chapter ii teori

8/2/2019 Chapter II Teori

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CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL DESCRIPTION

2.1 Definition of Leader and Leadership

The leaders may influence morale and satisfaction at working, security, the

quality at working and the achievement in the organization. The leaders have critical

role in helping those groups, organization and community for achieving their

objective.

The capability and skill of the leader in giving direction is an important factor.

If the organization has the capability in identifying the quality related to the

leadership, the capability in selecting the effective leaders will be increased. If the

organization is able to identify the attitude and effective leadership techniques, the

organization may learn various techniques of the attitude.

Hence, it may achieve the development of effectiveness for one organization.

Here, it should be also emphasized that a leader is mot for sure with leadership spirit.

Conversely, one spirit leader is not for sure to act as a leader.

A group of people who work together for achieving the objectives requires one

person as a leader. The goal is for having effective and efficient results. In achieving

the certain objectives, there are many ways which can be done. One and another may

be different. However, all are as a unity. Every different business which is done by

two or more people, then there must be someone to manage the implementation of

work. It is called as leader.

A leader is to lead, and not to encourage. A leader influences the subordinates

to get certain achievement and it may be initially that according to their opinion, the

target can not be achieved.


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A leader must have the capability to create the spirit either emotional spirit or

rational spirit for the subordinates. In fact, it is actually that leadership tends to be

more emotional that rational.

To describe the meaning of leader in more detailed, several definitions from

the famous authors will be given below.

Henry Pratt Fairchild started : Leader can be widel y described as a leader

who direct by influencing other behaviors according to his intentions at certain time.

Some people in the group will lead mostly of the person available.1

The conclusions which may be taken from the above definition is that a leader

is someone with capability and special skill in influencing other people to work

together in implementing certain activities for achieving the objective.

Leadership is A managerial activity in order to direct and influence other

activities related to the subordinates tasks.2

Seeing from management side, leadership can be defined as the capability to

influence and motivate other people in order to follow the managements wishes to

achieve established target effectively and efficiently. Here, it is clearly seen that

leader has an important role to assist group, organization or community in achieving

the target.

1George R. Terry & L.W. Rue., Principle Of Management, Eight Edition, Published

by Bumi Aksara, Jakarta, 2003, page 192.

2Indriyo Gitosudarmo., The Introduction of Business, Second Edition, Published by

BPFE, Yogyakarta, 2001, page 328.


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Leadership skill is very important to direct and lead an organization and it is

also to make managerial effectiveness. Some definitions regarding leadership are as

the following. James A.F. Stoner said that Leadership is a process of directing and

influencing activities related to the tasks of group members.3

According to Stoner, Leadership can be defined as the a process of giving

guidance and influences to the activities of group of people related to the tasks.4

According to Stoner, there are three implications from the statement.

1. Leadership is related to other people (superior and subordinate). Without them, all

quality of leadership cannot be seen. In fact, from them, there will be the process of

accepting guidance and assistance in determining status and position of leader.

2. Leadership is related to authority division that is unbalance among leaders and

group members. Leader has the authority that is directly related to subordinates,

whereas subordinates cannot give guidance to the leader directly.

3. Leader is not merely to give order, but also to give influences to their subordinate

in performing certain tasks and to influence the subordinates in order the task can be

done on timely manner.5

3Amin Widjaja Tunggal., The Management Escort, First Edition, Published by

Rineka Cipta, Jakarta, 2003, page 308.

4Gugup Kismono., The Introduction of Business, Frist Edition, Published by BPFE,

Yogyakarta, 2001, page 217.

5

Ibid., pages 217-218.


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From the definition, it can be found that leading is related to influencing other

parties in the related groups. In addition, the influence may appear among leaders and

members of group. It means that there is interaction or converse reaction in a group.

2.2 The Principles & Style of Leadership

Basically, leadership can be credited by having a group who intend to solve

something. Researchers have identified five leadership styles in grid managerial,

namely:

1. Impoverished leadership

2. Country Club leadership

3. Task leadership

4. Middle of the road leadership

5. Team leadership6

Ad.1. Impoverished leadership means that low attention of the leader either to

the personnel or production. Minimum efforts to solve the works are a

precise manner to defend the membership in an organization.

