chapter egypt - yola

EGYPT:Land of the Pharaohs

CHAPTER

4Egypt: Valley of the Kings, 1995

D r. Kent Weeks, professor of Egyptology, and his team from the American

University in Cairo have reached the central hail in the largest tomb everfound in Egypt. The giant crypt is located in the Valley of the Kings on the

west side of the Nile near the Egyptian city of Luxor. The tomb was originally discov

ered by an English traveller in 1820, but was never explored. In the 1920s, its entrance

was covered over with debris during the excavation of the tomb of King Tht close by.Dr. Weeks discovered the hidden entrance in 1987 by studying the diaries of the English

traveller. Excavation work has been in progress ever since that exciting discovery.What is in this tomb? Archaeologists believe that the tomb contains the remains of

50 sons of the pharaoh Ramses 11. Ramses II, who lived well into his eighties, ruled

Egypt from 1279 BCE to 1213 BCE and fathered more than 100 children. Sixty-seven

rooms have been discovered in the mass tomb so far, but since none is smaller than 3m square, Egyptologists believe that they may have been carved all at once, as part of

a master design. The tomb contains a wealth of burial objects, inscriptions, and astatue of Osiris, the ancient Egyptian god of the underworld. The names of four of thesons have already been found inscribed on the walls and on objects in the tomb.Archaeologists have only brushed the surface of the knowledge and treasures the tombmay hold.

Egyptologists have toiled for centuries uncoveringancient ruins and artifacts, deciphering inscriptions, and restoring the monuments of this greatcivilization on the Nile. Khaemwese, the highpriest of Memphis and the fourth son of RanisesII, was likely the first Egyptologist. In the thirteenth century BCE, the pharaohs who had builtthe pyramids had been dead for almost a thousandyears. Khaemwese spent hours wandering aroundthe pyramids and other ruins of the region, study-

ing the mysteries surrounding his ancestors.We are still trying to unravel those mysteries

today. With every new archaeological discovery,historians raise new questions. For example, wasRamses II’s tomb built gradually over the course ofhis reign? Was ft built according to a master design?Were the pharaoh’s sons buried in the tomb whenthey died, or were their bodies all brought therenear the end of Ramses’ reign? What more will thistomb tell us about ancient Egyptian civilization?

Figure 4-1Ra?nses II

RED LAND, BLACK LAND

Civilization in Egypt began about 3100 BCE,

not long after it began in Mesopotamia.Like Mesopotarnia, Egypt developed arounda great river system. Egyptian civilizationhad its humble beginnings as a scatteringof villages and settlements stretching in anarrow strip along the mighty Nile River,the longest river in the world.

The land along the banks of the Nilewas extremely fertile. The river floodedannually, depositing rich supplies of silt forsurrounding fields. The flooding created anarrow ribbon of fertility that cut throughthe deserts in North Africa. To the Egyptians, therefore, the Nile was a lifeline. Itprovided water for both irrigation and

beside the river

drinking, silt for their fields, and a naturalhighway to link their communities.

The Nile was a friendlier river thaneither the Tigris or the Euphrates, and solife was more stable in ancient Egypt thanin Mesopotamia. Sudden and disastrousfloods like those in Mesopotarnia happenedrarely. The flooding of the Nile was morepredictable. In fact, flooding was so predictable that Egyptians could set their agricultural calendar according to the river’sschedule.

As ancient Egyptian civilization developed, it stretched from the mouth of theNile on the Mediterranean Sea south toElephantine, near the First Cataract of theNile. Filled with granite rock, this cataractserved as a natural border between Egyptand Nubia to the south.

The Egyptians called the region of richsilt soil along the banks of the Nile theKemet, or Black Land. Beyond this fertilestrip of land were the dead sands of thesurrounding deserts, the Libyan Desert tothe west and the Arabian Desert to the east.The Egyptians called these forbidding territories the Deshret, or the Red Land.

The desolate appearance of the Red

Land was somewhat deceiving. A treasurehouse of minerals lay beneath the shiftingsands. The Arabian Desert was a source ofgold and fine gems, including garnet,agate, and chalcedony. The desert landsfarther east in the Sinai Peninsula providedcopper for the manufacture of tools andweapons. The Libyan Desert in the westyielded valuable building materials such asgranite, quartzite, flint, marble, and slate.

