CHALLENGES TO LIBERALISM RELATED TO FOREIGN POLICY

Chapter 7 – Unit 2

CHAPTER FOCUS The Cold War (1945 – 1991)

shaped the second half of the 20th century, and it continues to have significant influence not only on international relations, but also on the citizenship and daily lives of people around the world.

In chapter 7, we will consider the Cold War and related examples of international conflict to explore: The extent that ideological conflict has on shaping our world.

WORLD WARS – D.E.S.S.K Date: 1914 – 1919 Event: World War 1, the Great War, War to end

all Wars Significance: long term causes of the war led to the

imperialistic foreign policies of the great wars of Europe.

Summary: The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria sparked the war that killed more than 9 million combatants. The Allies - France and the British Empire(Australia, Canada, Hong Kong, Egypt, India) vs. The Central Powers - Germany, Austria-Hungry, Ottoman Empire (Slovakia, Czech Republic, Bosnia, Croatia, Romania, Slovenia, Italy)

WORLD WARS – D.E.S.S.K Date: 1939 – 1945 Event: World War II Significance:  It was the most widespread war in history,

with more than 100 million people serving in military units. Marked by significant events involving the mass death of civilians, including the Holocaust and the only use of nuclear weapons in warfare, it resulted in 50 million to over 70 million fatalities. These deaths make World War II by far the deadliest conflict in all of human history.

Summary: Axis powers (Germany, Italy, Japan, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria) versus Allies (U.S., Britain, France, USSR, Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, China, Denmark, Greece, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Poland, South Africa, Yugoslavia).

Key concepts: Holocaust

COLD WAR 1945 - 1991

The Cold War, which followed the Second World War, was an all-out political, economic, and social struggle between the Soviet Union and the United States.

They both wanted victory over not only each other, but also over other countries around the world.

COLD WAR 1945 - 1991Less than a year after WWII, Prime Minister of Britain – Winston Churchill, delivered a speech and coined the metaphor The Iron Curtain to describe the division between American (democratic) and Soviet (communist) ideologies.The Iron Curtain symbolized the ideological conflict and physical boundary dividing Europe into two separate areas from the end of World War II in 1945 until the end of the Cold War in 1991.

The Berlin Wall was a physical manifestation of the iron curtain metaphor used by British prime minister Winston Churchill.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jvax5VUvjWQ

WESTERN DEMOCRATIC IDEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE (NATO)

Includes the US and Western Democracies – much of Eastern Europe and parts of Central Europe including West Germany, Switzerland, Austria later gaining control of many other regions.

Viewed the concept of The Iron Curtain as a1. barrier meant to contain those oppressed by communism 2. restriction to civil and economic freedoms

THE SOVIET IDEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE (WARSAW PACT)

Includes the Soviet and Eastern Bloc Nations – Soviet Union, East Germany, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria,

Saw the Iron Curtain as a protective measure protecting themselves from Capitalist influences The potential expansion of

fascism

THE IRON CURTAIN Physically, the Iron Curtain

took the form of border defenses between the countries of Europe in the middle of the continent.

The Iron Curtain is painted as a black line. 

Warsaw Pact countries on one side of the Iron Curtain appear shaded red; NATO members on the other are shaded blue; militarily neutral countries are shaded grey.

Yugoslavia, although it was communist-run, remained largely independent of the two major blocs and is shaded green. 

SOVIET UNION VS. THE UNITED STATES

Whether it was ideology or simply the desire for economic and political power that drove the United States and the Soviet Union is open for debate.

The Cold War between the two superpowers caused long-term global tension and disharmony.

These two countries emerged from WWII stronger than they were before they entered it.

SOVIET UNION VS. THE UNITED STATES They had both mobilized their resources and

used them to maximum effect: Building more weapons Placing citizens in military positions more so than

ever before in either country’s history Expanded territorial control and influence far

beyond previous limits Due to their great influence around the world

and economic and military strengths, the US and the Soviet Union were considered superpowers.

YALTA – FEBRUARY 1945 CONFERENCE

Allied forces could see that the Second World War would soon end.

The “Big Three”(Stalin, FDR, Churchill) met at Yalta (on the Black Sea)

Attempt to plan how the war would end and the future for postwar Europe.

Essentially they planned to re-draw the map of Europe.

KEY POINTS FROM YALTA the unconditional surrender of Nazi Germany. Germany

would undergo demilitarization and denazification. After the war, Germany and Berlin would be split into

four occupied zones. Nazi war criminals were to be hunted down and

brought to justice. German reparations were partly to be in the form

of forced labor. The forced labor was to be used to repair damage Germany inflicted on its victims

Stalin requested that all of the 16 Soviet Socialist Republics would be granted U.N. membership. This was taken into consideration, but 14 republics were denied.