Ad.2. Country Club leadership means that low attention of the leader to the

production and high attention to the personnel. Full attention to need of

the people in fulfilling its relationship leads to comfortable and friendly

circumstance.

6Ulber Silalahi., The Comprehension Practical of Management Principles, Second

Edition, Mandar Maju, Bandung, 2002, pages 322-323.


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Ad.3. Task Leadership means that high attention of the leader to the

production, but low attention to the personnel. Efficient in work can be

caused by the good arrangement in work. It makes the human element

can be included in minimum degree.

Ad.4. Middle of the road leadership means that attitude of the leader in giving

balance attention to the personnel and production. Adequate

organization achievement may be done through the equilibrium of

problem solving by the way of maintaining working spirit and

satisfactorily moral on related people.

Ad.5. Team leadership means that the attitude of the leader in giving high

attention to the personnel and production. The works are accomplished

by those people who commited to works, mutual dependence, and

mutually respecting.

Whereas, classic leadership styles are as the following:

1. Authoritarian leadership style

2. Democratic leadership style

3. Laissez-Faire leadership style7

Ad.1. Leader focuses the attention on the authorities and decisions to himself.

Leader has full authority and fully responsible for the works. The

subordinate are merely given the task and adequate information in order

to perform the work.

7

Gugup Kismono., Op.cit, pages 220-221.


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Ad.2. Leader delegates his authority widely. Decision-making is always

discussed with subordinates. Here, leader and subordinates are in a

team. Leader gives information as much as possible to the subordinates

regarding their tasks.

Ad.3. Leader participates only on minimum works. Subordinates determine by

themselves regarding the achieved target and problem solving.

Although there are many leadership styles, it does not mean that each has

exclusive characteristics. Leader with similar style does not have other style. The style

depends on the encountered problems. Here, leader may apply democratic leadership

style in the other situation. Special conditions determine the way of leader in leading

and determining the style to be used by considering: time, organization and available

personnel in organization (expertise, skill and others).

As for leadership style according to some experts can see at tables of

following :


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TABLE 1

LEADERSHIP STYLE ACCORDING TO SOME EXPERTS

Drs. Malayu S.P. Hasibuan Haris

White and Ronald

Lipitt

Authoritarian

Participative

Delegative

The Autocratic Leader

The participative Leader

The free Rein Leader

Autocratic

Democratic

Laissez Faire

Rensis Likert and Lewind

Paul Hersey and Ken

Blanchard

Sondang P, Siagian

Exploitative autocracy

Benevolent Autocracy Style

Consultative Leadership Style

Participative Group Leadership

Style

-

Telling

Selling

Participating

Delegating

Autocratic

Militaristic

Paternalistic

Charismatic

Democratic

William J. Reddin G.R. Terry

Robert Blake and

Mouton

Deserter

Bureaucrat

Missionary

Developer

Autocrat

Benevolent Autocrat

Compromiser

Executive

Personal Leadership

Non personal Leadership

Autocracy Leadership

Democraty Leadership

Paternalistic Leadership

Indegenous Leadership

Deserter

Missionary

Autocrat

Compromiser

Executive

Data Source : Hasibuan, Human Source Management, Revision Edition, Bumi

Aksara, Jakarta, 2003, page. 171.


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2.2.1 Principles of Leadership

The principles of leadership consist of:

1. Contribution principle from individual to target achievement2. Principle of target harmonization3. Principle of efficient in giving guidance4. Principle of unity of order5. Principle of direct supervision6. Principle of precise guidance techniques7. Principle of managerial communication8. Principle of comprehensive9. Principle of information10.Principle of informal organization used strategically11.Principle of leadership8

Ad.1. To effectively set up and supervise the subordinates, the requirements in

accomplishing tasks must be remarkably communicated to the

subordinates so that they are will be highly motivated to perform the

tasks consistent with the established goals of group.

Ad.2. To set up and supervise the subordinates, the manager has to ensure that

efforts to keep the goals of individual subordinates consistent with the

goals of group are maintained

8Winardi., The Principles of Business Administration, First Edition, Mandar Maju,

Bandung 2002, pages 204-205.