The Deshret was also valuable in otherways. In the Libyan Desert, running parallel to the Nile, were six oases (fertile areas)called wadis. Most were under Egyptiancontrol. Two of these wadis became important suppliers of wine; another, the WadiNatrun, was a source of natron, a salt usedin the embalming of bodies. The desertsalso acted as a buffer, shielding Egypt frominvasions and, to some extent, insulating itfrom outside influences.

In addition to the sharp contrastbetween the Red Land and the Black Land,there were also major differences betweenthe landscapes of the upper and lowerregions of the Nile.

The landscape of Upper Egypt wasmarked by the Nile river valley, which

60 MIDDLE-EASTERN CIVILIZATIONS

Figure 4-3 The Nile valley near .4swan: desert cl(ffsriseup behind the cultivated land

Figure 4.2 Ancient Egypt

EGYPT: LAND OF THE PHARAOHS 61

ranged from 6 to 20 km wide. In thisregion, called the la-sherna or land of theshema-reed, the Nile flows from the highlands in a single stream towards modernCairo, cutting through a plateau of sandstone in the south and limestone in thenorth, and creating a deep trench withcliffs on either side towering severalhundred metres high. The people living inthe Nile river valley could never forget howclose they were to the desert. Its mountainsand cliffs stood in clear view, reminding theEgyptians of their dependence on the Nile.

By contrast, in Lower Egypt, north ofpresent-day Cairo, the Nile separates intodifferent branches that veer northeast andnorthwest to the Mediterranean Sea, creating a fertile triangular plain. This area was

HISTORICAL OVERVIEW

The two regions of Upper Egypt and LowerEgypt began as separate kingdoms. Therulers of Upper Egypt wore a tall wiute

called the la rnL’hu, the lami of the papyrusplant, or the Nile delta. In ancient times,the river emptied into the MediterraneanSea from as many as seven differentmouths, all abundant in ducks and geese,ibis and heron. Here, the land was blackand flat, often swampy, hut with extensiveareas of ideal pasture land. The delta wasniore isolated and protected from landinvasions than the valley of Upper Egypt,arid the desert only encroached upon it atits niargins, The outlet to the sea was alsoimportant for trade and cultural exchange.Trade routes stretched from Egypt throughout the Mediterranean region. Historianshave evidence, for example, that Egyptiansinfluenced early Minoan and Myceneancivilizations which led to ancient Greece.

crown, while the rulers of Lower Egypt worea red crown. About 3100 BCE, politicalmanoeuvring by powerful leaders in thenorth and south resulted in war betweenthe two areas. The king of Upper Egypt

triumphed, and the united kingdom emerged as a powerful civilization. This wasthe beginning of the Predynastic Period ofancient Egypt.

Later rulers of the united Egypt wore adouble crown representing both regions,and used titles such as “Lord of the TwoLands” and “King of Upper and LowerEgypt” to remind the people that the landhad once been divided into two distinctkingdoms. Following unification, two goddesses served to protect the king: Nekhhet ofthe south and Buto of the north.

The king of Upper Egypt who unifiedthe country was Menes. He founded a newcapital city, Memphis, 16 km south ofmodern Cairo. Here he built a temple toPtah, chief god of Memphis, and constructed administration buildings thatserved ancient Egypt for over 3500 years.Menes became the first of a long line ofkings to rule ancient Egypt. He began thefirst Egyptian dynasty—the first succes

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Figure 4-4 A pharaoh receives the doublecrown from the goddesses

REFLEcT ANP ANALYZE

1. Explain how each of the following physical features affected thedevelopment of civilization in ancient Egypt:

a) theThi1eRerh).the Libyan and Arabian desertsc) the Mediterranean Sea

2. a) How did the landscapes of Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt differ?b) What effects do you think these differences might have on thedevelopment of civilization in each region?

3. Compare the natural environments of ancient Egypt and ancientMesopotamia. Draw and label sketch maps in your answer.

4. The shema-reed and the papyrus plant were two important resourcesin ancient Egypt. Find out how the Egyptians used these resources.


sion of rulers who claimed their descentfrom a COIfllflOfl ancestor.

The Predynastic Period lasted a littleover 400 years. During this time, kingsfaced considerable internal opposition asthey tried to secure their power. But it wasduring this period that the Egyptians beganto develop essential irrigation systemsalong the Nile River, and created a systemof writing called hieroglyphics.

