevention and treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis. The

biological activity of CQ on bone may be attributed to the phytogenic steroids present

in it.

Potu et al64

has found maternal administration of Cissus quadrangularis

petroleum ether extract during pregnancy can stimulate the development of fetal bone

growth during the intra uterine developmental period.

Parisuthiman et al65

has evaluated Cissus quadrangularis Linn. has been

implicated as therapeutic agent for enhancing bone healing. Though its osteogenic

activity has been suggested, the underlying mechanism still remains unclear. In the

present study, the effects of ethanol extract of C. quadrangularis (CQE) on osteoblast

differentiation and function were analyzed using murine osteoblastic cells. The results

indicated that mRNA expressions of osteoblast related genes were not affected by the

CQE treatment. However, alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity and the extent of

mineralized nodules were significantly increased in treated cells compared with

controls. These results suggested that CQE may regulate osteoblastic activity by

enhancing ALP activity and mineralization process.

Shirwaikar et al66

has suggested Ethanol extract of Cissus quadrangularis was

evaluated for its anti-osteoporotic activity in ovariectomized rat model of osteoporosis

at two different dose levels of 500 and 750 mg/kg per day. Healthy female albino rats

were divided into five groups of six animals each. First group was sham operated and

served as control. All the remaining groups were ovariectomized. Group 2 was fed

with equivolume of saline and served as ovariectomized control. Groups 3-5 were

orally treated with Raloxifen (5.4 mg/kg) and ethanol extract of Cissus

quadrangularis (500 and 750 mg/kg), respectively. The findings assessed on the basis

of biochemical and histopathological parameters showed that the ethanol extract of

the plant had a definite antiosteoporotic effect.

Deka et al67

has studied the effect of methanolic extract of Cissus

quadrangularis Linn (CQ) on the healing process of experimentally fractured radius

ulna of dog. CQ treated animals revealed faster initiation of healing process than the

control animals on radiological and histo pathological examinations. The treated

group also revealed a decrease in serum calcium level to a greater extent than the

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control group. Healing was almost complete on 21st

day of fracture in the treated

animals and remained incomplete in the control animals.

Anti oxidant activity

Chidambara Murthy et al68

has evaluated Extracts of Cissus quadrangularis L.

were tested for antioxidant activity by beta-carotene linoleic acid model and also by

1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl model. The ethyl acetate fraction of both fresh and dry

stem extracts at a concentration of 100 ppm showed 64.8% antioxidant activity in the

beta-carotene linoleic acid system and 61.6% in the 1, 1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl

system. The antioxidant activity of methanol extract and aqueous extract were

comparatively less significant than that of ethyl acetate extract, and n-hexane extract

showed the least activity. The results of the study have implications in the use of C.

quadrangularis as an antibacterial agent and more so as an antioxidant in several

applications requiring these properties.

Anti ulcer activity

Austin et al69

has determined anti peptic ulcer activity of Cissus

quadrangularis Linn. against Helicobacter pylori (Hp) human isolates. Flowering and

vegetative period samples were analyzed. Aqueous (hot and cold) and solvent extracts

(acetone, chloroform and methanol) were screened. Among them chloroform was

observed to recover bioactive principles with low MIC. Extracts from samples

collected during flowering period were better than that of vegetative period. The

results confirm the traditional use of the plant in peptic ulcer.

Jainu et al70

has discussed that Cissus quadrangularis is well known for the

treatment of gastric disorders in traditional medicine. Ethanol extract of Cissus

quadrangularis (CQE) against the gastric toxicity induced by aspirin in rats. The

optimum protective dose of 500 mg/kg of extract was selected by the pre treatment of

gastric ulcers with different doses of CQE (250, 500 and 750 mg/kg) for 7 days which

showed ulcer protection by 40, 71.2 and 72.6 percent, respectively, as compared to

ranitidine (RTD) (30 mg/kg) by 71.9 percent in the aspirin model. These findings

suggest that the gastro protective activity of CQE could be mediated possible through

its antioxidant effect as well as by the atenuation of the oxidative mechanism and

neutrophil infiltration.

