Chapter Eight Chapter Eight

Language in Social ContextLanguage in Social Contextss

What is sociolinguistics? What is sociolinguistics?

•Sociolinguistics studies language in Sociolinguistics studies language in relation to society (chapter 1)relation to society (chapter 1)

•Sociolinguistics is that branch of linSociolinguistics is that branch of linguistics which studies just those proguistics which studies just those properties of language and languages perties of language and languages which require reference to social, inwhich require reference to social, including contextual, factors in their ecluding contextual, factors in their explanation. (Downes, 1998:9)xplanation. (Downes, 1998:9)

Diversity of language Diversity of language

• variation between societies or within a societyvariation between societies or within a society• The distinction between “language” and “a langThe distinction between “language” and “a lang

uage”uage” Try to answer the following three questions:Try to answer the following three questions: Can language be defined in terms of geography?Can language be defined in terms of geography? Can language be defined in terms of nationality?Can language be defined in terms of nationality? Should language be defined by mutual intelligibility?Should language be defined by mutual intelligibility?• The answer to these questions should all be no. All lThe answer to these questions should all be no. All l

anguages are equal. If you define language in terms anguages are equal. If you define language in terms of these factors, you are speaking of “a language”.of these factors, you are speaking of “a language”.

Varieties of languageVarieties of language

A language varies according to the followiA language varies according to the following factors:ng factors:

• SituationSituation•Geographical areasGeographical areas• Social factorsSocial factors• Purposes and subject mattersPurposes and subject matters• Time (through which the language develTime (through which the language devel

ops)ops)

Geographical varieties and regionGeographical varieties and regional dialectsal dialects• What’s the relationship between a regional dWhat’s the relationship between a regional d

ialect and the national standard speech?ialect and the national standard speech? A regional dialect is a variety of the national staA regional dialect is a variety of the national sta

ndard speech.ndard speech.• AccentAccent• Pronunciation:Pronunciation:• Spelling: -our/-orSpelling: -our/-or• Vocabulary:Vocabulary:• Grammar: have you/do you have…Grammar: have you/do you have…

Social varietiesSocial varieties

• Sociolects are forms of a language that characSociolects are forms of a language that characterize the speech of different social classes.terize the speech of different social classes.

• A social variety is a variety of language broughA social variety is a variety of language brought about by the social factors.t about by the social factors.

• Language plays the role of a social indicator.Language plays the role of a social indicator.• Social classes and variationSocial classes and variation• Grammar: third person singularGrammar: third person singular• Pronunciation: popular contracted formsPronunciation: popular contracted forms

Sex and variationSex and variation• Women tend to speak more standard, decent variation.Women tend to speak more standard, decent variation.• Women tend to make overstatements, especially when making comWomen tend to make overstatements, especially when making com

ment.ment.• Women prefer to use certain adjectives which are not used normally.Women prefer to use certain adjectives which are not used normally.• Women tend to avoid the use of vulgar words.Women tend to avoid the use of vulgar words.• Women tend to use certain expressions to show happiness or surprisWomen tend to use certain expressions to show happiness or surpris

e.e.• Age and variationAge and variation• Race and variationRace and variation• Racial differenceRacial difference• Black EnglishBlack English• - Pronunciation- Pronunciation• - Grammar- Grammar

Temporal dialectsTemporal dialects • Standard dialect and idiolectStandard dialect and idiolect• Standard dialect is the highest prestige in a societStandard dialect is the highest prestige in a societ

y or a nation. It is usually based on the well-educay or a nation. It is usually based on the well-educated speech.ted speech.

• It is used in news media and literature.It is used in news media and literature.• It is described in dictionaries and grammar books.It is described in dictionaries and grammar books.• It is taught in schools and to non-native learners.It is taught in schools and to non-native learners.• Idiolect is the language system of an individual. It iIdiolect is the language system of an individual. It i

s one’s particular way of speaking and/or writing.s one’s particular way of speaking and/or writing.