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Ad.3. Efficient direction is set when the techniques, communication and

activities related to it result in the achievement of group goals with

minimum dissatisfaction, cost or other undesirable consequences.

Ad.4. Giving direction will be most effective when the subordinates are only

responsible for one superior.

Ad.5. Interpersonal, relationship of superior and subordinates characteristics

require manager to demonstrate supervision and monitoring methods

involving directly personal contact to build activities from subordinates

and monitor their implementation.

Ad.6. Effective direction requires that the technique used must be properly set

to the supervised part and tasks to be accomplished.

Ad.7. Managerial positions are the center of communication in which the

organization and manager become major communication medium in an

organized company.

Ad.8. Effective communication requires that the receiving parts must

comprehensively preserve the information delivered.

Ad.9. Direct information flow is the most effective way in communication.

Ad.10. It is significantly important for the manager to know and constructively

employ the informal organization.

Ad.11. Competency to effectively lead is essential for giving effective

direction (guidance).

2.3 Effective Leader

The successful of an organization to achieve the determined objectives will

largely depend on capabilities of the members in using available sources and tools so


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that the use can run in efficient, economic and effective ways. When the available

sources and tools employed by its members are efficiently and effectively used, it

means that the leaders success can be measured referring to the obtained outcomes,

successfully pushing the organization. Here, efficient means unavoidable sacrifices.

More effective interaction of leader and subordinates through humanity

approach will result in higher likelihood and chance to build close relationship and

mutual understanding and cooperation between the leader and the subordinates or

devotee, and this situation can be potentially used to achieve common goals. Finally,

implementing effective leadership functions makes employees more effectively

working to attain the objectives and, therefore, the organization will be effective.

Several factors affecting the effectiveness in leadership are:

Past experiences-shape personality and expectation of the leader

Expectation and behavior of superior

Characteristic, expectation and behavior of subordinates Task requirements, climate and organization policies Expectation and behavior of coworkers9

These factors also influence management. A process to influence is reversible

leader and group members, for example, intensely influence one to another and affect

the overall effectiveness in group.

9James A.F. Stoner., Management., Second Edition, Published by Erlangga, Jakarta,

2002, page 126.


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In this case there is three critical variable influencing leadership style, that is :

1. Leader2. Subordinate3. Situation

2.4 Role of Leadership Styles in Company

In this case, the role of leadership styles can be categorized into 3 models:

1. Role of leadership style as leader2. Role of leadership style related to the information3. Role of leadership style in making decision

Ad.1. Role of leadership style as leader

In this role, leader acts as a leader. He demonstrates interpersonal

relationship with the subordinates through carrying out such major

functions as a leading, motivating, developing and controlling the

subordinates as the efforts to attain company objectives.

Ad.2. Role of leadership style related to the information

This role will identify the leader as acceptor and collector of the

information and, thus, he will be able to develop a good appreciation

about the company, and run the company that committed to its

surroundings.

Management collect information to look at changes, identify problems

and available opportunities to improve the understanding of its


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environment and know how and when the information shall be delivered

for the purpose of making decision.

These allow the management to acquire as much as the possible

information from various sources either inside or outside the company.

And obligation of the subordinates is to accomplish terms and condition

prevailing in the company circumstance such as:

a) Fulfilling tasks delegated to them in high quality and accountabilitymanner.

b) Performing determined duties/orders associated with their tasks.c) Retaining all things regarded as the confidential information of

company.

d) Caring and maintaining company-owned properties.e) Respecting management and employees.

Rights and obligation of the company/management to the employees are:

a) Providing reasonable tasks during working hours.b) Assigning employees to work over time as necessary.c) Determining working rule/regulation.d) Appointing employees in all areas of working environment.e) Terminating work relationship based on the estabilished rules.f) Giving salary/wage, additional wage, health insurance and other

allowances.

g) Leading, caring and maintaining safety and healthy of the workers.


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The role appears because a leader realizes that he himself does not work

individually in the company, and management at the top, middle and low level have

equal and comparable role with only differences in the position, eventually creating

the very unequal role weight.

