1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction of Bricks

Brick, the most important tiny piece for construction works is used by human

for many years back. Its history goes back to some of the earliest times in the

civilization of men. Many world famous archaeological excavations provide much

information about the brick uses in different parts of the world. Many years back,

bricks were made at warm places and simply placed in the Sunlight for hardening. The

hand-shaped, Sun-dried, mud bricks were made and used during the Pre-Pottery

Neolithic Period. The oldest examples of brick use were first found in Southern Turkey.

The Sumerian palace at Kish, in Mesopotamia, was another great example of the

ancient use of bricks. In the 5th century B.C., burnt bricks were used in the wall of the

city of Babylon. The ancient Egyptians also used Sun dried clay bricks in their

numerous world famous historic monuments. During the period of the Roman Empire,

the use of bricks spread throughout the Europe and spread in Italy and the Byzantine. In

the 11th century, use of bricks in the construction work had spread from these lands to

France.

During the 12 century, bricks were reintroduced to northern Germany from

northern Italy. This created the brick Gothic period which was a reduced style of

Gothic architecture, previously very common in northern Europe. The buildings around

this time were mainly built from fired red clay bricks. Brick Gothic style building can

be found in Baltic countries Sweden, Denmark, Poland, Germany, Finland, Lithuania,

Latvia, Estonia, Belarus and Russia. In England, the art of brick making was well

advanced by the time of Henry VIII (1491-1547). After the great fire of London in

1666, the city was rebuilt with mainly brick structures. In America, bricks were used in

Virginia since 1611 and also Sundried bricks were made and used for centuries in

Central America, particularly in Mexico.

During the renaissance and Baroque periods, exposed brick walls became

unpopular and brickwork was generally covered by plaster .Only during the mid of 18th

century visible brick walls again regain popularity. Beautiful examples of bricks have

been found in the 20th

century in India.

2

Brick production was done by hand until about 1885. In the middle of the 19th

century brick manufacturers began the development of mechanical production. Due to

the development in different sectors, enormous expansion of house and demand for

bricks lead to mechanized production of bricks. Progress in making bricks was greater

in England than in any other country .Brick manufacture commenced in America in the

middle of the 17th

century, but it was not until the latter half of the 19th

that the industry

began to develop in that continent, when the English machine makers went to seek a

market. In Netherlands, Belgium and France no real technical progress was made in

manufacture of bricks, until the end of World War I, although clay working in other

artistic branches reached a high state of perfection in France before the end of the 19th

century.(Encyclopedia Britannica)

Though a common structural material, till now brick is the cheapest one. This

small unit is used very systematically by an expert hand for many different types of

construction for long time. Technically, clay bricks fall under the category of heavy-

clay products. Heavy clay products are those that are mainly made from single clay

with very little addition of other raw materials. Different types of bricks with different

names in different parts of the world are being produced for structural purposes.

Generally the classifications were done on the basis of size, colour, use and quality.

(Narayanswami ,1993).

Some of important bricks types are-

FBS-Face Brick Standard: Clay bricks that are selected or produced for their

durability and uniformity of size and shape.

NFP-Non-Facing-Plastered:-Clay bricks suitable for general building work that is to

be plastered.

FBX-Face-Brick-Extra: Clay bricks that are selected or produced for their durability

and high degree of uniformity of size, shape and colour.

NFX --Non-Facing- Extra: Clay bricks suitable for use, plastered or unplastered, for

general building work.

FBA-Face- Brick- Aesthetic: Clay bricks that are selected or produced for their

durability and aesthetic effect deriving from non-uniformity of size, shape or colour.

E-Engineering Units: E bricks are manufactured at extremely high temperatures,

forming a dense and strong bricks, allowing the bricks to limit strength and water

3

absorption. E bricks offer excellent load bearing capacity and chemical resisting

properties.

Concrete Bricks:-Concrete bricks are made from solid concrete .Concrete bricks are

usually placed in facades, fences and provide an excellent aesthetic presence; these

bricks can be manufactured in different colours.

Fly ash clay bricks: Fly ash clay bricks are manufactured with clay and fly ash, at

about 1000 degree C. Some studies have shown that these bricks tend to fail poor

produce pop-outs, when bricks come into contact with moisture and water, causing the

bricks to expand.

Sand lime bricks: Sand lime bricks are made by mixing sand, fly ash and lime

followed by a chemical process during wet mixing and then moulded under pressure.

Common Burnt Clay Bricks:-Common burnt clay bricks are also called hard bricks

and made of clay .Such bricks are formed by processing in molds and then dried and

fired in a kiln .These bricks are used in general works with no special attractive

appearances.

Sewerage Bricks: such bricks are specially designed to construct sewers. Sewerage

brick can resist corrosion/abrasion and also bears load of passing traffic and hydrostatic

pressure from ground or surface. (Satya P, 1996, Ghoshal,2008, Types of

Bricks.www.claybrick.org.za/buying/p_types.htm.)

1.2. Brick Industry in India

Brick Kiln Industry is a demand based industry, which fulfills the growing

demands for urban expansion and economic development. Such industries are

categorized as small scale industries and traditionally situated in rural and peri-urban

areas to fulfill local requirements of building construction. Brick kiln Industry is an

important part of the rural and urban economy as it is based on local resources of the

area. Like other rural based small industries, the Brick kiln Industry also provides

income and employment opportunities by employing many people, both men and

women during agricultural off season.(Gupta,1993).