THE OLD KINGDOM OR“THE AGE OF THE PYRAMIDS”It was not until the beginning of the OldKingdom in 2650 BCE that a powerful kingfinally created a central government strongenough to command the country. This kingwas Djoser. During his rule, Djoser orderedhis people to build him an enormous tomb,the Step Pyramid at Saqqara. Rising to aheight of 60 m in six giant steps, this pyramid was the first monumental stone building ever constructed in the world. Themagnitude of this project—which involvedmoving massive amounts of stone, recruiting thousands of labourers, and feeding theworkers—indicates how powerful Djoserwas, and symbolizes the unlimited authority enjoyed by Egyptian rulers of the period.

From the Third to the Sixth Dynasties,the Egyptians considered the rulers of theOld Kingdom to be living gods. The kings,known as pharaohs, demonstrated an attitude of being more than earthly mortals byremaining distant or aloof from the general population they ruled. The images thatremain of these early kings reflect severefeatures and suggest how aloof and powerful they must have been.

The great pyramids of the kings of theFourth Dynasty, on the plateau of Giza highabove Cairo, mark the zenith of the rulers’

power and achievement. Today, we stillmarvel that a civilization could accomplishsuch feats. The famous pyramid of Khufu(Cheops) stands an impressive 146.6 inhigh. The other two famous pyramids,those of Khufu’s son Chephren and his brother Mycerinus, were built by farmers, whocould be recruited when the floodwaters ofthe Nile covered their fields. Historiansoften describe the Old Kingdom as “the ageof the pyramids” because these monumeiital structures are one of the greatestachievements of the period.

The Old Kingdom also witnessed otherimportant accomplishments. Hieroglyphics, the Egyptian form of picture writing,improved. More sophisticated engineeringskills led to the construction of temples andelaborate tombs for the king or pharaoh.The Egyptians designed irrigation systemsand improved farming. Trade became moreregulated, and spread throughout the Mediterranean region, enriching Egypt withnew inventions and goods, including thepotter’s wheel from Mesopotamia, timber

from Syria, and oil and wine from Crete.The foundations of organized governmentwere laid when the rulers divided the stateinto provinces or districts, each with its owngovernor appointed by the pharaoh.

During this period, the king had apersonal bodyguard but ancient Egypt hadno standing army. When regions such asLibya or Nubia posed any potential threatto the kingdom, the governors of the various provinces raised troops to defend theempire. Once this temporary army completed a specific military campaign, it waseither disbanded or assigned to some otherstate work project, such as building thepyramids at Giza.

By the Fifth Dynasty, the authority ofthe king had weakened. High priests andgovernment officials vied for power. Thepyramids of the kings of the Fifth and SixthDynasties are markedly smaller, reflectingthe general impoverishment of Egypt.Towards the end of the Sixth Dynasty, theclimate and the Nile River combined tobring about the end of the old monarchy.

Figure 4-5 The Step Pyramid at Saqqara


With low rainfall ai id a series of weakfloods from the Nile, Egypt suffered fromfamines.

After the death of Pepi 11, who hadrisen to the throne as a boy and ruled for 94years, the organization of the Old Kingdomfailed. Egypt again separated into twodistinct parts. Without a king strong enough to control the entire territory, thecountry entered a tune of general disordercalled the First Intermediate Period.

The First Intermediate Period lasted avery short time, certainly less than 100years. Records are few and badly written,but historians think that many local chiefscompeted for power, each declaring himselfking and attempting to form his owndynasty. Meanwhile, the court at Memphisfell into a state of neglect. Governors nolonger chose the traditional pattern of

burial in the capital near their king, preferring instead to be buried in their own townsin tomb shafts built for family and friends.

THE MIDDLE KINGDOM OR“THE AGE OF THE NOBLES”The Middle Kingdom, which began in 2040BCE, was formed when one strong familyfrom the region of Luxor re-establishedorder and succeeded in claiming thethrone. These kings of the Eleventh Dynasty, called either Intef or Mentuhotep,

reunited Egypt, controlling its administration from a town called Itjtawy, rather thanfrom Memphis. Although its actual location is unknown, Egyptologists think it waslocated in the region of the Fayum, southof Memphis. Egypt began to prosper onceagain. Trade links forged during the OldKingdom were rebuilt with neighbourssuch as Syria and Palestine. Workshopsstarted to produce fine crafts. As scholarsbegan again to copy literary texts, thepeople’s interest in learning was renewed.