Jainu et al71

has designed pre-treatment with Cissus quadrangularisextract

(CQE) significantly prevented the gastric mucosal lesion development and decreased

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the gastric toxicity produced by ulcerogen. Histological studies confirmed the results.

The present finding suggests that CQE promotes ulcer protection by the decrease in

ulcer index, gastric secretions and increase in the glycoprotein level, gastric mucin

content. CQE may protect the gastric mucosa against ulceration by its antisecretory

and cytoprotective property.

Jainu et al72

has studied the ulcer protective effect of a methanolic extract of

C. quadrangularis (CQE) was comparable to that of the reference drug sucralfate.

Further, gastric juice and mucosal studies showed that CQE at a dose of 500 mg/kg

given for 10 days significantly increased the mucosal defensive factors like mucin

secretion, mucosal cell proliferation, glycoproteins, and life span of cells. The present

investigation suggests that CQE not only strengthens mucosal resistance against

ulcerogens but also promotes healing by inducing cellular proliferation. Thus, CQE

has potential usefulness for treatment of peptic ulcer disease.

Jainu et al73

has showed effect of ascorbic acid, the major bioactive

component isolated from Cissus quadrangularis extract (CQE) on inflammatory

cytokines and growth factors in non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID)

induced gastric ulcer. Analysis of serum cytokine profile using Enzyme Linked

Immune Sorbent Assay (ELISA) showed a drastic increase in interleukin (IL)-1beta,

IL-6, tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF)-alpha, interferon-gamma (IFN-gamma) and

decrease in IL-10, Il-4 and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) levels in NSAID (aspirin) treated

rats. Administration of CQA produced significant protection against aspirin induced

gastric toxicity by showing significant increase in PGE2, TGF-alpha, VEGF

expression and accompanied by a significant inhibition of nitric oxide and regulating

the levels of cytokines in rats. These findings suggest that CQE prevents gastric ulcer

formation due to its immunemodulatory effect, antioxidant activity along with the

ability to modulate PG synthesis and up-regulation of the growth factors.

Phytochemical review

Gupta et al74

has isolated seven new compounds, from Cissus quadrangularis

have been characterized as 4-hydroxy-2- methyl-tricos-2-en-22-one, 9-methyl-

octadec-9-ene, heptadecyl octadecanoate, icosanyl icosanoate, 31-methyl-

tritriacontan-l-0l, 7-hydroxy-20-oxo-docosanyl cyclohexane and 31-

methyltritriacontanoic acid. Taraxeryl acetate, friedelan-3-one, taraxerol and iso-

pentacosanoic acid also isolated for the first time from this plant.

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Bhutani et al75

has isolated two new unsymmetric tetracyclic triterpenoids

onocer-7-ene-3a, 21β-diol and onocer-7-ene-3 β,21a-diol together with sitosterol, δ-

amyrin and δ -amyrone from Cissus quadrangularis. The structures of the new

compounds were elucidated on the basis of HNMR, mass spectral and chemical

evidence.

Gupta et al76

has isolated a new unsymmetrrcal tetracyclic triterpenoid, 7-oxo-

onocer- & ene-3β, 21α-diol, from Cissus quadrangularis. The structure will

elucidated on the basis of spectral and chemical evidences

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3.3 Moringa oleifera Lam.

A. Biological source77,78,79

It consists of fresh or dried leaves, pods, flowers, roots, seeds and bark of

Moringa oleifera Lam. (Syn. Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn.), Belongs to family

Moringaceae.