Brick making is an age-old small-scale industry and has been the main stay of

construction since olden times. The excavation of Mohenjodaro reveals the fact that the

art and science of brick making were well known to the village people even that period.

The villagers of that area have been practicing it for over 5000 years. (Mathur1995).

4

Use of box shaping brick may be taken to be a technological advancement and firing of

green brick may be considered to be another one. These technical improvements took

shape in and around 3000BC (Damle1996).From different historical evidence, it is

found that manufacturing of clay bricks is a very old industry in the human civilization.

Good numbers of world famous very old historical buildings in India are still in

existence and prove that brick was the predominant building material in different period

of time. (Ghoshal, 2008).The design, shape and weight of bricks have undergone

numerous historical changes.

Indian Brick industry, the second largest producer of bricks in the world, is next

to China and commands 60.45% share in the net domestic product of the country, but is

“clearly” away from the ambit of state regulation and protection (Daniel.2009). Such

informal, small-scale, often unlicensed (unregistered) and unregulated brick kiln

industries are running as unorganized sector. (Daniel 2009, Maithel et.al 2010).The

industry has an annual turnover of more than Rs140 million, with an estimated coal

consumption of around 25 million tons per year, as the third largest consumer of coal

after thermal power and steel sector of the country(Gupta and Narayan2010).Indian

brick industry, the second largest producer of bricks, run as a small sector with more

than 150,000 brick fields throughout the country, each unit manufacture on an average

between 10-100 million bricks per year.

Brick is the back-bone of construction activity In India, The Gangetic plain of

north India accounts for 65% of the total brick production. Punjab, Haryana, Uttar

Pradesh, Bihar and west Bangle are the major brick producing states in this region.

Gujarat, Maharastra, Orissa.Tamilnadu, Madhya Pradesh are the important brick

producing states in the Peninsular Plateau and coastal area of India.(Gupta and

Narayan2010). Bricks are prepared, processed and baked in kiln at the cottage, village

and rural enterprise level. Being situated in the remote country side, the brick kiln

industry portrays a unique model of industrial relations-“Tripartism”(Iqbal2006).Brick

making is a low technology industry which is characterized by distinct division of

labor, employing skilled and semi-skilled labor comprising men, women and children

during agricultural off season. The bricks are hand-molded, sun dried and then fired in

a pit or clamp kiln. Complete mechanization in production is yet to be taken place in

India. In between the simple and the advanced methods of making bricks i.e. an

5

intermediate technology is most commonly used. Brick kiln industry is the second

largest sector after the construction sector with floating labor population; these workers

are mostly seasonal migrants. They belong to the poorest and weakest sections of the

rural society and they migrate to brick kiln industry in search of employment during the

lean period of agriculture (Gupta 2003).

Migrant brick kiln workers belonged to low caste and tribal communities and

migrate with their family. The entire family lives on the site and work on one unit.

(Kainth2009).Migrant brick kiln workers who are semi skilled workers, are one of the

most exploited, un-organized and un-regulated labor force (Daniel2009).In the brick

sector, labour is brought in through a contractor a from distance place. Since, they are

not regular labour and not directly appointed by the owner, they are not covered under

the current Labour Laws, like minimum wage act. The characteristics of ‘Bonded

Labor’’—restricted freedom, hiring workers against advances, long working hours,

under payment and physical and verbal abuse by contractors and employers are very

common in Indian Brick industries. Labors involved in brick industries are bonded in

the sense that they all take advance money and have to work to repay their debt

(Bhukunth 2005).The brick kiln industry is a significant employer of women and

children with a piece-rate-wage system through sarder in an advance payment mode

(Gupta 2003).Brick kiln labours are paid on the basis of quantum of work and against

completion of certain tasks such as moulding of 1000 bricks, transportation of 1000

green bricks etc. The seasonal nature of brick production generates employment for a

limited period of 6-7 months in a year. Majority of workers has no option, but to

engage as labours (generally as agricultural labour) for the rest of the year. (Danieal,

K.2009).The employers usually employ more casual labourers in order to avoid the

fixed cost of employing permanent workers. Such type of casualisation of workforce

becomes a remarkable features of unorganized sector,(unorganized sector implies

insecure, unprotected employment, labour-intensive output with poor value added

production i.e. long hours of works with little reward).(Bandyopadhyay,2003)

In India, brick kiln industry is the only industry where modernization has not

taken up (Maithal et al 2010).Most of the industries still follows the traditional manual

brick making process and conventional kilns. The industries generally collect topsoil

from nearby age old paddy fields and coal, fire wood, agricultural waste are used to

6

burn the green bricks. The inefficient and age old method like hand moulding and sun

drying bricks under open sunlight and the use of open clamp burning system force the

Industry to operate for a period of 6 - 8 months only during a year, depending upon the

climate conditions, which made it a seasonal one.

Coal is major fuel of brick industry and burning of coal result in the release of

several air pollutants in the form of GHG (mainly carbon dioxide) particulate matter,

Sulphur dioxides, carbon monoxide etc. At local level (in the vicinity of a brick kiln)

some of these gases are injurious to humen health, animal and plant life. At global

level, pollutions like carbon dioxide contributes to the phenomenon of global warming

and climate change(Maithel2010).This industry owing to its temporary, inefficient

technology using and polluting nature together with total absence of professional

management including quality control can’t be termed to be “organized” sector in its

true sense(Gupta2003).

