Chapter 8 OverviewChapter 8 Overview

Theories of developmentTheories of development Prenatal developmentPrenatal development InfancyInfancy Early and middle childhoodEarly and middle childhood AdolescenceAdolescence Early and middle adulthoodEarly and middle adulthood Later adulthoodLater adulthood

Theories of Theories of DevelopmentDevelopment Developmental psychologyDevelopmental psychology

– The study of how humans grow, The study of how humans grow, develop, and change throughout the develop, and change throughout the life spanlife span

What did Piaget find regarding What did Piaget find regarding stages of cognitive stages of cognitive development?development?

During the During the sensorimotor stage sensorimotor stage (birth (birth to 2 years),to 2 years), infants gain an infants gain an understanding of the world through understanding of the world through their senses and motor activitiestheir senses and motor activities– Infants act on objects and events that are Infants act on objects and events that are

directly perceiveddirectly perceived Major achievement of this stage is Major achievement of this stage is

object permanenceobject permanence– The realization that objects continue to The realization that objects continue to

exist when they can no longer be exist when they can no longer be perceivedperceived

What did Piaget find regarding What did Piaget find regarding stages of cognitive stages of cognitive development?development?

During the During the preoperational stage preoperational stage (age 2-7), children acquire (age 2-7), children acquire symbolic symbolic functionfunction– Understanding that one thing can stand Understanding that one thing can stand

for anotherfor another During this stage, children exhibit During this stage, children exhibit

egocentrismegocentrism– Belief that everyone sees what they see, Belief that everyone sees what they see,

thinks what they think, etc.thinks what they think, etc.

What did Piaget find regarding What did Piaget find regarding stages of cognitive stages of cognitive development?development? In the In the concrete operational stage concrete operational stage (7 (7

toto 11 or 12 years), children acquire the 11 or 12 years), children acquire the concept of concept of conservationconservation– Understanding that a given quantity of Understanding that a given quantity of

matter stays the same despite matter stays the same despite rearrangement or change in its rearrangement or change in its appearance, as long as nothing is added or appearance, as long as nothing is added or taken awaytaken away

– Conservation develops because children Conservation develops because children begin to understand begin to understand reversibilityreversibility

Realizing that any change in the shape, position, Realizing that any change in the shape, position, or order of matter can be reversed mentallyor order of matter can be reversed mentally

What did Piaget find regarding What did Piaget find regarding stages of cognitive stages of cognitive development?development?

In the In the formal operational stageformal operational stage (age 11 or 12 years and beyond) (age 11 or 12 years and beyond) preadolescents and adolescents preadolescents and adolescents acquire the capacity for acquire the capacity for hypothetico-hypothetico-deductive thinkingdeductive thinking– The ability to apply logical thought to The ability to apply logical thought to

abstract and hypothetical situations in the abstract and hypothetical situations in the past, present, and futurepast, present, and future

What did Kohlberg claim about What did Kohlberg claim about the development of moral the development of moral reasoning?reasoning? Lawrence Kohlberg proposed a stage Lawrence Kohlberg proposed a stage

theory of moral developmenttheory of moral development He presented moral dilemmas to He presented moral dilemmas to

research participants and analyzed the research participants and analyzed the moral reasoning that they describedmoral reasoning that they described

He classified moral reasoning into three He classified moral reasoning into three levelslevels, with each level having two , with each level having two stagesstages– People progress through the levels and People progress through the levels and

stages in a fixed orderstages in a fixed order– Each level has a prerequisite stage of Each level has a prerequisite stage of

cognitive developmentcognitive development

What did Kohlberg claim about What did Kohlberg claim about the development of moral the development of moral reasoning?reasoning? Preconventional levelPreconventional level

– Lowest level of moral developmentLowest level of moral development– ““Right” is whatever gains a reward or Right” is whatever gains a reward or

avoids punishmentavoids punishment Conventional levelConventional level

– Right and wrong are based on the Right and wrong are based on the internalized standards of othersinternalized standards of others

– ““Right” is whatever is approved by others Right” is whatever is approved by others or is consistent with the laws of societyor is consistent with the laws of society

Postconventional levelPostconventional level– Highest level of moral reasoningHighest level of moral reasoning– ““Right” is whatever furthers basic human Right” is whatever furthers basic human

rightsrights

How does Erickson’s theory How does Erickson’s theory describe the process of describe the process of psychosocial development?psychosocial development? Basic trust vs. basic mistrustBasic trust vs. basic mistrust

– Birth to 1 yearBirth to 1 year Autonomy vs. shame and doubtAutonomy vs. shame and doubt

– 1 to 3 years1 to 3 years Initiative vs. guiltInitiative vs. guilt

– 3 to 6 years3 to 6 years Industry vs. inferiorityIndustry vs. inferiority

– 6 years to puberty6 years to puberty

How does Erickson’s theory How does Erickson’s theory describe the process of describe the process of psychosocial development?psychosocial development?