A "Committee on Dismemberment of Germany" was to be set up. Its purpose was to decide whether Germany was to be divided into six nations.

POTSDAM JULY 1945 CONFERENCE Between American President Harry

Truman, Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin and Winston Churchill (Clement Attlee) met.

Regardless of the outcome, these men would determine the future course of world history.

Gathered to decide how to administer punishment to the defeated Nazi Germany, which had agreed to unconditional surrender nine weeks earlier, on 8 May

The goals of the conference also included the establishment of post-war order, peace treaties issues, and countering the effects of the war.

RELATIONSHIPS AMONGST LEADERS In the 5 months since the

Yalta Conference, some things had changed: The Soviet Union was

occupying Central and Eastern Europe

Britain had a new Prime Minister – Clement Attlee

America had a new President - Vice-President Harry Truman assumed the presidency

GAINING POWER

The superpowers of the Cold War practiced expansionism – attempt to enlarge territorial and ideological influence beyond a country’s borders and allies.

This is exactly what both the Soviet Union and the United States would practice until the end of the Cold War in 1999. This is where we see a shift in some territory including Yugoslavia which had managed to stay neutral throughout the unrest of this time.

GAINING POWER

End of WWII, the US and the Soviet Union began to establish their spheres of influence in Europe displaying their dominance over certain territories and countries.

Containment was used by both parties in an attempt to impede the other groups ability to expand

Many historians would argue that containment was used by Stalin as a way to “command the world economy” in a distasteful way.

TRUMAN DOCTRINE 1947

As outlined by the Truman Doctrine of 1947, The United States framed its expansionism in terms of providing other countries with The freedom to choose the side whose

governing ideology would “fit” their political stance.

Western Democratic. Goal – “Containment” of Communism & the eventual collapse of the Communist world.

Soviet Communism. Goal - spread world-wide Communism.

At the present moment in world history nearly every nation must choosebetween alternative ways of life. The choice is too often not a free one. Oneway of life is based upon the will of the majority, and is distinguished byfree institutions, representative government, free elections, guarantees ofindividual liberty, freedom of speech and religion, and freedom frompolitical oppression. The second way of life is based upon the will of aminority forcibly imposed upon the majority. It relies upon terror andoppression, a controlled press and radio, fixed elections, and thesuppression of personal freedoms. I believe that it must be the policy of theUnited States to support free peoples who are resisting attemptedsubjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures. I believe that wemust assist free peoples to work out their own destinies in their own way.I believe that our help should be primarily through economic stability andorderly political process.

-Harry S. Truman March 1947

PRESIDENT TRUMAN 1884-1972

In postwar Europe—and around the world—countries were making exactly the choices that Truman described.

Truman wanted to stop Soviet expansionism to contain the communist influence and, rather than resorting to a hot war (which includes troops and battles in direct conflict), the United States fought its ideological conflict by creating alliances and giving aid.

MARSHALL PLAN – EUROPEAN RECOVERY PLAN 1947 – 1952

The biggest aid plan was the Marshall Plan, a $13 billion ($100 billion today) plan to help the recovery of countries ravaged by war in Europe.

Over the lifespan of the Marshall Plan 17 countries in Europe received funds and technical expertise from the United States

REJECTION OF AID

The Soviet satellite states (now communist) rejected the Marshall Plan aid for a number of reasons: Recipients of aid were expected to submit

a through economic assessment and participate in a unified European economy

Abide to conditions that were incompatible with Soviet Ideology

Questionable that the US would follow-through with aid to countries under the influence of a communist power.

EXPECTATIONS

The Marshall Plan was highly conditional assuming that states would: Balance their budgets Stop inflation and

stabilize their exchange rates at realistic levels

Impose free market policies on Western Europe in return for aid

SOVIET AID PACKAGE – MOLOTOV PLAN As an alternative to American aid, the

Soviets proposed their own aid package.

The Molotov Plan involved: Bilateral trade agreements that helped to

consolidate the economies of socialist countries such as Poland, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Romania

To solidify the Soviet presence in Europe

BERLIN, GERMANY 1945

The Second World War has come to an end. Japan has been defeated. Germany has surrendered. Nuclear bombs have been dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.

Berlin has been shelled, bombed, and blasted for days and weeks on end by the Allied bomber-planes.

