Chapter 8: Political Geography

How Is Space Politically Organized into States and Nations?

• Political geography: The study of the political organization of the world

• Territoriality: “The attempt by an individual or group to affect, influence, or control people, phenomena, and relationships, by delimiting and asserting control over a geographic area”

– Robert Sack• Sovereignty: Having the last say over a territory —

legally• Territorial integrity: The right of a government to

keep the borders and territory of a state intact and free from attack

Nations• A culturally defined group of people with a shared

past and a common future who relate to a territory and have political goals. – Constructed by people to make sense of themselves

– “States”– perceived as “natural” and “always existing” but

really a relatively recent phenomenon• In 1940, there were about 50 countries• Today, there are 192 countries

– as evidenced by United Nations membership

United Nations Membership

Figure 8-5

Development of the state concept• Ancient states

• The Fertile Crescent– Mediterranean to Mesopotamia– City-states (rise of civilization = Sumer)

Development of the state concept• Ancient states

• The Fertile Crescent (Mediterranean to Mesopotamia)– City-states (rise of civilization = Sumer)

• Ancient Empires (Assyria, Rome, Mongols, etc.)– Empire = Control by one state over other(s)

• Middle Ages = Kingdoms = loyalty to monarch

• Global Empires• Two Eras

– “Old Imperialism” (AD 1500 – 1800)» New World, Three motives: “God, gold, and glory”

– “New Imperialism (AD 1800 – 1960s)» Asia and Africa, Industrialization, Nationalism

– Today = some remaining colonies

Colonial Possessions, 1914

Figure 8-8

Colonial Possessions, 2006

Figure 8-9

Nations• A culturally defined group of people with a shared

past and a common future who relate to a territory and have political goals. – Constructed by people to make sense of themselves – Problems of defining “states”

– perceived as “natural” and “always existing” but really a relatively recent phenomenon

– In 1940, there were about 50 countries– Today, there are 192 countries

» as evidenced by United Nations membership• Almost all habitable lands belong to a country • Some places are difficult to classify

– China and Taiwan

A state with more than one nationMultinational State

Stateless NationA nation with no state

Irredentism

• Irredentism– Assertion by a

government that a minority living outside its borders belongs to it

– Serbia over Bosnian Serbs

– Germany over Sudetenland

The Shape and Size of States

Compact State• most efficient• boundaries are all relatively

equidistant from capital – Theoretically, most desirable

shape is round or hexagonal• short borders easy to defend.• short communication lines• As a rule, the more compact

the territory the better– No country has this ideal degree

of compactness– Some countries come close —

France, Poland• Other shapes = problematic

Elongated State

• long and narrow • poor communication • potentially will isolate

regions from the capital.– shape is centrifugal force

Prorupted State

• otherwise compact state with a large projecting extension– serves to give

access to a natural resource

– or separate or disrupt two states that would otherwise share a border.

Perforated State • a state that completely surrounds another.

• Enclave — district surrounded by a country but not ruled by it

• Pene-enclave and Pene-exclave — an intrusive piece of territory with only the smallest of outlets free from the surrounding country

Fragmented State• contains several discontinuous pieces of territory – separated by water or

an intervening state.• Exclaves — Pieces of

national territory separated from the main body of a country by the territory of another

• Hard to defend• Isolated population may

develop separatist feelings

East Pakistan as an exclave in 1947– Two parts were

separated by 1,000 miles of Indian territory

– West Pakistan had the capital, most of the territory, and hoarded the country’s wealth

– East Pakistan had most the people and resources

– Divided in 1973, East Pakistan became Bangladesh

Landlocked States

The Size of States

Figure 8-5

Varying sizes of states

• State size varies considerably• Largest state = Russia

– 11 % of the world’s land area– US #4 (after Canada #2, China #3)

Varying sizes of states

• State size varies considerably• Largest state = Russia

– 11 % of the world’s land area– US #4 (after Canada #2, China #3)

• Smallest state = Monaco?– Vatican City = smallest independent country

–Microstate = states with very small land areas» About two dozen microstates

Map of microstates

Borders and Boundaries

Boundaries and BordersOrigins:

