chapter five: nonexperimental methods ii: ex post facto studies, surveys and questionnaires,...
TRANSCRIPT
Chapter Five: Nonexperimental Methods
II: Ex Post Facto Studies,
Surveys and Questionnaires,
Sampling and
Basic Research Strategies
Ex Post Facto Studies
Ex post facto – is a Latin phrase meaning “after the fact.”
Ex Post Facto Studies
Ex post facto – is a Latin phrase meaning “after the fact.”
When we conduct an ex post facto study, we are using an IV “after the fact” – it has already varied before we arrived on the scene.
Ex Post Facto Studies
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Surveys typically request our opinion on some topic or
issue that is of interest to the researcher.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Types of Surveys
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Types of Surveys
Descriptive
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Types of Surveys
Descriptive – seeks to determine what percentage of the population has a certain characteristic, holds a certain opinion, or engages in a particular behavior.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Types of Surveys
Descriptive – seeks to determine what percentage of the population has a certain characteristic, holds a certain opinion, or engages in a particular behavior.
Examples:
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Types of Surveys
Descriptive – seeks to determine what percentage of the population has a certain characteristic, holds a certain opinion, or engages in a particular behavior.
Examples: The Gallup Poll
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Types of Surveys
Descriptive – seeks to determine what percentage of the population has a certain characteristic, holds a certain opinion, or engages in a particular behavior.
Examples: The Gallup Poll Nielsen television ratings
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Types of Surveys
Descriptive Analytic
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Types of Surveys
Descriptive Analytic –seeks to determine what the relevant
variables are and how they might be related.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Types of Surveys
Descriptive Analytic –seeks to determine what the relevant
variables are and how they might be related. Questions need to be chosen carefully.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Types of Surveys
Descriptive Analytic –seeks to determine what the relevant
variables are and how they might be related. Questions need to be chosen carefully. Pilot testing is generally necessary to determine the
type of questions that will be used in the final survey instrument.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Developing a Good Survey or Questionnaire (see table
5-1, p. 89).
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 1
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 1 – decide what type of instrument to use. How
will the information be gathered?
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 1 – decide what type of instrument to use. How
will the information be gathered? Will you use a mail survey, conduct a phone interview, or
conduct the survey in person? Will you use trained interviewers?
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories
Step 1 – decide what type of instrument to use. How will the information be gathered?
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 1 – decide what type of instrument to use. How
will the information be gathered? Step 2 – identify the types of questions to use.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 1 – decide what type of instrument to use. How
will the information be gathered? Step 2 – identify the types of questions to use.
Yes-No Questions
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 1 – decide what type of instrument to use. How
will the information be gathered? Step 2 – identify the types of questions to use.
Yes-No Questions The respondent answers yes or no to the items.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 1 – decide what type of instrument to use. How
will the information be gathered? Step 2 – identify the types of questions to use.
Yes-No Questions The respondent answers yes or no to the items.
Forced Alternative Questions
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 1 – decide what type of instrument to use. How
will the information be gathered? Step 2 – identify the types of questions to use.
Yes-No Questions The respondent answers yes or no to the items.
Forced Alternative Questions The respondent must select between two alternative
responses.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 1 – decide what type of instrument to use. How
will the information be gathered? Step 2 – identify the types of questions to use.
Yes-No Questions The respondent answers yes or no to the items.
Forced Alternative Questions The respondent must select between two alternative
responses. Multiple-Choice Questions
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 1 – decide what type of instrument to use. How
will the information be gathered? Step 2 – identify the types of questions to use.
Yes-No Questions The respondent answers yes or no to the items.
Forced Alternative Questions The respondent must select between two alternative
responses. Multiple-Choice Questions
The respondent must select the most suitable response from among several alternatives.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 1 – decide what type of instrument to use. How
will the information be gathered? Step 2 – identify the types of questions to use.
Yes-No Questions The respondent answers yes or no to the items.
Forced Alternative Questions The respondent must select between two alternative
responses. Multiple-Choice Questions
The respondent must select the most suitable response from among several alternatives.
Likert-Type Scales
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 2 – identify the types of questions to use.
Yes-No Questions The respondent answers yes or no to the items.
Forced Alternative Questions The respondent must select between two alternative
responses. Multiple-Choice Questions
The respondent must select the most suitable response from among several alternatives.