Identity vs. role confusionIdentity vs. role confusion– AdolescenceAdolescence

Intimacy vs. isolationIntimacy vs. isolation– Young adulthoodYoung adulthood

Generativity vs. stagnationGenerativity vs. stagnation– Middle adulthoodMiddle adulthood

Ego integrity vs. despairEgo integrity vs. despair– Late adulthoodLate adulthood

Prenatal DevelopmentPrenatal Development

The development from The development from conception to birthconception to birth

What happens during each of What happens during each of the three stages of prenatal the three stages of prenatal development?development? Period of the Period of the zygotezygote

– Zygote attaches to the uterine liningZygote attaches to the uterine lining– Ends 1 to 2 weeks after conceptionEnds 1 to 2 weeks after conception

Period of the Period of the embryoembryo– Major systems, organs, and structures of Major systems, organs, and structures of

the body developthe body develop– Ends when bone cells appear, 3 to 8 weeks Ends when bone cells appear, 3 to 8 weeks

after conceptionafter conception Period of the Period of the fetusfetus

– Rapid growth and development of body Rapid growth and development of body structures, organs, and systemsstructures, organs, and systems

– 9 weeks after conception until birth9 weeks after conception until birth

InfancyInfancy

A A neonate, a neonate, a newborn infant up newborn infant up to one month old, comes to one month old, comes equipped with an impressive equipped with an impressive range of range of reflexesreflexes, built-in , built-in responses to certain stimuli that responses to certain stimuli that they need to ensure survival in they need to ensure survival in their new worldtheir new world

How do infants’ perceptual and How do infants’ perceptual and

motormotor abilities change over the abilities change over the first 18 months of life?first 18 months of life?

TemperamentTemperament

A person’s behavioral style or A person’s behavioral style or characteristic way of responding characteristic way of responding to the environmentto the environment

How does temperament shape How does temperament shape infants’ behavior?infants’ behavior? Thomas, Chess, and Birch (1970) Thomas, Chess, and Birch (1970)

identified three general types of identified three general types of temperamenttemperament– EasyEasy

Have pleasant moods, approach new people Have pleasant moods, approach new people and situations positivelyand situations positively

– DifficultDifficult Have generally unpleasant moods, react Have generally unpleasant moods, react

negatively to new people and situationsnegatively to new people and situations

– Slow-to-warm-upSlow-to-warm-up Tend to withdraw, are slow to adapt, somewhat Tend to withdraw, are slow to adapt, somewhat

negative in moodnegative in mood Infant temperament is strongly influenced by heredity Infant temperament is strongly influenced by heredity

and is somewhat predictive of personality later in lifeand is somewhat predictive of personality later in life

How do the four attachment How do the four attachment patterns identified in infants patterns identified in infants differ?differ? Attachment Attachment is the strong affectionate is the strong affectionate

bond a child forms with the mother or bond a child forms with the mother or primary caregiverprimary caregiver

Harry Harlow found that Harry Harlow found that contact contact comfortcomfort forms the basis of forms the basis of attachment in rhesus monkeysattachment in rhesus monkeys

Human infants exhibit Human infants exhibit separation separation anxietyanxiety and and stranger anxietystranger anxiety once once attachment has formed, at about 6 to attachment has formed, at about 6 to 8 months of age8 months of age

How do the four attachment How do the four attachment patterns identified in infants patterns identified in infants differ?differ? Secure attachmentSecure attachment

– About 65% of infantsAbout 65% of infants– Use mother as a secure base for exploringUse mother as a secure base for exploring– Distressed by separation from caregivers, Distressed by separation from caregivers,

greet caregivers when they returngreet caregivers when they return– More cooperative and content than other More cooperative and content than other

infantsinfants– Display better social skills as preschool Display better social skills as preschool

childrenchildren Avoidant attachmentAvoidant attachment

– About 20% of infantsAbout 20% of infants– Not responsive to mother, not troubled when Not responsive to mother, not troubled when

she leavesshe leaves– May actively avoid contact with mother after May actively avoid contact with mother after

separationseparation

How do the four attachment How do the four attachment patterns identified in infants patterns identified in infants differ?differ?