B. Geographical source92,93,94,80,81

A small or medium sized tree, about 10 mt. high and cultivated all over plains

of India. Moringa oleifera is the most widely cultivated species in the sub-Himalayan

tracts of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan. This rapidly-growing tree was

utilized by the ancient Romans, Greeks and Egyptians; it is now widely cultivated and

has become naturalized in many locations in the tropics. It is a perennial softwood

tree with timber of low quality, but which for centuries has been advocated for

traditional medicinal and industrial uses. It is already an important crop in India,

Ethiopia, the Philippines and the Sudan, and is being grown in West, East and South

Africa, tropical Asia, Latin America, the Caribbean, Florida and the Pacific Islands.

All parts of the Moringa tree are edible and have long been consumed by humans95

.

C. Vernacular names 92,93,94,96

Sansk. : Sobhanjana, Bahola, Sakapatra, Sigru

Guj. : MidhoSaragvo, Saragavo, Segto, Seyla

Hin. : Sahijana

Eng. : Horse radish tree, Drum-stick tree

Kann. : Nugge

Tam. : Murungai

Tel. : Sajana, Munaga

Konk. : Maissang, Moring, Moxing

D. Scientific classification95

Kingdom : Plantae

Division : Magnoliophyta

Class : Magnoliopsida

Family : Moringaceae

Genus : Moringa

Species : Oleifera

Scientific name: Moringa oleifera Lam

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E. Morphology

M. oleifera is a fast growing deciduous shrub or small tree up to 12 m tall and

30 cm in diameter with an umbrella-shaped open crown (unless repeatedly coppiced).

It is a softwood tree with timber of low quality. The bark is corky and gummy. Leaves

are alternate, oddly bi- or tri-pinnate compound, triangular in outline and 20– 70 cm

long.

Each pinnae has 3–9 pairs of 1–2

cm long ovate leaflets, soft dark green

above and whitish below. The white,

fragrant flowers that are obliquely

monosymmetric and papilionoid (the

median petal is adaxial) with five stamens,

are in axillary pendulous panicles 1.5–2

cm long from leaf corners82

.

The fruit pods, called “drumsticks” are

15–45 cm long, 9-ribbed capsules opening

by three valves to release the seeds.

Each tree can produce 15’000 – 25’000 seeds per year.

All parts of the Moringa tree are edible but the roots, which are used as a

condiment in the same way as horseradish, contain the alkaloid spirochin, a

potentially fatal nerve paralyzing agent97

.

F. Chemical constituents

Phytochemicals are, in the strictest sense of the word, chemicals produced by

plants. In particular, this plant family is rich in compounds containing the simple

sugar, rhamnose, and it is rich in a fairly unique group of compounds called

glucosinolates and isothiocyanates83,84

.

Leaves contains two nitrile glycosides, niazirin and niazirinin and three

mustard oil glycosides, 4-[(4’-O-acetyl- α -L- rhamnosyloxy) benzyl]

isothiocyanate, niaziminin A and B85

.4-(a-L-rhamnopyranosyloxy) benzyl

isothiocyanate86

, niazimicin87

, pterygospermin88

, benzyl isothiocyanate89

, and 4-

(α-L-rhamnopyranosyloxy) benzyl glucosinolate90

.

Nitrile glycosides: niazirin, niazirinin94

. mustard oil glycosides: niaziminin A&

B.91,92

Figure 3.4: Moringa oleifera - leaves

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Phenolic flavonoids- Quercetin & its glucosides, kaempferol & its glucosides, 3-

caffeoylquinic and 5- caffeoylquinic acid94,99

.

Vitamins: Carotene (Vit. A), Ascorbic acid (Vit. C), Riboflavin (Vit. B2),

Tocopherols (Vit. K), Nicotinic acid (Vit. B3)92, 100

.

Essential Amino Acids, Proteins92

, Calcium, Phosphorus, iron, copper & Iodine92

.

Structures

4-(4'-O-acetyl-α-L-rhamnopyranosyloxy) Pterygospermin

benzyl isothiocyanate

Niazimicin Benzyl isothiocyanate

4-(α -L-rhamnopyranosyloxy) benzyl glucosinolate

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G. Ethnomedical uses

Gupta AK et al93

described leaves are emetic and their juice with black pepper

is used in headache. The poultice of leaves is used in reducing glandular swelling.