Ad.3. Role of leadership style in making decision

It is the complicated role since the leader needs to be involved in the

strategy making stages in the company. This involvement occur because

the leader is the only man who is permitted to think important and novel

actions, and, thus, making the decision.

As a source of information, management can provide guarantee or best

decision reflecting recent improvement and values of the company.

The presence of an individual who are taking control over the company will

make the strategic decisions easier to achieve in integrated way.

Leadership style also can play a part in to motivate employees. Motivation is

one of management functions between the other management functions. Therefore,

motivation is a function that related to the human being. Therefore, motivation is an

important element in a management.

Generally, motivation is defined as an encouragement to enable anyone to do

works or action. Motivation is activity that involves, distribute and maintain the

human behavior i.e. process to influence anyone to do anything required by us.

Motivation is related to the prosperity and identical to tangible goods and can

be felt such as bonus, incentive, another facilities that required by employee in

addition to motivation as intangible motivation.


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In order to encourage and move the people to do any work maximally,

communication and the role of any parties are very necessary. Motivation ask a

manager to know how to practice the subordinate with more information, how to have

a time to get more suggestions and recommendation about an issue or problems.

The Liang Gie defines motivation as follows : Motivation is a job of a

manager in provide his/her subordinates with inspiration, spirit and encouragement

to take any actions this motivation aims to encourage people or employee to have

spirit and to achieve the determined goal of the people10

Machfoedz also defines motivation as follow : Motivation is an internal

encouragement of anyone to do anything and has certain behavior 11

Generally, the motivation is divided into two types, i.e.

1. Negative motivation2. Positive motivation

The application of these motivations must consider the situation and condition

of anyone, because did not all of people or individual has the same characters. The

people are differed. An effective motivation for anyone is not effective for another

one.

10Susilo Martoyo, Manajemen Sumber Daya Manusia, BOFE, Yogyakarta, 2006,

page 155.

11Mahmud Machfoesz, Pengantar Bisnis Modern, First Edition, Andi, Yogyakarta,

2007, page 189.


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Implementation of positive motivation is hold by any incentives such as :

1. Material incentive2. Non material incentive

Ad.1. Material incentive

Is an incentive or premium with a money value. Money is a motivation

tool to satisfy the economic need of employee. If we ask anyone or

employee why he/she take a work, the answer is to get more money.

The using of money as motivation is aims to satisfy the physiological

need.

Ad.2. Non material incentive

Is any incentives without money value. Such as :

Award for an achievement. This method is always neglected as usefulmotivation tool in which anyone like a respect on their achievement.

A Honest attention to employee as an individual. This is very difficult becausea honest attention can not do as well as. In this sense, a manager or superior

must care in provide the employee with attention because there is a Concept

individual differences in which the attention will cause a different

consequences to the different people.

Competition. Generally, anyone like for a competitors honestly. This basicneed used by management to provide a health competition in a work.

Participation. The involvement of individual in decision making in a companyis a competitive motivation with an important role. This is indicated by the

replacement of employee representative in a decision making. This is an effort


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to minimize the misunderstanding and build a mutual cooperation between the

management and employee to build a mutual responsibility and attention to

the company.

Further more, a comfort work condition will improve the morality of

employee and seriousness. A good equipments, a comfort work room, sufficient

lighting will increase the spirit for a work in addition to increase the work affectively.

Distribution of information to the employee of company about the condition of

company is a need of employee. The distribution of information is realized by hold a

special meeting, through magazines, circulars, etc. this action will build a mutual

understanding between superior and subordinate. This information will confirm the

progress of company, any obstacles, the implementing project, etc.

Motivation consists of material and non material motivation. In providing

motivation either material or non material, must based on the principles of motivation.

The material motivation based on the principles as follows:

1. There is guarantee for minimum wage/salary2. Accuracy in an addition compensation3. Motivation system must be formulated to avoid the decreasing of

wage/salaries

4. Motivation system must create a self confidence of employee

Ad.1. There is guarantee for minimum wage/salary

Guarantee on wage/salaries is an important thing that must considered by

management. Usually, employee do the work for a regular wage/salaries. They

did not like to work in uncertain wage/salaries. In addition, the minimum


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wage/salaries will avoid unsuitable wage to the old employee who moved

from one work to another one.