Resistant attachmentResistant attachment– 10 to 15% of infants10 to 15% of infants– Seek close contact with mother, and tend Seek close contact with mother, and tend

not to branch out and explorenot to branch out and explore– After separation, may display anger toward After separation, may display anger toward

mother; not easily comfortedmother; not easily comforted Disorganized/disoriented Disorganized/disoriented

attachmentattachment– 5 to 10% of infants5 to 10% of infants– Protest separation, but exhibit contradictory Protest separation, but exhibit contradictory

and disoriented behavior when reunitedand disoriented behavior when reunited

Early and Middle Early and Middle ChildhoodChildhood Mastery of language, both spoken Mastery of language, both spoken

and written, is just one of several and written, is just one of several important developmental important developmental processes that happen in early processes that happen in early and middle childhood.and middle childhood.

What are the milestones of What are the milestones of language development, and language development, and how do various theorists how do various theorists explain them?explain them? BabblingBabbling

– Vocalization of basic speech sounds, which Vocalization of basic speech sounds, which begins between 4 and 6 monthsbegins between 4 and 6 months

One-word stageOne-word stage– First words spoken at about 1 yearFirst words spoken at about 1 year– First words usually represent objects that First words usually represent objects that

move or that infants can act onmove or that infants can act on Two-word stageTwo-word stage

– Usually begins about 18-20 monthsUsually begins about 18-20 months

What are the milestones of What are the milestones of language development, and language development, and how do various theorists how do various theorists explain them?explain them? Telegraphic speechTelegraphic speech

– Between 2 and 3 years, children start Between 2 and 3 years, children start using short sentences that contain only using short sentences that contain only essential content wordsessential content words

Children follow grammatical rules in Children follow grammatical rules in their speech, as indicated by their speech, as indicated by overregularizationoverregularization– Misapplying a grammatical rule, such as Misapplying a grammatical rule, such as

adding “ed” to form a past tenseadding “ed” to form a past tense Children say “goed”, comed”, “doed”, etc.Children say “goed”, comed”, “doed”, etc.

What outcomes are often What outcomes are often associated with the three associated with the three parenting styles identified by parenting styles identified by Baumrind?Baumrind? Authoritarian parentsAuthoritarian parents

– Make arbitrary rules, expect unquestioning Make arbitrary rules, expect unquestioning obedience, punish transgressionsobedience, punish transgressions

Authoritative parentsAuthoritative parents– Set high but realistic standards, reason with Set high but realistic standards, reason with

the child, enforce limits, and encourage the child, enforce limits, and encourage open communication and independenceopen communication and independence

Permissive parentsPermissive parents– Make few rules or demands, allow children Make few rules or demands, allow children

to make their own decisions and control to make their own decisions and control their own behaviortheir own behavior

What outcomes are often What outcomes are often associated with the three associated with the three parenting styles identified by parenting styles identified by Baumrind?Baumrind? Children with Children with authoritative parentsauthoritative parents

– tend to be happier and have higher self-tend to be happier and have higher self-esteem, and be more self-reliant, socially esteem, and be more self-reliant, socially competent, and responsible than their peerscompetent, and responsible than their peers

Children with Children with authoritarian parentsauthoritarian parents – tend to be withdrawn, anxious, and unhappytend to be withdrawn, anxious, and unhappy

Children with Children with permissive parentspermissive parents – tend to be the most immature, impulsive, and tend to be the most immature, impulsive, and

dependent, and the least self-reliant and self-dependent, and the least self-reliant and self-controlledcontrolled

How do social learning, cognitive How do social learning, cognitive developmental, and gender-schema developmental, and gender-schema theorists explain gender role theorists explain gender role development?development?

Social learning theorySocial learning theory– Gender role Gender role development results from development results from

modeling and reinforcementmodeling and reinforcement Cognitive developmental theoryCognitive developmental theory

– Development occurs in stages marked by Development occurs in stages marked by increasingly sophisticated reasoning about increasingly sophisticated reasoning about the permanence of genderthe permanence of gender

Gender-schema theoryGender-schema theory– Children acquire schemas for maleness Children acquire schemas for maleness

and femaleness from their culture and use and femaleness from their culture and use them to process information about genderthem to process information about gender

AdolescenceAdolescence

The developmental stage that The developmental stage that begins at puberty and begins at puberty and encompasses the period from the encompasses the period from the end of childhood to the beginning end of childhood to the beginning of adulthoodof adulthood

How does puberty influence How does puberty influence adolescents’ self-concepts and adolescents’ self-concepts and behavior?behavior? A period of rapid physical growth and A period of rapid physical growth and

change that culminates in sexual change that culminates in sexual maturitymaturity

Puberty and self-conceptPuberty and self-concept– Early maturation in boys is associated with Early maturation in boys is associated with

higher self-esteemhigher self-esteem But may also be associated with greater But may also be associated with greater

aggression and hostilityaggression and hostility

– Early maturation in girls is associated with Early maturation in girls is associated with higher risk of eating disorders, earlier sexual higher risk of eating disorders, earlier sexual experiences, more unwanted pregnancies, experiences, more unwanted pregnancies, and earlier exposure to alcohol and drug useand earlier exposure to alcohol and drug use

How does puberty influence How does puberty influence adolescents’ self-concepts and adolescents’ self-concepts and behavior?behavior?