Goyal BR et al94

shows, the leaves are anthelmintic, aphrodiastiac, cures

hallucinations, dry tumors, cough and asthma. Decoction of dried leaves is taken

orally for abortion, externally for rheumatism, and for wound healing. Leaves made in

to a paste with salt are used to treat edema94

. Leaves used in scurvy and catarrhal

affection95

. The leaves are anti-inflammatory, anthelmintic, opthalmic and rich in

vitamin A and C. They are used in wound, tumor, helminthasis96

. The crushed leaves

are taken in the form of a tablet to relieve stomach pain in menstruation by women in

north western Karnataka. A paste of the leaves is applied externally to promote

healing of wounds. The juice extracted from leaves has a strong antibacterial and

antimicrobial properties97

. All parts of the tree are considered to possess medicinal

properties and used in treatment of Ascites, rheumatism, and venomous bites and as

cardiac and circulatory stimulants. The root is laxative, expectorant, diuretic and good

for inflammations, throat, bronchitis, piles, cure stomatitis, urinary discharges, and

obstinate asthama93

. Root bark is useful in heart complaints, eye diseases, all tridosha

fevers, inflammation, dyspepsia and enlargement of spleen. The root and barks are

abortifacient98

. The flowers cure inflammations and muscles diseases, the fruit cures

biliousness pain, leucoderma and tumor. The flowers, fruits and seeds cure capha and

vata. The seeds cure eye diseases and head complaints. Oil is useful in letrous ulcers

and as external aplications for rheumatism93

.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Chemical review

Faizi et al105

(1994), Bioassay-guided analysis of an ethanolic extract of leaves

showed the presence of two nitrile glycosides, niazirin and niazirinin and three

mustard oil glyosides,4-[(4’-0-acetyl-α-L-rhmnosyloxy) benzyl] isothiocyanate,

niaziminin A &B106

.

α-L-Rhamnosides of 4 hydroxy benzyl compounds with nitrile,

carbamate and thiocarbamate groups occurring in leaf extract and the α-L-rhmnoside

of anisaldehyde derivatives were synthasized99

.

Moringa oleifera was analysed for glucosinolates and phenolics (flavanoids,

anthocyanins, proanthocyanidin and cinnamates). Leaves contain 4-(α-rhamnos-

pyranosyloxy)-benzylglucosinolate and three monoacetyl isomers of this glcosinolate.

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The leaves contain queretin 3-O-glucosides and quercetin-3-O-(6”-malonyl-

glucoside), and lower amount of kaempferol-3-O-glucosides and kaempferol-3-O-(6”-

malonyl-glucoside). They also contained 3-caffeoylquinic and 5-caffeoylquinic acid97

.

Moringa oleifera leaves on ethanolic extraction yielded a no. of amino acids

viz., aspartic acid, glutamic acid, serine, glycine, threonine, α-alanine, valine, leucine,

isoleucine, histidine, lysine, arginine, phenylalanine, tryptophan, cystine, and

methionine. the ether extract of leaves yielded α and β-carotene100

.

Moringa oleifera leaves were found to be devoid of tannins101

, rich sourse of

vitamin C102

, than those of Moringa concanensis103

. Roots of Moringa oleifera have

high concentration of both 4-(α-L-rhamnopyranosyloxy) -Benzylglucosinolate and

Benzylglucosinolate104

. The stems contains 4 Hydroxymellein, vanillin, β-Sitosterol,

Octacosanic acid and β-sitosterol105

.

The bark contains 4-(α-L-rhamnopyranosyloxy)-benzylglucosinolate118

The

purified, whole- gum exudates from the drumstick plant contains- L-arabinose, D-

galactose, D- glucuronic acid, L- rhamnose, D- mallose & D- xylose in the molar

ratios of approx. 14.5:11.3:3.2:1.1106

. A leucoanthocyanin characterized as

leucodelphinidin-3-o-β-D- galactopuranosy (1-4)-o- β-D-glucopuranoside is also

present in gum107

.