Ad.2. Accuracy in an addition compensation

In the providing of additional compensation, the accuracy in time has a

psychological effect, because the employee did not wait the proof of the

additional compensation. Their spirit is respected although it has not yet

produce a concrete outcome.

Ad.3. Motivation system must be formulated to avoid the decreasing of

wage/salaries

Motivation system must be formulated carefully to avoid any discount or

decreasing of wage/salary rate. A company must provides the employee with

opportunity to increase their income, but did not over than the maximum rate.

For the effectively, a motivation must based on a requirement and need of

employee by consider the capability of company. Therefore, there is not losses

for both of sides and the motivation system will applied successfully.

Ad.4. Motivation system must create a self confidence of employee

For a success, a system must build a trust of employee. The system must

simple to enable employee calculate their income according to their

wage/salaries. Therefore, employee consider that company did not apply

complex method to get the profit from themselves. Waging system that cause

the suspicion of the employee is a bad condition. In this condition, it is better

to did not apply any system.


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Non material motivation based on :

1. Recognition on a qualified work2. Management attention up to the lower level continuously3. Personnel contact that must be developed between superior and subordinate4. To satisfy the individual and collective interest5. Personnel loyalty between manager and executive

Ad.1. Recognition on a qualified work

Each people need a recognition on each work that have be conducted and feel a

deceived if there is a recognition on his work. If his/her efforts did not recognized

the employee will loss an interest and spirit for work. Although the recognition

only a price, it can motivate a responsibility of employee.

Ad.2. Management attention up to the lower level continuously

In a goodwill chain that distribute information from the upper level to the lower

level, the important chain in the middle manager who related to the management

and the employee. A middle manager must consider the attitude of top manager

while to motivate the employee for a work. If a middle manager did not able to

teach and train the employee and to get their trust, he is a problem solver to avoid

any confused in a company.

Ad.3. Personnel contact that must be developed between superior and subordinate

Personnel contact between manager and employee and intra- personnel will create

a self confidences and will develop an effective goodwill. Manager as a friend of

employee has a loyalty that believe by the employee. It is not a good idea to treat


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the employee extremely as a friend, in which the job achievement and authority

are scarified. Therefore it is important to care in the establishment of personnel

relationship.

Ad.4. To satisfy the individual and collective interest

Behavior of employee influenced by any problems such as a problem as member

group and personnel problem. By consideration of work schedule, work condition

and the amount of wage/ salary, the individual and collective interest of employee

are satisfied. For example, there is a group of employee who will change their

living standard out of their permanent work, therefore a superior must pay a

friendly attention to the employee for the loyalty development to the company.

Ad.5. Personnel loyalty between manager and executive

We seldom know that loyalty only as non personnel affair. What a loyalty to the

company is not a loyalty to the management of company. Therefore, a manager

must motivate his subordinates to have a high loyalty either to company or to

himself as manager. In another word, a high loyalty of subordinate depend on the

executive who have personality and capability to recognize and respect to another

one.

Motivation must be according to the requirement of department or section to

achieve determined objectives of the firm. Nevertheless, each company in provides

the employee with motivation must has one perception to encourage them to do the

work effectively and efficient to achieve the goal of company. The method, type and

the amount of motivation are various to another ones.


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Motivation can be implemented into two method, i.e

1. Direct motivation2. Indirect motivation

Ad.1. Direct motivation

Direct motivation is a motivation that provided directly and intentionally

according to the need of the motivated employee.

Ad.2. Indirect motivation

Indirect motivation is activity in management that directed implicitly to the

internal motive and satisfaction of the individual need in an organization.

These activities are realized in any efforts to :

a. Synchronization of individual aspiration and the objective oforganization through socialization of employee to the objective of

organization that did not opposed to the individual aspirations.

b. Building of organization condition toad favorable condition for a job achievement. This efforts implemented in the facts of social

condition in which there is a satisfied social condition in an

organization according to individual perception and association

condition in which there is a mutual cooperation and understanding

of employee to do their work.