Brick production in India, is widespread and situated as cluster. Most units use

continuous kiln, (mainly Bull's Trench).The remaining kilns are of the intermittent type

like clamp, scoved, scotch kilns etc. On an average, all units produce 4 million bricks

season, usually, has a pit measuring about 15 acres (from 5-35 acres). ( Maithal, 1999).

As a raw material, local clay is used to produce bricks. Sand also sometimes uses to

get the right properties. Generally, agriculturally fertile lands are consumed by each

brick kiln (3-4 ha), which get converted into wastelands as a result of industrial

operation in the life of a brick kiln from 8-12 years. (Gupta and Narayan 2010).

Digging, mixing, molding etc are all manual operations. Both men and women are

employed, but in general, the women workers are employed for unskilled works like

carrying green bricks to the kiln. All workers works on piece rate system, except the

skilled workers.

Indian bricks are generally produced according to the recommendation of The

Bureau of Indian Standards .7.5"x3.5" x3.5" and 7.5"x3.5"x1.5" as two recommended

sizes for modular bricks and 9"x4.25"x2.75" size for non-modular bricks. In western

part of India, the most acceptable size is 9"x6"x4" (called double size bricks) and other

parts of India usually produce 10"x5"x3"size of bricks. Besides it, 1st class,2

nd class and

3rd

class bricks(grades) are some commonly practiced brick production in all over

India.

7

1.2.i. Kiln Construction in India

Kiln is the most important part of brick manufacturing process and it is the

place where bricks are burnt in large in permanent structures. In fixed chimney, the

green bricks are burnt to make solid final product with very little change in the shape.

The industry needs environmentally sound technologies for firing bricks, which

primarily concern about local environment and at the same time which enhance energy

efficiency and reduce GHG emissions. Local environmental concerns have led to the

formulation of emission standards for brick kilns that were announced by the

Government of India in April, 1996, the emission standards specify the permissible

limits for suspended particulate matter in flue gases from brick kilns. The standards

also propose ban on the use of moving chimney Bull’s Trench Kiln (BTK) for firing

brick by June 2000. (TERI, 1998.Stake emission and energy monitoring of fixed

chimney brick kilns. Project Report No98IE 41.New Delhi: Tata Energy Research

Institute, Google .com.)

Green bricks are heated from 6000

to 11000 c in a kiln to get the finished

product. The production capacity of kilns generally ranges from 50000-500,000 bricks

per rotation. The arrangement of bricks in a kiln depends on the types of fuel used. The

kilns are generally classified into (a) Intermittent Kilns. (b) Continuous Kilns.

An intermittent kiln without permanent kiln structure is commonly called as

clamp. Clamps are generally used when production volume is small. Intermittent kilns

have low energy efficiency and most of the unit remains unutilized. Continuous kilns

include Bulls Trench Kilns with moving and fixed chimney, Hoffmann kiln, High

Draught kiln and VSBK.

Brick Kilns are also classified on the basis of production capacity. The Gazette

Notification on “emission standard’ for the brick kilns into three categories (Maithel

2003)

(1) Small (Production capacity less than 15000 bricks per day).

(2) Medium (15000 to 30000 bricks per day.)

(3) Large (more than 30000 bricks per day.)

8

1.2. ii Highly practiced kiln in India: Fixed Chimney Bull’s Trench Kiln

The Bull’s Trench Kiln is commonly used and popular “Chimney Kiln” in

India. It was patented by a scientist named W. Bull in Germany in 1876 and its

continuous operation is based on the famous “Hoffman principle”. The Kiln is oval,

circular or rectangular in shape and has a fixed chimney at its centre. At least a third of

its total height is normally below ground level and it can work on fuel. The chimney

sucks in hot flue from the burning zone and draws it through raw bricks and cools

down the fired product simultaneously. By comparing with other kilns, the Bull’s

trench kiln is at least 30% more fuel efficient. (Damley, 1993)

1.3.i. Brick Industry in Assam:

Many historical monuments and age-old administrative buildings of Assam are

proving the practices of brick used in many years ago. The different shapes, sizes and

colours of old bricks clearly proved that the different types of bricks were used in

different period of time in Assam.

In Assam, manufacturing of clay bricks had started in the early part of last

century. During that period, bricks were produced not for commercial purposes; only to

fulfill the particular demand arises for specific construction where bricks were burnt in

country clamp .From different primary sources, it is found that in the year 1920, the

Assam Bangle Railway Company manufactured clay bricks for the construction of

Railways in Nagaon District at Senchowa. During pre and post-independence period,

along with economic development and growth of the economy, the brick manufacturing

units were increasing but the rate was very slow in Assam. Brick making on purely

commercial basis had started in mid-eighties of last century. The increasing number of

units in Assam (Table 1.1), which gives an idea about the increasing number of brick

manufacturing units which got the shape of an industry step by step.