• Antecedent– Exist from prehistoric times– Usually align with physical boundaries

• Pyrenees between France/Spain• Cultural linguistic borders between

Germanic and Romance Europe along Rhine River and Alps

• South Asia/East Asia = Himalayas

Boundaries and BordersOrigins:

• Antecedent– Exist from prehistoric times

• Subsequent– Resulting from conflict or cultural

changes• Ireland/Northern Ireland

Boundaries and BordersOrigins:

• Antecedent– Exist from prehistoric times

• Subsequent– Resulting from conflict or cultural

changes• Superimposed

– Lines laid down for political reasons over cultural boundaries

• the Scramble for Africa• Korea

Boundaries and BordersOrigins:

• Antecedent– Exist from prehistoric times

• Subsequent– Resulting from conflict or cultural

changes• Superimposed

– Lines laid down for political reasons over cultural boundaries

• Relic– Former boundary that still has meaning

• Scotland and England after UK• North and South Vietnam• East and West Germany

BoundariesOrigins:

• Antecedent– Exist from prehistoric times

• Subsequent– Resulting from conflict or cultural

changes• Superimposed

– Lines laid down for political reasons over cultural boundaries

• Relic– Former boundary that still has meaning

Process: (not mutually exclusive)

• Definition– Claimed, negotiated or

captured• Delimitation

– When placed on a map

• Demarcation– Markers placed on

ground to show placement

BordersTypes:

• Physical– Natural geography like rivers,

lakes, oceans, mountains or deserts

• Cultural– Human features (language,

religions, other)• “isogloss”

• Geometric– Survey lines usually along

lines of latitude and longitude

Borders extend in a plane above and below the Earth

BordersTypes:

• Physical– Natural geography like rivers,

lakes, oceans, mountains or deserts

• Cultural– Human features (language,

religions, other)• “isogloss”

• Geometric– Survey lines usually along

lines of latitude and longitude

Disputes:• Definitional

– Treaties are interpreted two different ways. Legal dispute.

• Locational– When the border moves (ie: a

river changes course)– overlaps with “definitional”

• Operational– Border is recognized, but

passage becomes problematic– Immigration/trade

• Allocational– When a resource lies on two

sides of border

Water Boundaries at Sea• Est. by the UN Conference on the Law of the

Seas (ratified 1994)– Territorial

• Sovereignty extends 12 nautical miles from shore• All national laws apply • Beyond 12 mi. = high seas, admiralty law applies

– Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ)• Exclusive economic rights extend 200 nautical

miles from shore• Natural resources, fishing, etc.• Usually beyond continental shelf• Often overlap, generally split halfway, but many

areas are under dispute

Transition Zones• Until recently many boundaries were not sharp, clearly

defined lines, but were zones called marchlands• Frontiers - area between two states or between

inhabited and uninhabited areas– Now rare since most modern govts. have technology

and want to exploit all territory to the fullest• Buffer state — independent but weak country lying

between two powerful countries– Mongolia—lies between Russia and China– Afghanistan- lies between Russian Empire and British India

• Satellite state -- a buffer state that falls under the domination of one of its powerful neighbors and loses much of its independence (aka: puppet state)– Eastern European countries under Soviet domination during

the Cold War

Internal Structure of States– Unitary states

• central govt. dictates all policy from capital– All power resides with central government

• Example: France– Federal states

• Example: U.S.• Power is shared between central and local govt.

– One of biggest historical debates in the U.S.• Globally, there is a trend toward federations

– Devolution (weakening of central power)– More local autonomy, recognition of ethnic autonomy

Differences in state laws: federalism in action

Differences in state laws: federalism in action

Internal Structure of States– Unitary states

• central govt. dictates all policy from capital– All power resides with central government

• Example: France– Federal states

• Example: U.S.• Power is shared between central and local govt.