The aqueous extract of mature flowers contains free natural sugars, D-

mannose and D-glucose in the ratio of 1:5 and two unidentified carbohydrates bearing

materials aong with protein and ascorbic acid of the above materials with varying

proportion. It also contains polysaccharides which on hydrolysis gives D-galactose,

D-glucose & D-glucuronic acid in molar ratio of 1:1.9:0.9108

.

The whole pods reported to contain nitrile and isothiocyanate and

thiocarbonates106,107

and O - [ 2 ’- hydroxy - 3’ - (2” – heptenyloxy ) ] –

propylumdecanoates and O-ethyl-4-[ (α-L- rhamnosyloxy) -benzyl] carbontes, methyl

–p- hydroxybenzoate & β-sitosterol109

. The mucilage from the pods designated as

drumstick polysaccharides, the investigation of which revealed the presence of

galactose, dextrose, xylose and sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium salts of

glucuronic acid. Contrary to the definition of mucilage, the presence of dextrose was

an exception110

.

The mature seeds contain 332.5 gm. crude protein, 412.0 gm. crude fats, 212.2

gm. carbohydrates and 44.3 gm. ash per kg. dry matter. The essential amino acid

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profile showed deficiency of lysine, threonine and valine. The content of methionine,

cysteine (43.6 gm/ kg protein), however, was exceptionally high and closed to that of

human milk, chicken eggs, and cow’s milk111

. Seeds have high concentration of both

4-(α-L-rhamnopyranosyloxy) benzyl glucosinolate and benzyl glucosinolate118

.

Drumstick seeds contain 38.16 % oil which contain Vitamin E (0.01 %), & β-

Carotene (0.014 %), the precursor of Vitamin A112

Mono palmitic and Di- oleic

triglycerides have been isolated from the benzene extract of semi-dried seeds113

.

Results of physical and chemical parameters of the extracted oil: iodine value:

68-71.80; refractive index (400C): 1.4590-1.4625; density (24

0C): 0.9036-0.9080

mg/mL.; saponification value: 180.60-190.50; unsaponifiable matters: 0.70-1.10 %;

and colour (1 in .cell), 0.95-1.10R+20.00-35.30Y. Tocopherols (α, γ and δ) in the oil

were up to123.50-161.30, 84.07-104 and 41.00-56.00 mg/kg. respectively. The oil

was found to contain high levels of oleic acid (up to 78.59 %) followed by palmitic

acid (7.00 %), stearic acid (7.50 %), behenic acid (5.99 %) and arachidic acid (4.21

%)114

.

From the row seeds by hot water extraction 4-(α-L-rhamnosyloxy) benzyl

isothiocyanate and 4-(α-L-rhamnosyloxy) phenylacetonitrile were isolated115

. 4-(α-L-

rhamnosyloxy) benzyl glucosinolate and its thermal degradation product 4-(α-L-

rhamnosyloxy) phenylacetonitrile were also reported116

. Starting from L-rhamnose ,

the first synthesis of the major glucosinolate isolated from drumstick seeds was

completed in seven steps117

.

Anti-inflammatory activity

Caceres A et al118

has showed anti-inflammatory activity of hot water infusion

of leaves against carrageenan induced hind paw edema. The crude ethanolic extract of

Moringa dried seeds was tested for antiinflammatory activity using carrageenan

induced inflammation the hind paw of mice by various workers and found to inhibit

85 % of inflammation at a dose of 3 mg/kg. body weight, while the mature green

seeds inhibited edema by 77 % at the same dose.