BERLIN, GERMANY The moment the Second World War ended, another

war started – The Cold War. A war of ideologies between the capitalists and

communists. The Germans had started the Franco-Prussian War, the

First World War and the Second World War. The Allies were too aware of Germany’s potential to

allow them to control their own future. Instead, the German nation was occupied.

POSTWAR GERMANY Germany was split in two. The Americans, the British, and

the French took joint control of West Germany

The Soviets took control of East Germany.

The capital city of Berlin was slightly problematic because it was located smack in the middle of East Germany.

The Allies refused to allow the capital to become communist, so the city too, was divided up.

BERLIN AIRLIFT AND BLOCKADE JUNE 1948 Attempting to seize control of

the German capital, the Soviets, under Stalin’s leadership, attempted to starve Berlin into submission.

All road transport and rail transport to Berlin was cut off.

Roads and railway lines were barricaded and utility-supplies were cut off affecting 2.1 million west Berliners.

They wanted their slice of Berlin and they wanted it now!

BERLIN, GERMANY

Berlin was no longer seen as the ‘enemy’.

It was not Nazified anymore. It was an ordinary city just like any

other but it was a city that wanted to be free and capitalist

They were being held hostage by the REDS who wanted it all for themselves.

The people of Berlin were trapped in a hole.

BERLIN AIRLIFT AND BLOCKADE In response, the Western

Allies organized the Berlin airlift to carry supplies to the people in West Berlin.

The airlift was nothing less than dozens of day-and-night deliveries of food, clothing and other supplies to the city of Berlin by air, from West Germany to East Germany.

At the height of the airlift, flights were landing in West Berlin at the rate of one every three minutes.

BERLIN AIRLIFT AND BLOCKADE The Berlin Airlift lasted from June, 1948

until April of 1949. During those months, Western planes flew

over Berlin, dropping parachute-lowered supplies of food to the people of Berlin.

They dropped milk, bread, gum, and chocolate bars – in an attempt to keep the morale of the people high and their bodies healthy.

BERLIN AIRLIFT AND BLOCKADE The airlift was a big success and a total

humiliation to the Soviets who thought that they could overpower the West and keep a hold on the German capital.

When the Soviets realized that the West would not stop with its airlift, they had to admit defeat and the blockade on Berlin was lifted.

BERLIN BLOCKADE 1948 - 1949

The blockade was lifted in May 1949. After approximately 100 casualties with

17 US and 8 British planes crashing. Resulted in the creation of two

separate German states. The Federal Republic of Germany (West

Germany) German Democratic Republic (East

Germany) split up Berlin.

PHYSICAL BOUNDARIES – BERLIN When the Soviet blockade of Berlin failed,

the Soviets had to bow to pressure from the West to divide Berlin between the Capitalists and the Communists, just like the rest of the country.

For the next 41 years, West Berlin would become an island of capitalism amongst a sea of communism, surrounded on all sides by East Berlin and East Germany.

East Berlin became part of the Soviet Union, a prison city with its people under siege.

PHYSICAL BOUNDARIES

Berliners were terrified of living under the heel of the Soviets and they wanted out of this “Soviet city.”

Between 1949 and 1961, thousands of East Berlin citizens fled to the West.

There was no Berlin wall during these years of the city’s history and East Berliners could flee to the west with relative ease, however Berliners weren’t the only people running.

PHYSICAL BOUNDARIES

It wasn’t just the citizens of Berlin fleeing the Soviets, East Germans everywhere were fleeing from the Soviets but were forced into Berlin due to travel restrictions.

Once you got into Berlin, it was easy to get to the West.

The Soviets were worried that it was too easy so in order to stop the easy flow, they built a wall.

THE BERLIN WALL: 1961

Even though there had been tension between the Soviets and the West ever since the end of the Second World war in 1945, it wasn’t until 1961 that the Soviets actually tried in any serious capacity, to stop people from getting in to the West.

This all changed on the night of August 12th, 1961.

THE BERLIN WALL 1961

That evening the order was given for the border between East and West Berlin to be officially closed and for a wall to be erected.

The wall was put up in record time and by six o’clock the on the morning of August 13th, Berlin was a city divided.

It became obvious quite quickly that the Soviets were serious about keeping the people of East Berlin penned in.

BUILDING OF THE BERLIN WALL 1961

The Berlin Wall was a series of walls constructed in a slap-up overnight job of wood, brick, concrete blocks, and barbed wire.

In some areas of the wall, the only thing keeping East and West Berliners apart was a few feet of barbed wire stretched out across a road.

People who were desperate enough could push and cut their way through and could still get across to the West. Some even used car-bombs to blast holes in the wall.