Based on above description, a direct and indirect motivations are important in

encourage the work spirit. Based on the cost and power used in motivation, a direct

motivation will applied if the indirect motivation is not sufficient.


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There are some opinion of the experts related to the theories of motivation

such as follows :

1. A.H. Maslows TheoryMaslow says that the theory of motivation is called the theory of hierarchy of

the needs. The hierarchy of needs follows the plural theory. That is someone

with attitude to work by the existence of courage to fulfill various needs.

According to A.H.Maslow, there are five needs in a needs hierarchy, i.e

a. Psychological Needb. Safety Needc. Social Needd. Respect Neede. Self Actualization Need12

Ad.a. Pscyhological Need

Psychological need is a basic need for survive such as foods, house and

clothes. In the work context, this need is satisfied by the sufficient wage or

salary. For the psychological need in a higher level is a motivation for

employee.

12

Mahmud Machfoedz, Op.Cit, page 194-195


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Ad.b. Safety Need

Safety need is a next need after the psychological need is satisfied, include

the safety in work, protection on job accident either physically or psychis,

health insurance , pension and safety work condition.

Ad.c. Social Need

The satisfaction of psychological and safety needs create a social need

such as love , attention. In a certain limited, this need is satisfied by the

work environment and informal organization.

Ad.d. Respect Need

A respect need is difficult for satisfaction. Each people need a respect and

want to receive his/her existence. This need is satisfied by the individual

achievement, promotion and honor.

Ad.e. Self Actualization Need

Self Actualization is a need that assigned in the higher level in the needs

hierarchy . This need is a need for growth and developed as a human being

and achieve the desires according to capability and self competency.

2. Douglas Mc. Gregors TheoryDouglas Mc. Gregor is a professor in Massachusetts Engineering Institution

for management. He is popularly known by his theory X and Y. The theory is

based on the assumption that human can be clearly differentiated form


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followers of theory X (traditional theory) and followers of theory Y

(democratic theory).

The main characteristics of theory X and theory Y :

Working as little as possible and it is against to the change. It must be influenced, sanctioned, punished and supervised in order to make

their attitude may fulfill the needs of organization.

Expecting the direction and avoiding the responsibility. Whereas, the main characteristics of theory Y are as follows: Lazy to work and it is not automatically occurred. Having the capability to manage the work and with responsibility as well as

with the potential in building. But the management with their action must

make them to realize the capability.

Expecting to get the appreciation of social and satisfaction from their work.

Hence theory Y concerns with the base characteristics of human who are lazy.

Without initiative, and they must be managed. If the manager consider that his

subordinates are lazy and are not able to do work well, hence he has spend much time

in realizing the potential of subordinates. Here, the leader resembles as the autocratic

leader.

Theory Y means the base assumption concerning with the characteristics of

human with responsibility and they are honestly to work their potential, with

initiatives and creativity. They follow the principle of working climate creation for

maintaining harmonious relationship and for achieving the objectives. In fact, the

subordinates are not always foolish, and even they are cleverer than a leader on


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certain thing. Hence, there is the confession that subordinates are as human who are

diligently working, taking initiatives and responsibility. A leader with the assumption

is called as democratic leader.

3. Frederich Herzbergs TheoryFrederich Herzberg says that one theory is related to the working satisfaction.

It is based on the theory in Pitsburg and Surrounding. Based on the theory,

then it emerges the theory of motivation with two factors, namely :

a. The needs for health. The needs is continuously occurred and will returnto zero point after its fulfillment.

b. The maintenance factor related to the psychological needs of someone. Itincludes a set of intrinsic condition and working satisfaction.

4. David Mc. Clelands TheoryDavid Mc. Cleland is director of personal research center in Harvard

university. He and his colleagues learn about the issue related to the success of

someone. His theory as called as achievement Motivation Theory. According

to him, the characteristics of someone who has the needs to get success in

working are as follows :

They have reasonable objectives They determines the target to achieve precisely and well-done. They like the work They prefer to work in those area which may give them the description

related to the condition of the work.

chapter ii teori

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