Siddhuraju P et al 119

has evaluated water, aqueous methanol and aqueous

ethanol extracts of freeze-dried leaves of Moringa oleifera Lam. from different

agroclimatic regions were examined for free radical scavenging capacities and

antioxidant activities. All leaf extracts were capable of scavenging peroxyl and

superoxyl radicals. Among the three different moringa samples, both methanol and

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ethanol extracts of Indian origins showed the highest antioxidant activities, 65.1 and

66.8%, respectively, in the beta-carotene-linoleic acid system. On the basis of the

results obtained, moringa leaves are found to be a potential source of natural

antioxidants due to their marked antioxidant activity.

Ahemad B et al120

has studied methanol extract of the Moringa fruit was also

screened for antiinflammatory effect using the rat paw edema and the rat 6 days at

pouch inflammatory models following oral administration, the extract inhibited

carrageenan induced rat pow edema in a dose dependant manner, with IC50 of 660

mg/kg in the six day at pouch acute inflammation model induced with carrageenan,

the extract was much more potent, with IC50 values of 302.0 mg/kg and 315.5 mg/kg,

for the inhibition of cellular accumulation and fluid exudation, respectively. It

contents antiinflammatory principle that may be useful in the treatment of both the

acute and chronic inflammatory conditions. Moringa oleifera Lam. (moringaceae)

was investigated for analgesic effect against thermal stimuli using Eddy’s hot plate

test and Analgesiometer test and for antipyretic effect.

Ezeamuzie IC et al121

has screened methanol extract of the root of the plant

Moringa oleifera Lam. for anti inflammatory effect using the rat paw edema and the

rat 6-day air pouch inflammatory models. Following oral administration, the extract

inhibited carrageenan induced rat paw edema in a dose-dependent manner, with 50%

inhibitory concentration IC50 of 660 mg/kg. Maximum inhibition obtained with 600

mg/kg was 83.8% and 80.0%, respectively. These results suggest that the root of

Moringa oleifera contains anti inflammatory principle(s) that may be useful in the

treatment of both the acute and chronic inflammatory conditions.

Armando C et al122

has designed antispasmodic, antiinflammatory and diuretic

activity of Moringa oleifera hot water infusions of flowers, leaves, roots, seeds and

stalks or bark. The antispasmodic activity was demonstrated using isolated duodenum,

oral anti-inflammatory activity by carragenan left hind paw edema and oral diuretic

activity by urine output in metabolic cages. The seed infusion showed a significant

inhibition of acetylcholine-induced contraction with an ED of 65.6 mg/mL bath

concentration, inhibition of carrageenan-induced edema at 1000 mg/kg and diuretic

activity at 1000 mg/kg. Some activity was also demonstrated in the roots. All doses

expressed here are as equivalents of dried starting plant material.

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Sutar NG et al123

has evaluated antipyretic activity of an ethanolic extract of

Moringa oleifera Lam. seeds at normal body temperature and yeast induced pyrexia,

in albino rats. The ethanol extract of Moringa oleifera at dose of 100, 200 and

300mg/kg body wt p.o. showed significant dose dependent reduction in normal body

temperature and yeast-provoked elevated temperature. The effect extended upto 5 hrs

after drug administration. The antipyretic effect of an ethanolic extract of seeds of

Moringa oleifera, was comparable to that of Paracetamol (150 mg/kg body wt, p.o.), a

standard antipyretic agent.

Antioxidant activity

Lalas S et al124

has described that aqueous, methanol (80 %) & ethanol (70%)

extract of freeze-dried Moringa oleifera leaves showed radical scavenging and anti

oxidant activities. All the extracts were capable of scavenging peroxyl and superoxyl

radicles. The major bioactive compounds were found to be quercetin and kaempferol.

The oil from the dried seeds showed higher antioxidant activity than butylated

hydroxyl toluene and α-tocopheol.

Siddiq A et al125

has studied the antioxidant activity of different solvent

extracts of Moringa oleifera leaves under accelerated storage of sunflower oil.