Like other parts of India, in Assam, brick manufacturing is done by using

traditional method and all units are located in semi urban and rural areas .Majority of

the units are medium and small production units and operate only during dry season

(5-6 months in a year) by using the resources locally available. This traditional industry

has low level of mechanization and a high labour intensity. Burning of bricks is an

energy intensive process and it is a source of air pollution, in the form of GHGs.

9

Setting up of Brick Kiln industries involves some formalities and guidelines adopted by

the Government of Assam. Completion of such formalities is mandatory.

The brick kilns are classified as factories under the Factories Act 1948.The

factories have to be registered under this act with the Directorate of Labour Welfare

which is the Inspectorate of Factories. The inspecting officers paid visits to the brick

kilns and collected data about the employment and ownership and filed papers for the

registration of the industry under The Factory Act, 1948 .A statutory consent from the

State Pollution Control Board, Assam is a pre-requisite for obtaining registration. No

Objection certificate (NOC) from Revenue Department of Assam and village local

authority are some of other pre –requisite conditions for set up a brick kiln industry. On

the basis of the burning capacity of the kiln, the following rate of sale taxes has to be

paid by the producer in two installments in every year.

I) The kiln with capacity of >20 (payas/miyan ) has to pay Rs 60000/

II) The kiln with capacity of >25(,,) has to pay Rs 80000/.

iii) The kiln with capacity of 25< has to pay Rs 100000/

Besides it, the entrepreneur has to procure a license from the labour department

as the industry is labour-intensive and to a great extent, has to depend on migrant

labourers. Once the unit is registered under the Factory Act, it comes under the preview

of the following Acts as well.

1. The contract Labour (Regulation &Abolition) Act 1970.

2. Inter-State Migrant Workmen (Regulation of Employment &Condition of

service). 1979,Act.

3. Payment of Gratuity Act, 1972.

4. Employees Provident Fund and Miscellaneous Provisions Act, 1952.

5. Employees State Insurance Acts, 1948.

6. Payment of Bonus Act1965.

7. Maternity Benefit Act, 1961.

10

Tab

le:

1.1

D

istr

ict–

wis

e d

istr

ibu

tion

of

regis

tere

d b

rick

man

ufa

ctu

rin

g u

nit

s in

Ass

am

(1999-2

012)

SL

No

Na

me

of

dis

tric

ts

1999

2000

2001

02

03

04

05

06

07

08

09

10

11

12

13

1

Dh

ub

ri

14

14

14

14

12

12

11

12

12

16

17

20

23

27

2

Kok

rajh

ar

01

03

02

02

02

02

02

02

02

02

03

04

05

08

3

Bon

gaig

aon

00

00

01

01

02

02

00

08

00

12

16

18

18

26

4

Goalp

ara

00

00

00

00

0

00

00

00

00

00-

00

00

00

00

5

Borp

eta

00

00

01

00

01

00

01

02

04

05

06

06

07

08

6

Nalb

ari

00

00

00

01

01

00

00

00

01

O1

03

03

04

04

7

Ka

mru

p

66

69

71

75

79

95

105

119

133

142

159

175

199

225

8

Darr

an

g

18

24

24

25

25

24

22

24

24

17

18

21

27

26

9

Son

itp

ur

82

83

81

83

99

116

121

101

133

138

170

182

191

257

10

Lak

him

pu

r 00

00

00

00

00

00

00

00

00

01

04

09

21

21

11

Dh

emaji

00

00

00

00

00

00

00

00

00

00

00

00

00

01

12

Mori

gaon

02

02

13

13

13

13

09

13

17

25

29

31

32

38

13

Nagaon

06

07

12

29

38

48

39

57

68

104

118

128

143

169

14

Gola

gh

at

36

36

46

52

46

48

52

52

55

58

67

72

83

90

15

Jorh

at

27

27

28

32

25

26

29

41

43

45

45

48

53

57

16

Siv

sagar

11

11

20

24

25

25

25

30

35

42

43

73

94

131

11

17

Tin

suk

ia

34

34

36

38

39

41

39

47

50

56

78

81

95

109

18

Dib

rugarh

51

55

56

68

70

76

78

55

93

98

102

108

116

136

19

Karb

i an

glo

ng

02

03

03

03

03

3

00

03

03

--

06

06

06

07

20

N.C

.Hil

ls/

Dim

a H

asa

o

04

06

06

06

06

5

00

06

05

--

06

06

06

09

21

Cach

ar

15

16

17

40

50

53

49

54

64

70

79

95

105

127

22

Kari

mgan

ja

17

14

19

20

21

21

08

19

20

25

25

31

35

54

23

Hail

ak

an

di

00

00

00

00

0

0

0

00

00

- 01

2

04

08

24

Bak

sa

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

----

00

00

00

00

25

Ch

iran

g

--

--

- --

--

-

--

--

4

04

4

05

05

26

Ud

alg

uri

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

08

09

9

05

08

T

ota

l

386

405

450

526

545

610

590

645

762

869

1008

1132

1210

1551

Sourc

e: S

tati

stic

al H

andb

ook o

f A

ssam

, dif

fere

nt

per

iod.(

2000-2

013)

12

1.3. ii. Registered Brick industries in Assam (From 1999—2112)

Due to the tremendous expansion of construction sectors and increasing demand

of bricks encourage the entrepreneur to set up brick kiln industries during last few

years. The trend of the bricks manufacturing industries in Assam is shown in the

following figure.