Likert-Type Scales The individual answers a question by selecting a
response alternative from a designated scale. A typical scale might be the following: (5) strongly agree, (4) agree, (3) undecided, (2) disagree, or (1) strongly disagree.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 2 – identify the types of questions to use.
Forced Alternative Questions The respondent must select between two alternative
responses. Multiple-Choice Questions
The respondent must select the most suitable response from among several alternatives.
Likert-Type Scales The individual answers a question by selecting a
response alternative from a designated scale. A typical scale might be the following: (5) strongly agree, (4) agree, (3) undecided, (2) disagree, or (1) strongly disagree.
Open-Ended Questions
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and InventoriesStep 2 – identify the types of questions to use.
Multiple-Choice Questions The respondent must select the most suitable response
from among several alternatives. Likert-Type Scales
The individual answers a question by selecting a response alternative from a designated scale. A typical scale might be the following: (5) strongly agree, (4) agree, (3) undecided, (2) disagree, or (1) strongly disagree.
Open-Ended Questions A question is asked to which the respondent must
construct his or her own answer.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 1 – decide what type of instrument to use. How
will the information be gathered? Step 2 – identify the types of questions to use. Step 3
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 1 – decide what type of instrument to use. How
will the information be gathered? Step 2 – identify the types of questions to use. Step 3 – write the items: They should be clear, short,
and specific.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 3 – write the items: They should be clear, short,
and specific. Use familiar vocabulary and be at the reading level of the
individuals you intend to test.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 1 – decide what type of instrument to use. How
will the information be gathered? Step 2 – identify the types of questions to use. Step 3 – write the items: They should be clear, short,
and specific. Step 4
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 1 – decide what type of instrument to use. How
will the information be gathered? Step 2 – identify the types of questions to use. Step 3 – write the items: They should be clear, short,
and specific. Step 4 – Pilot-test and seek opinions from
knowledgeable others.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 4 – Pilot-test and seek opinions from
knowledgeable others. It is important to ask others, especially professionals who
have expertise in your area of research interest, to review your items. They may be able to detect biases and unintended wordings that you had not considered.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 1 – decide what type of instrument to use. How
will the information be gathered? Step 2 – identify the types of questions to use. Step 3 – write the items: They should be clear, short,
and specific. Step 4 – Pilot-test and seek opinions from
knowledgeable others. Step 5
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 1 – decide what type of instrument to use. How
will the information be gathered? Step 2 – identify the types of questions to use. Step 3 – write the items: They should be clear, short,
and specific. Step 4 – Pilot-test and seek opinions from
knowledgeable others. Step 5 – determine the relevant demographic data to
be collected.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 5 – determine the relevant demographic data to
be collected. Includes items such as age, sex, annual income, size of
community, academic major, and academic classification.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 1 – decide what type of instrument to use. How
will the information be gathered? Step 2 – identify the types of questions to use. Step 3 – write the items: They should be clear, short,
and specific. Step 4 – Pilot-test and seek opinions from
knowledgeable others. Step 5 – determine the relevant demographic data to
be collected. Step 6
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 1 – decide what type of instrument to use. How
will the information be gathered? Step 2 – identify the types of questions to use. Step 3 – write the items: They should be clear, short,
and specific. Step 4 – Pilot-test and seek opinions from
knowledgeable others. Step 5 – determine the relevant demographic data to
be collected. Step 6 – determine administration procedures and
develop instructions.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Step 6 – determine administration procedures and
develop instructions. Instructions must be clear, concise, easy to follow, and
thoroughly rehearsed (for in-person or phone interviews). How will informed consent be obtained?
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Survey Administration Procedures
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Survey Administration Procedures
Mail Surveys
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Survey Administration Procedures
Mail Surveys Advantages
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Survey Administration Procedures
Mail Surveys Advantages
The researcher does not have to be present while the survey is being completed.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Survey Administration Procedures
Mail Surveys Advantages
The researcher does not have to be present while the survey is being completed.
Surveys can be sent to a much larger number of participants than a single researcher could ever hope to contact in person.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Survey Administration Procedures
Mail Surveys Disadvantages
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Survey Administration Procedures
Mail Surveys Disadvantages
The researcher cannot be sure who actually completes the survey.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Survey Administration Procedures
Mail Surveys Disadvantages
The researcher cannot be sure who actually completes the survey.