Architecture, literature, and the arts Ilnurished in this period.

Despite the new control established bypharaobs of the Middle Kingdom, localgovernors or nobles were still quite independent and posed a constant threat to themonarchy. Amenemhat 1 (1985 BCE-1955

BCE), first king of the ‘Pwelfth Dynasty, wasmurdered as a result of a conspiracy involving his own bodyguard. A strong ruler,Ameneinhat I had managed to restoremany of the traditions associated with theOld Kingdom and had conquered much ofNubia.

The powerful nobles of the MiddleKingdom maintained their own permanentarmies. By the Twelfth Dynasty, pharaohsbegan to see the need for maintaining astanding army to preserve their own power.Therefore, after appointing army scribes,they raised and maintained a state army bysetting recruitment quotas for each districtwithin the kingdom.

The rulers of the Thirteenth Dynasty

Figure 4-6 Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms


inherited a strong power base and an cm—pire that had expanded its CCOHOI(11C inthi—ence and political boundaries. But thisdynasty was characterized by a series ofshort reigns and kings who gained littlepersonal fame. Consequently, the authorityof the throne weakened. At the same time, agreat number of people from other countries settled in Egypt. Many of them werebrought in from Asia as prisoners of warduring the campaigns of the Twelfth Dynasty kings, These settlers gained powerrapidly, establislung their base in the townof Avaris in the delta and seizing controlabout 1670 BCE.

During a Second Intermediate Period,Egypt was controlled by foreign rulers iiowoften called the Hyksos kings. These kingswere probably not all from one country, butwere a niixture of races of non-Egyptianorigin, many from Syria and Palestine. The

REFLECT AND ANALYZE

THE NEW KINGDOM OR“THE AGE OF THE EMPIRE”The New Kingdom emerged in 1550 BCE.

During this period, Egypt became the ancient world’s strongest empire and Luxor(Thebes) became a great city once again.

Egsptiaiis referred to them :is the rulers mmfforeign lands.” lt was the Greeks who laternamed these kings llyksos.

While the Hyksos adopted many Egyptiari traditions, they also introduced importaHt innovations into Egypt. Their newtechnology included the horse-drawn chariot, copper arrowheads, daggers cast in onepiece for greater strength, the scimitar orcurved-blade sword, and the compoundbow, built of several layers of tough springywood for greater strength. In fact, the Hyksos had used these very innovations toconquer the Egyptians.

Eventually, a warlike family from Lux—or rallied the forces of Upper Egypt anddrove the Hyksos out, using the improvedmilitary technology that the Hyksos hadintroduced. The victorious generals fromLuxor began the New Kingdom, one of thegreatest periods in Egyptian civilization.

The pharaohs of the New Kingdom seemedfearless, tireless, strong, and invincible iii

battle. They were determined that Egyptshould never again fall into the hands offoreigners. Yet they were less aloof thanrulers of old, and were always keen to

advance the positions (If wortli supporters.‘l’hey protected their borders trom foreigninvasion by maintaining permnanellt garrisons in the towns and cities to the north.

‘l’he pharaohs of the New Kingdomincreased the size of their standing armiesand concentrated more on building theenipire. Thutniose I (1504 BCE—1492 BCE)

led a military force into southwestern Asiaas far as the Euphrates River. Tributeflowed into the Egyptian treasury from thepeoples he conquered, enriching the empire. Later rulers extended Egypt’s territoryeven farther.

Thutmose III (1479 BCE—1425 BCE)

became the greatest military leader of theNew Kingdom, and the country reached thezenith of its power during his reign. He wasdetermined to create a mighty Egyptianempire, and led his armies on militarycampaigns into Asia almost every year formore than two decades.

Through Thutmose III’s conquests,Palestine and Syria became part of theempire. Egypt also re-established controlover Kush and Nubia, both valuable sourcesof slaves, copper, gold, ivor and ebony. Thearmy took children of foreign princes backto Egypt to guarantee that the conqueredterritories would obey the pharaoh. Egyptian envoys and military posts, establishedin foreign cities, watched for any localactivity that could threaten the growingpower of Egypt. By the end of his reign,Thutmose III ruled the east: the Egyptianempire stretched as far as the EuphratesRiver and the Taurus Mountains.