Figure : 1.1.Registered Brick manufacturing industries in Assam (1999-2012)

*The serial number showing in the horizontal axis indicate different years (from 1999-

2012) and vertical axis indicates the Industries numbers.

1.3.iii. The relative importance of brick kiln industries in comparison to other

registered factories (1997-2013)

The relative importance of brick manufacturing industries in comparison to

other registered factories existing in the manufacturing sector of Assam can be shown

by the following representation.

13

Table: 1.2: Percentage share in number brick kiln industry and others

manufacturing registered Factories in Assam from 1997--2012.

SL

No

Time period No of total register

Factories

in Assam

BKI (No of non metallic

Industries in Assam.)

1 1997 2526 400 (15.9%)

2 1998 2212 350 (15.82%)

3 1999 2307 386 (16.73%)

4 2000 2406 405 (16.83%)

5 2001 2506 450(17.96%)

6 2002 2691 526 (19.55%)

7 2003 2754 545 (19.79%)

8 2004 2923 610( 20.86% )

9 2005 3070 590(19.23%)

10 2006 3182 645 ( 20.27% )

11 2007 3319 762 (22.96%)

12 2008 3733 869(23.28%)

13 2009 3971 1008(25.38%)

14 2010 4262 1132(26.56%)

15 2011 4400 1210(27.5%)

12 2012 4895 1551(31.7%)

Sources: Statistical Hand Books of Assam in different years, from 1997 onwards.

The above representation gives an idea about the existence of industrial units in non-

metallic sector and total number of registered factories in Assam. The Brick kiln

industries are categorized as non-metallic mineral product according to NIC (The Non-

metallic Mineral Product Manufacturing subsector includes establishments that

manufacture products, such as bricks, refractory, ceramic products, and glass and glass

products,NationalIndustrialClassification(http://www.census.gov/epcd/ec97/def/327.H

TM .) In Assam, there are no other industrial units other than brick manufacturing ones

in the non metallic mineral product sector.

14

Figure :1.2: Trends of total register Factories and Non Metallic Mineral

Industries (BKI) in Assam (1997—2012)

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011

Re

gis

tere

d F

act

ory

&B

KI

Year

Registered Factory & BKI in Assam

Registered Factory in Assam

BKI Assam

1.3.iv. Number of workforce engaged in BKI and other registered factories (2005-

06 -2011)

Brick kiln industry is highly labour intensive industry. All concerned

manufacture process is done by different types of workers. From the point of view of

employment generation and engagement of workforce the importance of the Brick kiln

industries can easily be realized from the following Figure 1.3. It is clearly shown that

the number of workers engaged in Non Metallic mineral sector is significant in

comparison to the total number of workers engaged in other registered factories in

Assam.

The following Table and figure shows the number of workers engaged in different

BKIs and other registered factories of Assam. Though the BKI workers are not very

high, but it is very significant as the brick industry engage much illiterate and unskilled

labour.

15

Table : 1.3.

Number of workforce engaged in Brick Kiln Industries and other registered

factories in Assam, (2005-06 to 2011-2012.)

SL No Time period Total workforce engaged in

registered Factories in

Assam

Total workforce engaged in

non metallic Industries

(BKI) in Assam.

1 2005-2006 112794 13116 (11.63%)

2 2006-2007 114233 16064(14.06%)

3 2007-2008 129435 21320(16.47%)

4 2008-2009 137164 25815(18.82%)

5 2009-2010 150485 30251(20.1%)

6 2010-2011 160551 36101(22.48%)

7 2011-2012 185243 51270(27.68)

Sources: Statistical Hand Books of Assam.

From the above analysis, it is observed that with the increasing number of brick

industries in Assam, the total workforce engaged in such industries are also increasing.

The importance and significance of an industries can be shown by its relative position

in terms of its contribution towards the net value added and net income generated by

the industrial sector of that economy. The position of Brick industries in Assam can be

shown by the following figure 1.3.

Figure:1.3 Number of workforce engaged in Brick Kiln Industries and other

registered factories in Assam, from 2005-06.

16

1.4. Increase Demand of Bricks

Brick industry is basically a demand based industry. The growth of brick

industries is the result of growing demands for bricks. Due to the emergence of various

developmental factors, mainly housing, urbanization and infrastructure lead a high

demand for bricks .The rate of urbanization, growth of per capita income are some of

the important indicator of growing demand for bricks.

1.4. i. Urbanization

The rate urbanization or increasing number of Small Township in Assam is an

important factor for growing demand for bricks. This process can be measured in terms

of increased housing and commercial facility and increase in urban amenities like

transport, communication, sewerage etc. All these require higher building materials

including bricks. To have a glimpse about the progress of urbanization in Assam

(during the period of 1901-2011) can be considered.

Table:1.4 Trend in urbanization in Assam, 1901-2011.