Incidence of sexual Incidence of sexual activity increases activity increases dramatically through dramatically through teen yearsteen years

Factors associated with Factors associated with later onset of sexual later onset of sexual activity includeactivity include

Living with both Living with both biological parentsbiological parents

Higher academic Higher academic achievementachievement

Involvement in sportsInvolvement in sports Frequent attendance of Frequent attendance of

religious servicesreligious services

What are the neurological and What are the neurological and psychosocial characteristics of psychosocial characteristics of emerging adulthood?emerging adulthood?

Neuroimaging studies indicate that parts Neuroimaging studies indicate that parts of the brain involved in decision making of the brain involved in decision making and self control mature between the late and self control mature between the late teens and early twentiesteens and early twenties

Jeffrey Arnett has proposed that this age-Jeffrey Arnett has proposed that this age-range is a unique developmental period, range is a unique developmental period, which he calls which he calls emerging adulthoodemerging adulthood– A period when individuals explore options and A period when individuals explore options and

develop new skills in work and romantic develop new skills in work and romantic domains before committing to adult rolesdomains before committing to adult roles

Early and Middle Early and Middle AdulthoodAdulthood Early adulthood Early adulthood

– Ages 20 to 45 or 45Ages 20 to 45 or 45 Middle adulthoodMiddle adulthood

– Ages 40 or 45 to 65Ages 40 or 45 to 65 Late adulthoodLate adulthood

– After age 65 or 70After age 65 or 70

What are two themes of social What are two themes of social development in early and development in early and middle adulthood?middle adulthood?

Establishment of an intimate Establishment of an intimate partnershippartnership– Majority of adults marry and have childrenMajority of adults marry and have children– But they do so at later ages today than in But they do so at later ages today than in

past generationspast generations Career developmentCareer development

– Job satisfaction is strongly related to Job satisfaction is strongly related to satisfaction with other aspects of life, such satisfaction with other aspects of life, such as romantic relationshipsas romantic relationships

Later AdulthoodLater Adulthood

The life expectancy in the United The life expectancy in the United States has increased from 49 to States has increased from 49 to 76 years from the beginning to 76 years from the beginning to the end of the 20th centurythe end of the 20th century

People older than age 65 People older than age 65 constitute about 15% of the U.S. constitute about 15% of the U.S. populationpopulation

How does the body change in How does the body change in the later adult years?the later adult years?

General slowingGeneral slowing, the reduction in the , the reduction in the speed of neural transmission leading to a speed of neural transmission leading to a slowing of physical and mental functionsslowing of physical and mental functions

Decline in sensory capacityDecline in sensory capacity Development of chronic conditions such Development of chronic conditions such

as arthritis, heart disease, high blood as arthritis, heart disease, high blood pressurepressure

But, physical exercise can improve But, physical exercise can improve strength and mobility in older adultsstrength and mobility in older adults

What happens to cognitive What happens to cognitive ability in later adulthood?ability in later adulthood?

Crystallized intelligenceCrystallized intelligence tends to tends to increase over the lifespanincrease over the lifespan– Verbal ability and accumulated knowledgeVerbal ability and accumulated knowledge

Fluid intelligenceFluid intelligence peaks in early 20s peaks in early 20s and declines slowly as people ageand declines slowly as people age– Reasoning and mental flexibilityReasoning and mental flexibility

What are some of the What are some of the adjustment challenges in the adjustment challenges in the social lives of older adults?social lives of older adults?

RetirementRetirement Loss of a spouseLoss of a spouse Altered living arrangementsAltered living arrangements Most older adults cope with these Most older adults cope with these

adjustments and maintain a sense of adjustments and maintain a sense of life satisfactionlife satisfaction

What are the components of What are the components of successful aging?successful aging?

Maintaining one’s physical health, Maintaining one’s physical health, mental abilities, social competence, mental abilities, social competence, and overall satisfaction with lifeand overall satisfaction with life– An optimistic outlookAn optimistic outlook– Eating a healthy dietEating a healthy diet– Staying active cognitively and sociallyStaying active cognitively and socially