During this period, innovations beganto appear in the Egyptian milftary. Leatherbody armour covered with metal scales wasintroduced. Charioteers, the elite branch ofthe military, began to carry large shields,

1. Define the term nation.” liow did ancient Egypt become :m powerful.

united nation?

2. How did the people come to view the pharoahs during the period ofthe Old Kingdom? How did the pharuahs show their power?

3. a) What caused the decline of the Old Kingdom?b) What caused time decline of the Nhddle Kingdom?

4. Imagine you are an Egyptian noble (luring the Old or Middle Kingdom.\Vrite a letter to a tuhio\v noble explaining why you oppose the power of

the pharoahs and how you could conspire to overthrow them.

- EGYPT: LAND OF THE PHARAOHS 67

and both WUT]Ot and horse Wore heavy blan

kets of quilted leather, lined with linen, to

cover most of their backs. ‘11w armies be—

caine highly organized fighting forces.Slaves captured in the Asiatic and Nubianwars were often forced to serve in the Egypt.

ian military. In the later period of the NewKingdom, armies included increasing numbers of hired foreign troops or mercenaries.

The coronation of Anienhotep IV (1352

Was llatshepsut the first great woman in history? Somehistorians claim she was. What do 0U think?

Flatshepsut was certainly one of the most outstandingpharaohs of ancient Egypt, achieving great power andinfluence during the New Kingdom. As was common inroyal families, llatshepsut originally married her half-brother, the pharaoh Thutmose 11(1492 ncc—l479BCE). When he died, the throne passed to his small son,Thutmose III (1479 ucc—1425 BCE), As the child’s stepmother, Harshepsut served for a period as regent andco-ruler. Then, in a bold move, she seized the thronefor herself and gained the hacking of several high courtofficials and priests. She ruled Egypt as l)lLmLol1 in herown right for 22 years. Because a pharaoh was bycustom male, Hatshepsut dressed in men’s clothes andattached a ceremonial beard to her chin. Statues usuallydepict her wearing the beard.

While ruling the nation, Ilatshepsut ordered theconstruction of a temple in her honour at Deir El—Bahri.On the walls of the temple, reliefs tell of her birth as the(laughter of the god Amon and of her right to rule Egypt.They also portray her being crowned during the reign ofher father. Thutmose I, but this event was a fiction.

The reign of Hatshepsut was a peaceful period of efficient government, expanding foreign trade, and artistic

religious matters, lie neglected the Egyptianempire at a time when it was being threat—(lied by the ilittite nation,

Akhenaton’s religious reforms, knoWn

as the Ainarna Revolution, led to an outpouring of art and sculpture that glorifiedthe sun god Aton hut angered many Egypt

ians. The ruler’s immediate successorsfinally etided tins religious unrest. King

Tutankhaton (1336 BCE—1327 BCE) re.

rebirth. Carved on the walls of Llatshepsut’s funeraltemple is a record of a successful trading expeditionsent south to Punt (in present-day Sonialia), whichopened tip the possibility of trade in ivory, incense,ehon and gold. New types of sculpture developedduring her rule. A unique style of temple constructionthat employed terraces became popular; her cult templeat l)eir El-Bahri was a fine example of this new architectural design.

Ilaishepsut came to a mysterious end. I)uring a revoltin the period of Thutmose III, she disappeared. 11crstatues, temples, and shrines were later mutilated, and

nd;— 1336 BCE), who called himself Akhen—aton, marked a turning point in Egyptianpower, Akhenaton turned his hack or manyof the old traditions of ancient Egypt. He

built a new capital city at an isolated location near what is now Tell el Amnarna, 280km north of Thebes, and changed thenature of Egyptian religion by declaringthat the people could only worship one god,the sun god Aton. Utterly preoccupied with

Hatshepsut(1479 BCE—1457 BCE)

Figure 4-7 —

A sphinx bearing the face andfeatures of Hatsbepsut

her body was never found.

most important ruler of theNineteenth I)vnastv, shows thelarge hooked nose that wastypical of the Rarneside kings. Ramses II ruled Egypt for