Register – situational varietyRegister – situational variety

• Register is a speech variety which changes accRegister is a speech variety which changes according to the situation where language is used.ording to the situation where language is used. Usually it is shared by a group of people, such Usually it is shared by a group of people, such as lawyers, doctors, stamp collectors, etc.as lawyers, doctors, stamp collectors, etc.

• To know how to use a register means to know To know how to use a register means to know how to use language appropriately.how to use language appropriately.

• Register is analyzed on three dimensions: field,Register is analyzed on three dimensions: field, mode and tenor. Field is concerned with why mode and tenor. Field is concerned with why and about what we communicate; mode is reland about what we communicate; mode is related to how we communicate; tenor is about ated to how we communicate; tenor is about with whom we communicate.with whom we communicate.

FormalityFormality

•FrozenFrozen•FormalFormal•ConsultativeConsultative•CasualCasual•IntimateIntimate

Language in contactLanguage in contact

• Throughout history no natural language is pure or free Throughout history no natural language is pure or free from the influence of other languages. Due to trade, wfrom the influence of other languages. Due to trade, war, colonization and other causes languages may comar, colonization and other causes languages may come into contact. When this occurs, mixed codes may coe into contact. When this occurs, mixed codes may come into being, which are called pidgins and creoles.me into being, which are called pidgins and creoles.

• The term pidgin is the label for the code used by peoplThe term pidgin is the label for the code used by people who speak different languages. A pidgin is not the nae who speak different languages. A pidgin is not the native language of any group.tive language of any group.

• A creole is a mixed language which has become the mA creole is a mixed language which has become the mother tongue of a speech community.other tongue of a speech community.

Bilingualism and multilingualiBilingualism and multilingualismsm• Bilingualism gives rise to code-switching Bilingualism gives rise to code-switching

and code-mixing. and code-mixing. • The former refers to the fact that a speakeThe former refers to the fact that a speake

r changes from one language to the other r changes from one language to the other in different situations or when talking aboin different situations or when talking about different topics. ut different topics.

• The latter refers to the change from one laThe latter refers to the change from one language to the other language within the snguage to the other language within the same utterance.ame utterance.

Taboos and euphemismsTaboos and euphemisms• Taboo refers to a prohibition on the use of, meTaboo refers to a prohibition on the use of, me

ntion of, or association with particular objects, ntion of, or association with particular objects, actions, or persons. Euphemism is an expressiactions, or persons. Euphemism is an expression that substitutes one which may be seen as on that substitutes one which may be seen as offensive or disturbing to the addressee.offensive or disturbing to the addressee.

• Taboo and euphemism are actually two sides Taboo and euphemism are actually two sides of the same coin.of the same coin.

• What is taboo or not taboo depends on the coWhat is taboo or not taboo depends on the context.ntext.

hot topics on language and culthot topics on language and culture nowadaysure nowadays• What is culture?What is culture?• Nature is material, while culture is spiritual.Nature is material, while culture is spiritual.• Linguistic relativityLinguistic relativity• Language is part of culture, a carrier of culture.Language is part of culture, a carrier of culture.• Language is a product of our social life.Language is a product of our social life.• Language is the principal mean by which culture is passed down.Language is the principal mean by which culture is passed down.• Language reflects the way of thinking. Mental activities depend oLanguage reflects the way of thinking. Mental activities depend o

n linguistic activity.n linguistic activity.• Sapir-Whorf hypothesis (relationship between language and cultSapir-Whorf hypothesis (relationship between language and cult

ure)ure)• DeterminismDeterminism• Language determines our way of thinking.Language determines our way of thinking.• Relativism (linguistic relativity)Relativism (linguistic relativity)

CompetenceCompetence• Linguistic competence: grammaticality, preseLinguistic competence: grammaticality, prese

nted by Chomskynted by Chomsky• Communicative competence: four componentCommunicative competence: four component

ss GrammaticalityGrammaticality AcceptabilityAcceptability AppropriatenessAppropriateness EffectivenessEffectiveness