Methanolic and acetone (80 to 100%) extracts of Moringa oleifera leaves were added

at the concentration of 0.06% (w/w) into the refined, bleached and deodorized

sunflower oil. The overall order of antioxidant efficacy of the extract of Moringa

oleifera leaves assessed by various oxidation parameters was followed as, 80%

methanolic extract >100% methanolic extract > 80% acetone extract > 100% acetone

extract. The antioxidant activity of Moringa oleifera leaves might be attributed by the

presence of high amount of flavonoids, polyphenolics and tocopherol contents. The

results of present study revealed that M. oleifera leaves might be explored as a viable

source of natural antioxidants and nutraceuticals.

Antimicrobial activity

Goel M et al126

has studied leaf extract of Moringa oleifera Lam. in three

different solvents (methanol, ethyl acetate and aqueous) reduced sporulation of some

fungi, aqueous and methanolic extracts were most effective. HPTLC analysis yield

gallic acid in leaves. According to these results, it can be predicted that it has certain

substances inhibitory to the fungal spore germination.

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Eilert U has discussed antimicrobial agent for (α-L-rhamnosyloxy) benzyl

isothiocyanate was identified from the seeds. Defatted and shell free seeds contain

about 8-10 % of 4(α-L-rhamnosyloxy) benzyl isothiocyanate but this amount is

produced when ascorbic acid added during water extraction. The compound acts on

several bacteria and fungi. The minimal bactericidal concentration in vitro is 40

mmol/l for Mycobacterium phlei and 56mmol/l for Bacillus subtilis127

.

Cardiovascular activity

Eilert U et al128

has written that niazinin A, niazimicin, niaziminin A & B

isolated from ethanolic extract of eaves produced hypotensive and bradycardiac effect

in anaesthetized at a dose of 250 mg/kg. i.v. The aqueous extract of stem bark

produced a positive inotropic effect at low concentration and negative inotropic effect

at high concentration on isolated perfused dog heart and it also produced a dose

dependant hypotensive effect on dog blood pressure. Ethanolic and aqueous extracts

of whole pods and their parts namely; fruit, pulp and seeds also showed hypotensive

activity. The activity of the ethanolic extract of both the pods and the seeds was

equivalent at the dose of 250 mg/kg.

Dangi SY et al129

has obtained alkaloids by fractionation of the water extract

of the leaves converted in to their salt form, were tested for theie activity on the

isolated frog hearts. The total alkaloidal salts were found to produce a negative

inotropic effect on the isolated perfused frog heart. This activity was further

characterized by testing it on the isolated guinea pig ileum.

Antihyperlipidaemic activity

Saluja MP et al130

has invented that administration of crude leaf extract along

with high-fat diet decreased the high-fat diet induced increase in serum, liver and

kidney cholesterol level by 14.35 % (115-103.2 mg/100 mL of serum), 6.40 % (9.4-

8.8 mg/g wet wt.) and 11.09 % (1.09-0.97mg/g wet wt), respectively.

Mehta et al131

, fruits of Moringa oleifera were reported to possess

hypolipidaemic effect. They were found to lower the serum cholesterol, phospholipid,

triglycerides, VLDL, LDL, cholesterol to phospholipid ratio and atherogenic index in

hyper cholesterolaemic rabbits, but were found to increase the HDL ratio (HDL/HDL

Total cholesterol) as compared to the corresponding control groups.

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Anticancer activity

Guevara AP et al132

has screened paste of drumstick leaves for its influence

on the carcinogen detoxifying glutathione-S- transferase (GST) activity by more than

78 % in the stomach, liver and oesophagus and showed protective activity against

carcinogenesis.

Antihepatotoxic activity

Pari L et al133

has determined hepatoprotective effect of an ethanolic extract of

leaves of moringa on liver damage induced by antitubercular drugs such as isoniazid,

rifampicin and pyrazinamide in rat has been evaluated. The extract was found to

enhance the recovery from hepatic damage induced by antitubercular drugs.

Kumar NA et al134

has studied the protective effect of Moringa oleifera Lam.