There is no guarantee the respondent answered the questions in the same order in which they appeared in the survey.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Survey Administration Procedures
Mail Surveys Disadvantages
The researcher cannot be sure who actually completes the survey.
There is no guarantee the respondent answered the questions in the same order in which they appeared in the survey.
Low return rate.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Personal Interviews
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Personal Interviews
Advantages When a trained interviewer administers a survey in a
respondent’s home, the response rate climbs dramatically.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Personal Interviews
Advantages When a trained interviewer administers a survey in a
respondent’s home, the response rate climbs dramatically.
The trained interviewer is able to clarify ambiguous questions, making sure that all questions are answered in the proper sequence, and generally assisting with any problems that the respondents may experience.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Personal Interviews
Disadvantages
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Personal Interviews
Disadvantages The potential for considerable expenditure of time and
money exists.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Personal Interviews
Disadvantages The potential for considerable expenditure of time and
money exists. People not always at home.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Telephone Interviews
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Telephone Interviews
Advantages
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Telephone Interviews
Advantages It is easy to create random samples with random-digit
dialing.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Telephone Interviews
Advantages It is easy to create random samples with random-digit
dialing. 95% of households in the U.S. have telephones.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Telephone Interviews
Advantages It is easy to create random samples with random-digit
dialing. 95% of households in the U.S. have telephones. Computer technology allows responses to be entered
directly as they are made.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Telephone Interviews
Disadvantages
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Telephone Interviews
Disadvantages Incoming calls may be screened and potential
respondents lost.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Telephone Interviews
Disadvantages Incoming calls may be screened and potential
respondents lost. It is easy to say no to a phone interviewer.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Telephone Interviews
Disadvantages Incoming calls may be screened and potential
respondents lost. It is easy to say no to a phone interviewer. Cannot use visual aids to clarify questions.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Telephone Interviews
Disadvantages Incoming calls may be screened and potential
respondents lost. It is easy to say no to a phone interviewer. Cannot use visual aids to clarify questions. Cannot evaluate nonverbal cues such as facial
expressions, gestures, and posture.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Telephone Interviews
Disadvantages Incoming calls may be screened and potential
respondents lost. It is easy to say no to a phone interviewer. Cannot use visual aids to clarify questions. Cannot evaluate nonverbal cues such as facial
expressions, gestures, and posture. It is more difficult to establish rapport.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Tests and Inventories
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Tests and Inventories
Tests and inventories are designed to assess a specific attribute, ability, or characteristic possessed by the individual being tested.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Characteristics of Good Tests and Inventories
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Characteristics of Good Tests and Inventories
Validity
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Characteristics of Good Tests and Inventories
Validity – a test or inventory has validity when it actually measures what it is supposed to measure.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Characteristics of Good Tests and Inventories
Validity (ways to establish) Content validity
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Characteristics of Good Tests and Inventories
Validity (ways to establish) Content validity – indicates that the test items actually
represent the type of material they are supposed to test.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Characteristics of Good Tests and Inventories
Validity (ways to establish) Content validity – indicates that the test items
actually represent the type of material they are supposed to test. A panel of expert judges is often used to assess the content validity of test items.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Characteristics of Good Tests and Inventories
Validity (ways to establish) Content validity Concurrent validity
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Characteristics of Good Tests and Inventories
Validity (ways to establish) Content validity Concurrent validity – is established when a score on a
test or inventory agrees with another measure (e.g. aggression score on a test agrees with a clinician’s assessment).
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Characteristics of Good Tests and Inventories
Validity (ways to establish) Content validity Concurrent validity Criterion validity
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Characteristics of Good Tests and Inventories
Validity (ways to establish) Content validity Concurrent validity Criterion validity – is established when a test score
compares favorably with a predicted future outcome (e.g. SAT score and college success).
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Reliability
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Reliability
Refers to the extent that the test or inventory is consistent in its evaluation of the same individuals over repeated administrations.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Reliability
Refers to the extent that the test or inventory is consistent in its evaluation of the same individuals over repeated administrations.