67 years and lived into his eighties. He was married tomore than 90 wives and fathered over 100 children!Archaeologists excavating his tomb describe him as one

of the most colourful figures of the ancient world.Ramses 11 came to power at a time when the great

empire was crumbling. His reign represents the finalperiod of grandeur in ancient Egyptian civilization.Egypt’s main enemy was the Hittite empire based inAnatolia. Ramses challenged the Ilittites early in hisreign by leading his army north to Kadesh. but the

drove him back. While he fought valiantly to maintainthe empire and considered himself a great warrior,evidence proves that he exaggerated his claims to bravery and valour. Even when he was driven back by theHittites, Ramses II had inscriptions carved in templesall over Egypt stating that he had been victorious. In hisvanity, he even had his name inscribed on monumentsbuilt by earlier pharaohs. Because of this desire toprove his magnificence to all future generations, many

scholars refer to him as “Raiiiscs the Great.”When he attempted a second invasion of the Hittite

empire, the attack ended in a stalemate. The two opponents made the first treaty of non-aggression in history:they simply agreed to not attack each other again and to

help one another if attacked by another enemy.Ramses launched an unprecedented building program

of monuments and public buildings during his reign. Infact, he constructed more monuments than any other

pharaoh, perhaps to ensure his own immortality. Thebuildings from his reign have left us with a magnificent

legacy. Ramses made Thebes the first monumental capi

tal city of history, adding to existing temples in the cityand at Karnak, and building dozens of others. The twohuge temples at Ahu Sinibel, cut in rock for the pharaoh

and his wife. Nefertari. are stunning examples.

moved “Aton” from his name atìd became deities as well as Aton, Horemnheb (1323 Aithenaton’s religious beliefs.

Tutankhamen. He restored the former state BCE—1295 BCE), the last pharaoh of the The ultimate decline of the New King-

religion, allowing the worship of old Eighteenth Dynasty, completely rejected dom began in the Late Dynastic Period be-


Ramses II(1279 HCE—1213 BCE)

What were the main accomplishments of Ramses II?Imagine that you could interview this famous pharaoh.What questions would YOLI

ask him? Do von think hedeserves to be called“Ramses the Great”?

IThe face of Ramses II, the

Figure 4-8The face of Ramses I!

Figure 4-9Colossal sealed sandstone statues of Ramses lion the façade of themain temple at Aba Simbel


10

Hatshepsut

Figure 4-10Hieroglyphic representations ofNewKingdom rulers—Hatshepsut, Thutmose III,Tutankhamen, Ramses II

tween 1070 BCE and 332 BCE, when bitter

struggles for royal power increased amongpriests and nobles. Gradually, the empirebroke up into a number of small states. Theprocess accelerated rapidly after about 1070BCE, following the end of the TwentiethDynasty. When Egypt eventually lost its territory abroad, its weakness attracted invaders.

Over the next 700 years, more than tendifferent dynasties ruled Egypt, most formedby Nubian, Assyrian, or Persian rulers. In728 BCE, a Nubian army officer, GeneralPiankhi (Piy) invaded from the south andconquered the country. Although hereturned to Nubia after his conquest and

pIes built and restored many uicien1 Egypt

ian traditions that had almost died out,After about 50 years, however, the Nubianswere driven out by Assyrian invaders underthe command of Ashurbanipal in 667 BCE.

He established the 1\venty-Sixth Dynastyand appointed Nekau, a prince of the western delta, to govern the delta region of Sais.

Order was only restored in Egyptunder Nekau’s son and successor Psamtek,who extended his rule over all of Egypt andbecame the first in a line of Saite kings thatdominated Egypt for a century. Longing forformer glories, the Saite kings revived ancient styles, turning to the Old Kingdom forinspiration. But their attempt to restore thepast eventually failed, and the Assyrian empire fell to the Persians.

TFIE GREEK PERIODThe Egyptians greatly resented Persiandomination. Revolts and opposition to theirpresence marked much of the Persians’occupation over the next two centuries. In332 BCE, however, the Macedonian armiesof Alexander the Great conquered Persiaand marched into Egypt, launching aperiod in Egyptian history when the peoplewere ruled by Macedonians and administered in Greek. In fact, Greek became thelanguage of government in Egypt for almost a thousand years.