Census

Year

Total number of

UAs/Towns

Total

population

Total urban

population

% urban

population

1901 12 3289680 77074 2.34

1911 14 3848617 92916 2.41

1921 22 4636980 127107 2.74

1931 22 5560371 162166 2.92

1941 24 6694790 208067 3.11

1951 24 8028856 344831 4.29

1961 50 10837329 781288 7.16

1971 69 14625152 1289222 8.71

1981 NA NA NA NA

1991 87 2241322 2487795 10.97

2001 110 26655528 3439240 12.90

2011 189 31169272 4388756 14.08

Source: Rural –Urban distribution, Assam (provisional population Total)

Census of India, 2011

The above table shows the increasing trend of urbanization and urban

population in Assam during the period of 1901-2011.The number of urban areas and

17

towns has increased from 12 in 1901 to 189 in 2011 Census. From 1921 to 1951 the

increase was minimal. Suddenly it increased to 50 in 1961 from 24 in 1951.23 urban

areas and towns were increased between1991-and 2001.Whereas, the increase between

2010 and 2011 is 79, which is the largest. Along with increasing number of urban areas

and towns, the number of inhabitants also increases .The increasing trend of

urbanization results increase demands for different inputs of housing including bricks

also. Besides housing, Government also provides other amenities for urban

development. This indicates continuous rising demands for construction materials. The

growth of urbanization in Assam, particularly during the last two decades can be taken

to be a factor in the rising demand for bricks in the state.

1.4. ii Increasing trend of state per capita income:

The rising demand for bricks can also be perceived with continuous rising

trends of state per capita income. From the changing scenario of housing pattern in

Assam, it can be easily perceived that the demands for bricks are continuously rising in

the state along with the other parts of India because there is a close relation between per

capita income and brick demands. Other traditional building materials are become

scarce and costly and they are temporary in nature. As a result, the time and money

spent on such non-permanent housing gradually replaced by permanent dwellings.

These houses might even eventually become valuable assets for the owner. Besides it,

the use of concrete structures increases the status of the owner, which considered a sign

of being modern and wealthy. Thus, the per capita income gives an idea of standard of

living of the people. Table 1.6 shows the increasing trend of per capita income of

Assam and India during the period of 2004-2005----2010-11 at constant (2004-05)

prices.

From Table 1.5 ,it is found that the per capita income of both Assam and India,

increasing gradually during the period of 2004-2011.It indicates the rising purchasing

capacity of people and rising standard of living.The rising demand of bricks also a sign

of higher living of standard.The growing change in the pattern of household from

temporary structure to semi-permanent one are also some other indicator of rising

demand for bricks.

18

Table. 1.5: Per Capita Incomes (at current prices)

Year Assam India

Per capita

Income (in Rs)

Growth rate

(%)

Per capita

Income ( in Rs)

Growth Rate

(in %)

2004-05 16782 24143

2005-06 18396 9.62 27123 12.3

2006-07 19737 7.29 31198 15.0

2007-08 21290 7.87 35820 14.8

2008-09 24195 13.64 40605 13.4

2009-10 27197 12.41 46492 14.5

2010-11 30413 11.82 54527 17.3

Source: Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Assam & Central Statistical Office,

New Delhi, Economic Survey,Assam,2010-11.

1.5. In Study Areas

Nagaon is an important district situated in the middle part of Assam .The

district is spread over an area of 3973 sq.km. The district is bounded by Golaghat

district in the east, Marigaon district in the west, Darrang and Sonitpur district in the

north and Karbi Along district in the south. There are three sub-division in Nagaon

district namely Nagaon,Hojai and Kaliabor.

108 registered (under State Pollution Control Broad) and some unregistered

brick kiln units are operating in Nagaon District in three sub-divisions. Nagaon sub-

division ranks highest with 71 units, next Kaliabor sub-division with 29 and in Hojai

sub-division with 08.Table1.5 shows the sub-division wise distribution of units.

Since 1996, as per India government rule, all existing units are required to

compulsorily register under State Pollution Control Board. Each unit produces annually

30-70 lakhs bricks on an average in every season. Few units are in operation for four to

six decades, but more than 50% units came into existence during last 5-10 years. The

industry employing on an average 150 workers –as the male workers counted only the

muster rolls of the employer and it is a also a significant employer of women and child

as well. Due to its localized nature, brick production provides employment

opportunities to villagers in many ways, directly and indirectly.

19

Table:1.6:Registered Brick Kiln Industries,(During 1998—1999 to 2012-

2013 )in Nagaon District)

Year N.Div K.Div H.Div

1998--1999 01 ---- ----

1999-2000 05 01 03

2000-2001 13 - 01

2001-2002 02 01 -

2002-2003 03 - -

2003-2004 01 02 -

2004-2005 02 02 -

2005-2006 02 01 -

2006-2007 03 - 01

2007-2008 02 - -

2008-2009 02 - -

2009-2010 15 04 01

2010-2011 14 02 01

2011-2012 02 09 01

2012-2013 04 07 -

Total 71 29 08

Source: Field study, Records of State Pollution Control Board Office Nagaon, and

unpublished records of Factory office Nagaon ,and Published records of Chief

Inspector of Factories,Assam,2009.

The Brick manufacturing units in Nagaon district have been set up for nearly

two decades now. With simple modification of production technique, the industry

followed simple, labour intensive traditional method. Brick production is a seasonal

activity dependent on some skilled and semi-skilled labour. In early years, the industry

has to depend on migrant labours from Bihar, Jharkhand, Ranchi, Orissa, but now most

of the labours are locally(within the state) available. Most of the industries are small

scale industries registered under Factory Act1948 .Though some of the labour laws

officially applicable, but they are violated in the brick fields and the workers remain

unprotected, insecure and unorganized.