The greater the similarity between scores produced by the same individuals on repeated administrations, the greater the reliability of the test or inventory.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Reliability (assessment)
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Reliability (assessment)
Test-retest procedure
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Reliability (assessment)
Test-retest procedure The test is simply given a second time and scores from
the two tests are compared; the greater the similarity, the higher the reliability
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Reliability (assessment)
Test-retest procedure Split-Half technique
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Reliability (assessment)
Test-retest procedure Split-Half technique
Involves dividing a test or inventory into two halves or subtests and then administering them to the same individuals on different occasions or by administering the entire test and then splitting it into two halves.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Types of Tests and Inventories
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Types of Tests and Inventories
Achievement tests
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Types of Tests and Inventories
Achievement tests Are given when an evaluation of an individual’s level of
mastery or competence is desired.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Types of Tests and Inventories
Achievement tests Are given when an evaluation of an individual’s level of
mastery or competence is desired. The score that distinguishes passing from failing
determines the minimum level of achievement that must be attained.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Types of Tests and Inventories
Achievement tests Aptitude tests
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Types of Tests and Inventories
Achievement tests Aptitude tests
Are used to assess an individual’s ability or skill in a particular situation or job.
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Types of Tests and Inventories
Achievement tests Aptitude tests Personality tests or inventories
Surveys, Questionnaires, Tests, and Inventories Types of Tests and Inventories
Achievement tests Aptitude tests Personality tests or inventories
Measure specific aspects of an individual’s motivational state, interpersonal capability, or personality.
Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies Sampling
Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies Sampling
Deals with the question of who will participate in our research project and whether they are a representative group.
Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies Research Strategies
Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies Research Strategies
The main strategies used by researchers are the:
Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies Research Strategies
The main strategies used by researchers are the: Single strata approach
Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies Research Strategies
The main strategies used by researchers are the: Single strata approach Cross sectional approach
Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies Research Strategies
The main strategies used by researchers are the: Single strata approach Cross sectional approach Longitudinal approach
Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies Population
Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies Population
The complete set of individuals or events that we want to represent.
Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies Sample
Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies Sample
The group that we select to represent the population is called the sample.
Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies Sample
The group that we select to represent the population is called the sample.
Random sample
Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies Sample
The group that we select to represent the population is called the sample.
Random sample Every member of the population has an equal likelihood
of being included in the sample.
Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies Random sample
Every member of the population has an equal likelihood of being included in the sample.
Random sampling without replacement
Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies Random sample
Every member of the population has an equal likelihood of being included in the sample.
Random sampling without replacement The member of population chosen for the sample is not
eligible to be selected again once returned to the population.
Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies Random sample
Every member of the population has an equal likelihood of being included in the sample.
Random sampling without replacement The member of population chosen for the sample is not
eligible to be selected again once returned to the population.
Random sampling with replacement Member of population chosen for sample is eligible to be
selected again once returned to the population.
Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies Random sample
Every member of the population has an equal likelihood of being included in the sample.
Random sampling without replacement The member of population chosen for the sample is not
eligible to be selected again once returned to the population.
Random sampling with replacement Member of population chosen for sample is eligible to be
selected again once returned to the population. Stratified random sampling
Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies Random sample
Every member of the population has an equal likelihood of being included in the sample.
Random sampling without replacement The member of population chosen for the sample is not
eligible to be selected again once returned to the population. Random sampling with replacement
Member of population chosen for sample is eligible to be selected again once returned to the population.
Stratified random sampling Involves dividing the population into subpopulations or strata
and then drawing a random sample from one or more of these strata.
Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies Basic Research Strategies
Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies Basic Research Strategies
Single-strata approach
Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies Basic Research Strategies
Single-strata approach Seeks to acquire data from a single, specified segment
of the population.
Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies Basic Research Strategies
Single-strata approach Seeks to acquire data from a single, specified segment
of the population. Cross-sectional research
Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies Basic Research Strategies
Single-strata approach Seeks to acquire data from a single, specified segment
of the population. Cross-sectional research
Involves the comparison of two or more groups of participants during the same, rather limited, time span.
Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies Basic Research Strategies
Single-strata approach Seeks to acquire data from a single, specified segment
of the population. Cross-sectional research
Involves the comparison of two or more groups of participants during the same, rather limited, time span.
Longitudinal research
Sampling Considerations and Basic Research Strategies Basic Research Strategies
Single-strata approach Seeks to acquire data from a single, specified segment
of the population. Cross-sectional research
Involves the comparison of two or more groups of participants during the same, rather limited, time span.
Longitudinal research Involves acquiring data from a single group of
participants over a long period of time.