Alexander ruled Egypt for only a fewyears before his death in 323 BCE. The

Macedonian governor of Egypt at the timewas Ptolemy, and in 305 BCE he declaredhimself Ptolemy I (305 BCE—282 BCE),

king of Egypt. Over the next threecenturies, a line of Ptolemies turned Alexandria into the most brilliant metropolisof the Greek-speaking world. Alexandria

omi the north end of the Nile deIti.The generations of Macedonian kings

and their sister-wives, called C]eopatras,were kind hut patronizing to the nativeEgyptians, and only one monarch, CleopatraVII, took the time to learn the Egyptianlanguage. Instead, the dynasty’s rulersspread Greek culture from their capital atAlexandria. They built temples to Greekgods, developed Egypt’s natural resources,and increased foreign trade. But the secondand third centuries of Ptolemaic rule weremarred by family strife and internal powerstruggles. The reign of this magnificentfamily line came to an end with the childrenof Ptolemy XII: two sons, both namedPtolemy, and a daughter, Cleopatra VII.

THE ROMAN PERIODWhen Cleopatra VII (51 BCE—30 BCE) andher brothers wrang]ed over the control ofEgypt, their dispute drew Rome’s attention.After ruling first with one brother and thenwith the other, Cleopatra finally establishedher own power by forming an alliance withtwo Roman leaders, first with Julius Caesarfrom 48 BCE—44 BCE and then with MarkAntony from 41 BCE—3() BCE.

Cleopatra’s great ambitions came toan end in the civil wars fought among theRoman conquerors. In 31 BCE, Caesar’snephew Octavian defeated Mark Antony atthe battle of Actiutn. When Octavianniarched victorious into Egypt the following year and Mark Antony and Cleopatracommitted suicide, the reign of the Ptolemies was over. Egypt then became a province of Rome.

After Egypt was absorbed into the Roman Empire, Greek continued as the language of government. Few emperors of

10

Thotmose Ill

Ramses IITutankhamen

ruled Egypt from there, Piy had huge tern- was a city founded by Alexander the Great Rome during the first three centuries


visited Egypt or showed much interest inthe area. A prefect was usually sent to rule

REFLECT AND ANAIxzI:

GOVERNMENT

THE PHARAOHThe ancient Egyptians looked upon theirking or pharaoh as a god, a descendant of

uti behalf of the Roinai I emperor, ii ii a—tive Egyptians were excluded from gov

ermnent positions. Roman law was also

introduced into the country.

Roman culture brought many mater

ial changes to Egypt. The use of iron weapons and tools spread. Clear glass vessels,

the terra-cotta lamp, the lathe, the split-nibreed pen, and the key were all introducedinto Egypt. The introduction of the ox-drawn waterwheel and a wheel-drawnthreshing machine changed agriculture as

well.Rome’s control of Egypt gradually

weakened after 395 CE when the Roman

empire split into eastern and western parts.

By 642 CE, the Muslims from Arabia had

conquered Egypt.

the great sun god Re. They also believed

that horns, the powerful sky god repre-’sented by a hawk, entered the pharaohwhen he or she sat on the throne. After

death, the people often referred to the

pharaoh as Osiris, an indication that theythought of their ruler as being one with the

great god of the dead.

The actual word pharaoh comes

from the Egyptian word meaning “great

house.” Sometime between 1554 BCE and

1304 BCE, the ancient Egyptians chose to

address their king as pharaoh to show their

great respect. Rather than use the ruler’s

own name, subjects spoke instead of the

palace or “great house.”The position of pharaoh passed to the

eldest son of the king’s chief wife. This

distinction was important because many

Egyptian kings had several other wives,

called lesser wives. Some chief wives gave

birth to daughters but not to sons, and sev

eral of those daughters claimed their right

to the throne. At least four women ruled

ancient Egypt.

THE BUREAUCRACYAll government administrators, ranging

from personal staff to imperial officials,were subject to the approval of the phar

aoh. The pharaoh’s personal staff included

a steward, who looked after the vast royal

estates, a chamberlain, who was in charge

of the daily affairs in the palace, and a firstherald, who supervised the palace guard.

The highest-ranking official wasthe vizier, who served as the pharaoh’sdeputy in all the affairs of state. During

the Old Kingdom, this office was usuallyheld by a prince of royal blood, as wereall important positions. The vizier hadenormous responsibilities. He was incharge of almost all administrative affairs from collecting taxes to overseeingjudges, scribes, and treasury officials.Eventually, the office got so complicatedthat, during the Eighteenth Dynasty, two

) V

. N

____

Figure 4-11 Apossthle bust of cleopatra

1. In a chart or on a timehine of your own design, identify the main

accomplishments of the ancient Egyptians during

a) the Old Kingdom

h) the Middle Kingdomc) the New Kingdom.