– One of biggest historical debates in the U.S.• Globally, there is a trend toward federations

– Devolution (weakening of central power)– More local autonomy, recognition of ethnic autonomy

– Confederation• Loose association

– Little central authority– Examples: U.S. under Articles of Confederation

Gerrymandering• manipulation of redistricting– Eldridge Gerry (Mass.)– Illegal but subject to

interpretation• 1985 U.S. Supreme Court decision

• Three types– Wasted or “cracking”

• Spreading opponents strength across several districts in order to weaken

– Excess or “packing”• Concentrating opponents strength in

one district to lessen effect on others– “Stacking” (form of packing)

• Create majority-minority district

Gerrymandering: wasted vote or

“cracking”

• An example of "cracking" style of gerrymandering. The urban (and mostly liberal) concentration of Columbus, OH, located at the center of the map in Franklin County, is split into thirds, each segment then attached to—and outnumbered by—largely conservative suburbs.

Excess vote or “packing”

Gerrymandering: stacked vote aka

“packing”

Do Geopolitics Help Us Understand the World?

• Geopolitics: The interplay among geography, power, politics, and international relations

• Economic focus– Immanuel Wallerstein’s World-Systems Theory

• Classical geopolitics– German School (Ratzel’s organic state theory)– British /American School

• Mackinder’s heartland theory• Mahan’s Sea Power theory• Spykman’s Rimland Theory

Ratzel’s Organic State Theory

• Based on Darwin’s theories of evolution – “survival of the fittest”

• state must control territory and overseas connections to survive– Described expansion of empires and large states

in the 19th century– Eventually contributed to Nazi expansionist goals

Mackinder’s Heartland Theory• Who rules East Europe commands the Heartland• Who rules the Heartland commands the World Island • Who rules the World Island commands the world• Obsolete? Evidence?

Spykman’s Rimland Theory = “"who controls the Rimland rules

Eurasia” →containment

derivative of Mahan’s sea power theory

Shatterbelt = an area of instability between regions with opposing political/cultural values.

• Central Asia (during 1800s imperialism)– Russia vs. British South Asia

• The Rimland during the Cold War– communism vs. capitalism– Greece and Turkey, China, Korea, Berlin,

Vietnam, the Middle East etc.• Today?

– Caucasus (Russia vs. Islamism)– The Middle East (Sunni vs. Shiite)– West Africa (Islam vs. Christian/Animist)

State Interaction

• Political/military and econ. cooperation– The United Nations (est. 1945)

United Nations Membership

Figure 8-5

United Nations Peacekeepers

Figure 8-2

State Interaction

• Political, military and econ. cooperation– The United Nations (est. 1945)– Regional military alliances maintain balance of power

• Post–World War II: NATO or the Warsaw Pact

Economic and Military Alliances in Cold War Europe

State Interaction

• Political, military and econ. cooperation– The United Nations (est. 1945)– Regional military alliances maintain balance of power

• Post–World War II: NATO or the Warsaw Pact– Other regional organizations

• OAS (est. 1962)– Organization of American States = All Western Hemisphere– Cuba = excluded, French Guiana = nonmember

• AU (est. 1963)– All of Africa except Morocco (Sahrawi issue)

• The Commonwealth of Nations– Former British colonies (No US, Egypt, Sudan, Middle eastern mandates)

» Plus Mozambique and Rwanda

State Interaction

• Political, military and econ. cooperation– The United Nations (est. 1945)– Regional military alliances maintain balance of power

• Post–World War II: NATO or the Warsaw Pact– Other regional organizations

• OAS (est. 1962)• AU (est. 1963)• The Commonwealth of Nations

• Supranational organizations• A venture involving 3 or more nation-states involving formal political,

economic, and/or cultural cooperation to promote shared objectives.• Strictest definition requires the sacrifice of some sovereignty• Who is a better example of a supranational organization the UN or

EU?– EU!!!!