20

Brick making has started in October, after the ritual performed by the owner (on

the day of Vijaya Dasmi) and the labour Sarders are sent to bring the labourers to the

brick fields. Making green bricks has started in November after all the batches of

skilled workers (Patheras) have arrived and the final step for burn the Sundried green

bricks begin after one month. The brick fields commonly known as Bhattas, are open

cast and work start from 5 am to 6 pm in the evening. The whole process of brick

making is spilt into a number of tasks performed sequentially in different locations

within the brickfields. Each phase of production is assigned to different sets of workers,

who are traditionally differentiated in terms of sex, skill and place of origin. All

workers have a specific name for the assigned activity in production process but a

worker of a certain category cannot participate in a task not designated for the group.

Brick making is a labour – intensive industry, which are characterized by continuous

and cyclic process of manufacturing. In Nagaon district, clay is the only raw material

for brick production and it is the most economical also. It starts with the raw clay,

which is first ground and mixed with water to the desired consistency. Generally the

collected alluvial soil (collected from agricultural fertile land) is mixed with water and

kneaded into dough .The clay is then pressed into a wooden box (known as Forma).

Once the bricks have slightly dried, the rough edges are removed with a wooden plate.

The shaped bricks are (commonly named as green bricks) are kept open for Sun-dry for

few days, approximately 1 week. It depends on the Sunshine. When the drying stage

will be over, the dried out bricks are transported to the kiln by labour (Rejja) or

somewhere done by cart. The dried bricks are stacked in the kiln in a systematic

manner. The stacked bricks are covered with clay and red bricks and holes are left for

pouring fuel (coal).Now the kiln is ready to burn with the aid of coal, firewood,

kerosene, old tyre etc. In this final stage, bricks are allowed to remain under the

required temperature (Generally when the smoke changes from black to white).Finally,

the sundried bricks are burnt by specialized skilled labour (males only) known as

mistry/firemen or agonwala. The firing continues for approx 7 days and converted the

green bricks to red clay bricks .As firing of a portion is completed the holes are covered

with bricks to let them cool for a week. Then fired bricks are removed from the kiln

and either transported directly to customer or is stacked outside the kiln for customer.

21

The kiln owner is the head of the operation .Generally, the kiln owner spend

much of their time at the kiln, dealing with sales and looking after entire operation.

However, the owners rarely deals with workers themselves, delegating this task to the

recruiter (Sarder).The kiln owners rarely own the land on which they operate. Most of

the owner rent the land from local landowners 10-15 years on lease. He has an assistant

or accountant(commonly known as Munchi) that keeps track of the number of bricks

produce daily in order to tabulate the wages earned on a weekly basis, based on a

predetermined piece rate. The Bakider (carrier of burnt bricks from kiln) and Rejja

(carrier of green bricks to the kiln) use a plastic token for every 10 units to keep the

account. Bricks are counted and sold in multiples of thousand. Generally, the quality of

bricks is depends on two major factors---

(a) The quality of soil that used for the purpose should contain suitable plasticity.

(b) The proper burning of the bricks when the semi-processed bricks are sets in the

kiln.

The Labour Sarder is the middle-man between the owner and the workers who

recruit labourers and remain responsible for any obligation. In case of skilled labour,

(commonly known as Mistry or Firemen,) the level of technical knowhow or efficiency

is the base on which the sarder fixes the monthly wage rate. Greenbrick makers

(Patheras) are also recruited by sarder based on productivity and reliability. While the

piece rate for such work is predetermined, the advance (Dadan) offers to the household

which are capable of repaying over a given season. Generally the sarder, recruits

households with a family, ethnic or community tie, which helps ensure that the workers

will not run off without repaying their advances. If the workers do not pay back their

advances, the sarder is responsible for it. The labour sarder is paid commission, which

is deducted from the workers’ wages by the kiln owner (Ghosh, 1993).

1.6. Statement of the problem:

With the pace of economic development and growing volume of construction in

both rural and urban areas, the demand for bricks goes up every year in Assam along

with other parts of India. Being located in the heart of Assam, the trade and commerce

of Nagaon District have shown considerable growth in recent years. The population of

Nagaon District have increased at a high rate, which has led to an increase in the

numbers of residential, educational, hospitals, public utilities, commercial, small scale,

22

medium industry, infrastructural structure and multistoried apartments. All this requires

huge quantities of construction materials, which come from nearby areas.

Economic Development is directly related to the continuous rise in demand for

bricks. Increasing per capita income also an indicator of rising demand for bricks as

construction of concrete houses increase the status of the owner and is considered a

sign of being modern. Besides it, local materials traditionally used for permanent

construction like timber, bamboo & thatch have become very scarce, while modern

building materials are more expensive and have to be imported from outside the state.

So clay bricks are widely, appropriately and effectively used as a main material for

permanent construction both in rural and urban areas.

In Nagaon District, Brick making units have been growing significantly in the

recent years. Brick making on commercial purpose had started in the early part of the

last century. During post-independence period, along with economic development,

brick manufacturing units in Nagaon District took the shape of an industry very slowly.