2. What was the Amarna Revolution? Why do you think it angered manx

Egyptians?

3. Egypt hecame a po’verful empire because of the strong leadership of

the pharaohs. l)o you agree or disagree with this statement? Explain

your answer.

-1. In which of ancient Egypt’s major lu.tnrical periods would von have

preferred to I i\ e.’ Write a personal journal entry explaining your choice.


viziers wCN :ippoiiited. Ofl( br lowerEgypt anti one for Upper Egypt. By thistime, commoners could also apply forthese positions.

Working under each vizier, an overseerof the treasury kept track of taxes and tribute. Since the government collected taxesfrom farmers in the form of crops, andtaxes from skilled workers in the form ofgoods they produced, the pharaoh’s treasuries and temples actually served aswarehouses. Therefore, an overseer of thegranaries and of cattle worked very closelywith the overseer of the treasury.

Other high government officials in

cluded an army commander and thegovernors appointed to rule conquered ter

ritories within the empire. The governorsalso regulated the garrisons of Egyptiansoldiers left behind to keep the conqueredpeople in check.

Ancient Egypt was divided into 42provinces called nomes. Each of theselocal areas was governed by an official

called a nornarcb, appointed by thepharaoh. He was responsible for collectingthe local taxes, maintaming law and order,

raising troops, and organizing workers.

LAW AND JUSTICE

The ancient Egyptians did not look upon

the law as a specialized area separatefrom their government. They had laws,

they had punishments with varying degrees of severity, and they had tribunalsor courts. Unlike the Mesopotamians,however, they did not develop extensivecodes of law and did not view their lawsas gifts from the gods.

The composition of a tribunal orcourt varied from case to case. In a villageor town, the courts dealt with a wide variety of general matters, and local landowners were expected to sit in judgement

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Figure 4-12 lbmh wallpainting in Thebes depicting the punishment of a servant

THROUGH THEIR EYESEgyptian justice

The following instructions from a pllilraoh to his vizieroutline some of the goals for justice in ancient Egypt. Inour own words, describe the pharaohs general advice.Which of the goals would be acceptable for judges inthe Canadian judicial system today? Which would beunacceptable?

Do not send a petitioner away before listening to him.Dismiss him only after telling him why you are dismissinghis case. l)ecause it is said that a petitioner would ratherthat you pay attention to what he says than win his case.

Do not judge inconsistently: the ahomiiiation of thedivine king is parmialit. 1.ook upon him who is knownto OU in the same way as him who is unkno n to you:him who is close to you in the same way as him who isfar from you.

Do not be angry with any maii without good cause: beangry only when there is good reason to be angry.In spire fear of \ourself so that men are afraid of youbecause a true magistrate is one of whom people areafraid. But the reputation of a magistrate comes from hisgiving justice. If people are too frightened of a magistrate, then there might be something unjust about him.


when called upon. Each noirie or provincehad its own court as well, where Ii gii officials heard the more important cases.Priests, soldiers, or government officialspresided over local courts, For very seriouscases, such as treason, a special commission might be appointed to prosecute thecase.

The administration of justice withinthe kingdom was mainly the responsibilityof the vizier. He judged most capital or highcourt cases. Although the pharaoh was thesupreme judge in ancient Egypt, he or sheonly intervened personally in cases involving crimes punishable by death.

Penalties for crimes often includedharsh physical punishment that rangedfrom a beating (for failure to do one’s duty)to death (for treason). If a person did not

show up for communal work when sum—nmnned, he or she might he sentenced to a

permanent work assignment in a state

institution. If SOIUCOIIC charged with acrime ran away and could riot be caught,his or her family would he taken instead.

REFLECT AND ANALYZE

1. a) Provide evidence that the Eg ptian pharoahs ruled with absolute

power.b) Discuss the athantages and disad\antages of this system of govern

ment.

2. Write a job description for a vizier in ancient Egypt. Then imagine

you have been offered the job. \\ hat are the advantages and disadvan

tages of this opportunity

3. Bureaucracy became more complicated in the Middle Kingdom and

theNwJJ.nglum Suggest reasons wh} this was so.

4.’ -ComparesmUarities and differences in the forms of law and justice in

Egypt aud Meopotamia.

chapter egypt - yola

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