(Moringaceae) on hepatic marker enzymes, lipid peroxidation, and antioxidants was

investigated during antitubercular drug induced toxicity in rats. Administration of

Moringa oleifera extract and silymarin significantly decreased hepatic marker

enzymes and lipid peroxidation with a simultaneous increase in the level of

antioxidants. We speculate that Moringa oleifera extract exerts its protective effects

by decreasing liver lipid peroxides and enhancing antioxidants.

Antidiabetic activity

Patil MB et al135

has evaluated Moringa oleifera leaves extract for their

hypoglycaemic activity in normal rabbits fed with glucose. Acetone extract exhibits

significant hypoglycaemic activity (P more than 0.025), Methanolic extract also

showed hypoglycaemic activity but it was not significant. All other solvent extracts

failed to reduce the blod glucose evel.

Jaiswal D et al136

has studied effect of Moringa oleifera Lam. leaves aqueous

extract on hyperglycemic rats. The dose of 200 mg/kg decreases blood glucose level

(BGL) of normal animals by 26.7 and 29.9% during FBG and OGTT studies

respectively. In sub and mild diabetic animals the same dose produced a maximum

fall of 31.1 and 32.8% respectively, during OGTT. In case of severely diabetic

animals FBG and PPG levels were reduced by 69.2 and 51.2% whereas, total protein,

body weight and haemoglobin were increased by 11.3, 10.5 and 10.9% respectively

after 21 days of treatment. Significant reduction was found in urine sugar and urine

protein levels from +4 and +2 to nil and trace, respectively. The study validates

Chapter-3 Review of Literature

Bhagwant University PhD Thesis 69

scientifically the widely claimed use of M. oleifera as an ethnomedicine to treat

diabetes mellitus

Nootropic activity

Mohan M et al137

has assessed toluene-ethyl acetate fraction of methanolic

extract of Moringa oleifera (Moringaceae) leaves for its nootropic activity using

passive shock avoidance paraigm and elevated plus maze.Extracts (50 and 100 mg/kg)

was compared with Piracetam (100mg/kg), Scopalomine (1mg/kg) was used to induce

cognitive dysfunction. The extract significantly decreased Transfer Latency on Day-2.

The extract reduced the latency to reach the SFZ and the number of mistakes. No

adverse effects were observed up to a dose of 200mg/kg.

Lakshmi V et al138

has determined antidiuretic activity of Moringa oleifera

pods. In the present study the aqueous extract of Moringa oleifera pod was tested in

two oral doses (400mg/kg and 800mg/kg) for its diuretic activity in albino rats and its

diuretic activity was compared with that of a standard drug hydrochlorothiazide. In

our study aqueous extract of Moringa oleifera showed a significant increase in urine

volume and it was comparable to that of hydrochlorothiade. Thus the authors

conclude that Moringa oleifera has diuretic action

Miscellaneous activity

Girija V et al139

has described that hot water infusion of leaves possesses

antispasmodic activity. Availability of carotene (vitamin A) from vegetables was

studied in rats by the liver storage bioassay method. Carotene of Moringa oleifera was

49.1 % active in producing vitamin A. When rats were supplemented with pure

carotene, the Hb level increased. The bio-availability of thiamin and riboflavin from

leaves was higher.

Mossa JS et al140

has showed that Moringa oleifera increased the blood

glucose by 15 % in alloxanized mice.

Kar A et al141

has evaluated that ethanolic extract showed significant blood

glucose lowering effect within 2 weeks in alloxan induced diabetic albino rats. The

blood glucose levels and the corresponding insulin levels in response to drumstick

leaves in southern India were compared to the leaves achieved in response to 75 gm

of glucose in non insulin dependent diabetes mellitus patients. The blood glucose

response was 56% compared to 75 gm of glucose. It was concluded that the reduced

blood glucose response to drumstick leaves is not due to insulin secretion.

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Bhagwant University PhD Thesis 70

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