In view of the growing demand for bricks in the market there has been a production

boom in the last two decades. Brick is the major building material in Nagaon and will

remain so in the near future due to the higher cost of alternatives and scarcity. In

Nagaon District, brick kiln industry follow the age-old traditional method, which has

low level mechanization and high labor intensity. The brick making process mainly

comprise two activities--- (a) Making of green bricks from good alluvial soil (b)

Burning of green bricks by highly energy intensive thermal energy from coal. As fuel,

coal is used continuously for almost 6 months, which may cause severe impact on

environment. The mushroom growth of brick kiln and brick field creates a threat to the

social and economic sustainability of the area (Patowary2010).All brick kiln units are

operating in cluster and cause substantial level of air pollution and land degradation in

the locality.

Some environmental issues related with such activities as availability of good

fertile alluvial land which is one of the most important conditions for establishing a

brick industry that initiates the process of land degradation. As land is finite and fixed

in an area, so loss of such land used by some manmade activities has raised the

question of sustainability (Singh and Asgher2005).Ministry of Agriculture,

Government of India has admitted that more than half of the total area of India is

23

suffering from serious land degradation due to some unwise and short sighted man

made activities (National Environmental policy 2006).

Brick kiln industry plays a significant role in both national and state level. Its

contribution is too large to be defined as it contributes positively towards (i) Area

occupied as industrial unit (ii) Brick making is a significant source of employment (iii)

Generation of income for many skilled and unskilled labors (iv)Generation of net value

added (v) Total number of units as comparison with other manufacturing units in

Nagaon District.

Nagaon District has high potentiality to develop brick industry to absorb an

important place in industrial scenario of the state. The district has an adequate

infrastructure, there is high demand for bricks and its sale price is favorable, while

exploring ways to ameliorate the performance of the industry, what is needed, is a more

dynamic approach to implement the available knowledge. The contribution of this

industry to the economy is largely positive. Significant progress could occur in national

development, which could result in the consolidation of small industrial base. This

would require significant efforts towards improving the management and technology.

But this sector is still not regarded as an equivalent one to any well organized

industrial sector. This is most particularly true of Assam. Therefore, there is a growing

need for information about detailed economic performance of the industry to enhance

productivity with less cost of production (both economic and social cost).Research on

this aspect is very limited, which creates the necessity of conducting research on

detailed economic indicators not only profitability, but also input ,prices factor market,

product market etc.

For this reason, this study will focus on in depth economic analysis in terms of

cost, profit and productivity in Brick kiln industry.

1. 7. Objectives of the study

On the basis of the above discussion, the objectives of the study are stated below

(1) To study the present status of Brick Industry.

(2) Cost analysis of the brick industry.

(3) To study the pattern of employment and income generation of the industry.

(4) To examine the socio-economic conditions of the workers.

24

1. 8. Research Questions:-

a) Whether the brick industry has any economic impact on the villagers of nearby

areas?

b) Whether brick manufacturing activities affect humen health in surrounding

areas?

c) Whether brick kiln activities affect the agricultural production of nearby

agricultural land?

1.9. Likely Contributions of the Study

The problems, role and contributions of this age-old industry have not received

adequate attention from the scholars. Even, the name of brick kiln industry is not

mentioned in different text books of Economics and Assam Government various

records. Whatever the studies have done on outside Assam could not provide a clear

picture about the problems and contributions of the industry in this area. Since, the

industry play a significant role in the economy of Assam, there is significant need for

extending the study to cover different aspects of brick kiln.

Under these circumstances, the importance of this study is even more

significant as it will explore some new ideas. It is also expected that the findings of the

study will provide information, through which the manufacturers, consumers, workers

and the Government will enable to assess the contributions and the present scenario of

these industries. Moreover, the study will help the manufacturers to take rational

decisions about the investment and adoption of new eco-friendly technology. It is also

expected that this study will help the policy makers in formulating policies for

upliftment of these industries, workers will be provided with better socio-economic

measures.

1.10. Limitations of the study

i. The findings of the study are based on information collected from limited

number of respondents from 40 (forty) brick kiln units of Nagaon district,

situated in three sub divisions. Thus, the outcome of the study can be

generalized only in respect of identical circumstances.

ii. The findings of the study are based on the information given out by the

respondents. Hence, the possibility of prejudices and biases cannot be ruled out.

25

iii. Time to be devoted to the investigation and the resources supporting the

undertaking were the major limitations encountered by the investigator.

1.11. The Structure of the thesis

The thesis has been presented in six chapters.

Chapter one is Introduction. It covers the brief history of bricks, a short review

of Indian brick industry, with special reference to Assam as well as Nagaon brick

industry. The statement of the problems, objectives of the study, research questions,

likely contributions and the limitations of the study are included in this chapter.

The second chapter dealing with the Review of Literature seeks to provide an

insight into similar type of studies carried out by researchers in the past.

The third chapter is Research Methodology. It expounds the sampling design,

variables and the measurement, technique of data collection and statistical techniques

adopted to analyze the data.

The fourth chapter is Analysis of the Objectives. The findings of the study

along with the discussion are presented here.

The fifth chapter is discussion of research question titled as “Impact of Brick

Industries”.

The sixth chapter summarizes the content and draws the conclusions based on

the results of the study and titled as Summery and Conclusion.

Bibliography, Appendices and Schedule & Questionnaires are provided at the end

of the thesis.

1.12. The Reference Period

The personal interview was conducted for the study relates to the year 2011-12

&2012-2013.

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