Requirements for membership

• stability • democracy & the rule of law• human rights and protection

of minorities• market economy

The European Union

• 500 mil people• 27 members• Unified economy

• $16.6 trillion• world’s largest

4 Freedom to live or work anywhere in EU.• Poles => Britain• Turks? => Germany

4 No unified foreign policy• no combined military (most are NATO)• disagreements

• Britain vs. France/Germany over Iraq4 Sovereign debt crisis

• PIIGS (Portugal, Ireland, Italy, Greece, Spain)• austerity required?• nations forced to cut budgets, social benefits

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Other policies/problems

State Interaction

• Political, military and econ. cooperation– The United Nations (est. 1945)– Regional military alliances maintain balance of power

• Post–World War II: NATO or the Warsaw Pact– Other regional organizations

• OAS (est. 1962)• AU (est. 1963)• The Commonwealth of Nations

• Supranational organizations• A venture involving 3 or more nation-states involving formal political,

economic, and/or cultural cooperation to promote shared objectives.• Strictest definition requires the sacrifice of some sovereignty• Who is a better example of a supranational organization the UN or

EU?– EU!!!!

• How is the EU a centrifugal force for member states?

Devolution in Europe

Do Geopolitics Help Us Understand the World?

• Geopolitics: The interplay among geography, power, politics, and international relations

• Economic focus– Immanuel Wallerstein’s World-Systems Theory

Immanuel Wallerstein’s World-Systems Theory

• Result of colonialism/imperialism• a world order based on differences in economic

and political power1. The world economy has one market but a

global division of labor.2. Although the world has multiple states, almost

everything takes place within the context of the world economy.

3. The world economy has a three-tier structure.

Three-Tier StructureCore Processes that incorporate higher

levels of education, higher salaries, and more technology

Generate more wealth in the world economy

INNOVATION, CREATIVITYHIGH-TECH MANUFACTURING

Semi-periphery Places where core and periphery

processes are both occurringPlaces that are exploited by the core

but then exploit the periphery Serves as a buffer between core and

periphery CHEAP MANUFACTURING

Periphery Processes that incorporate lower

levels of education, lower salaries, and less technology

Generate less wealth in the world economy

SOURCE OF RAW MATERIALS

The Three-Tier System

Construction of the World Economy

• Colonialism: Made world economy “global”, established interdependent global economy

• Capitalism: The system whereby people, corporations, and states produce goods and services and exchange them in the world market, with the goal of achieving profit – facilitated by “free trade”

• Commodification: The process of placing a price on a good and then buying, selling, and trading the good (remember from culture unit)

Terrorism• Terrorism

– Systematic use of violence to intimidate a population or to coerce a government

• From the Latin word meaning “to frighten”• Use of bombing, kidnapping, hijacking, and murder to

instill fear and anxiety in a population– Us vs. “Them”

• Cold War– Evil Empire (Soviet Union) vs. Shining city on a hill (United

States)• Replacement of Soviet Union as “them” by terrorists

Terrorism• December 21st 1988 – Pan Am Flight 103

Bombing– Muammar al-Qaddafi’s young daughter

• Feb 26th 1993 – World Trade Center Bombing• June 25th 1996 – Khobar Tower Bombing

– Hezbollah• August 7th 1998 – U.S. Embassy Bombings in

East Africa– Made al-Qaeda known

• Oct 12th 2000 – USS Cole Navy Destroyer Bombing

Terrorism• Terrorism by individuals and organizations

– Arab-Israeli conflict– American terrorists

• Timothy McVeigh (April 19, 1995)– “federal government is tyrannical”

» Waco, Ruby Ridge

– September 11, 2001, attacks• US presence in Saudi Arabia, colonialism• Anti-Westernization

– Al-Qaeda • Osama bin Laden (Saudi living in Afghanistan)• Jihad

– Prior attacks (Kenya, Tanzania, USS Cole)

Aftermath of World Trade Center Attack

Why Has Terrorism Increased?• State support for terrorism

– Three increasing levels of involvement• Avoid retribution/revenge

– Using terrorists to plan attacks– Terrorists have no “polity” to attack

• Providing sanctuary– Taliban to Osama bin Laden

• Supplying weapons, money, and intelligence to terrorists

– Libya (Pan Am bombers)– Iran (Hezbollah)

State support for terrorism– Examples

• Libya• Afghanistan• Iran

– Other• Iraq (accused by GWB)

– Terrorist infl/sympathy• Pakistan• Saudi Arabia