BUILDING OF THE BERLIN WALL 1961 In order to make the wall in record time, the

East German army took a few shortcuts. Where possible, they followed roads and streets

to make the wall as straight and as short as possible.

They incorporated walls of buildings into this first generation of the wall to speed up the construction.

The Soviets were quick to see the loopholes in their design (people jumping out of windows) and responded by bricking up windows and doorframes that opened out into West Berlin.

BUILDING OF THE BERLIN WALL 1962

The Soviets could see that their quick fixes would not serve the purpose and the initial barrier was not working.

Between 1962 and 1965, the second and eventually, third versions of the Berlin Wall were constructed of huge slabs of concrete that were tough, high and impossible to blast through, ram with cars or climb over.

BUILDING OF THE BERLIN WALL

Eventually by the early 1970s, the Berlin wall didn’t just divide the city, it completely surrounded it.

The entirety of West Berlin was surrounded by a huge, twelve-foot high wall of solid concrete.

HUNGARY: REVOLUTION 1956

1956 the Hungarian people revolted against their Stalinist government, forming militias and battling the state police and Soviet troops.

Less than 2 weeks – a new Hungarian government was formed, the state police were disbanded and they were working towards a democratic state.

HUNGARY REVOLUTION 1956

A Few months later, Soviet forces invaded Hungary and defeated the newly independent country reversed the changes that came from the revolution restored Pro-Soviet government.

Soviet power within Central Europe was strengthened.

Message - the irreversibility of communism and Soviet influence was sent around the world.

CZECHOSLOVAK SOCIALIST REPUBLIC 1968

1968, reformist Alexander Dubcek (Doob-chick) came to power in the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic (CSSR).

Under new rule, he Granted additional rights and freedoms to its

citizens Loosening restrictions on the media, speech,

and travel Limited the power of the secret police A 10 year plan towards democratic elections

CZECHOSLOVAK SOCIALIST REPUBLIC 1968

The Soviets launched talks with the Czechoslovakian government to reach an understanding about the nature of the country’s reforms.

August 20 1968, Eastern armies from the Warsaw Pact countries – Soviet Union, Bulgaria, Poland, and Hungary – invaded and occupied the CSSR

Within a year, Dubcek’s reforms had been reversed.

YUGOSLAVIA

After WWII, Yugoslavia elected a communist government and aligned itself with the Soviet Union.

Soon the Yugoslavian leader, Josip Tito began to distance his country from the Soviet Union.

Tito became the first and only socialist leader to defy Stalin and reject Soviet demands for absolute loyalty to the Soviet Union.

YUGOSLAVIA

1955, Yugoslavia, under Tito’s leadership, became a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement, an international organization of states who consider themselves not formally aligned with or against any major power bloc.

Over the years, Tito adopted a more liberal government and fostered relationships with Western Countries, creating a political, economic, and ideological division between Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union.

DETERRENCE

Deterrence is a method of cold war, rather than a method of hot war. It involves the building up of one’s capacity to fight such that neither opponent will fight because of the expected outcomes.

After the 1945 bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the development of nuclear weapons by the Soviets in 1949, the governments of the world knew that a hot war between the superpowers would mean a nuclear war, one that would kill not only the opponents but also the population of the entire planet.

MAD

Mutually assured destruction –MAD deters each side from entering into direct conflict of an unwinnable nuclear war.

WMDs – weapons of mass destruction have been key issues in more recent international conflicts, such as those between the United States and North Korea, Iraq and Iran.

CANADA IN THE COLD WAR

With historical ties to Great Britain and its shared border with the US, there was never any doubt as to Canada playing a role in the Cold War.

1949 Canada becomes a founding member of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).

NATO – a military alliance designed to defend member countries against attack from the Soviet Union and its allies.

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (1949)

United States

Belgium

Britain

Canada

Denmark

France

Iceland

Italy

Luxemburg

Netherlands

Norway

Portugal

1952: Greece & Turkey

1955: West Germany

1983: Spain

Warsaw Pact (1955)

} U. S. S. R.

} Albania

} Bulgaria

} Czechoslovakia

} East Germany

} Hungary

} Poland

} Romania

BRINKMANSHIP

Brinkmanship – attempting to push a dangerous situation as far as possible without surrendering anything to your opponent.

Expansionism, containment, and deterrence all came to a head in the Cuban Missile Crisis – a classical example of brinkmanship.

http://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/history/us-history/v/us-history-overview-3---wwii-to-vietnam

NON-ALIGNMENT

Many nations chose not to align themselves with one superpower or the other.

Nations from every political spectrum chose to stay neutral in the ideological conflict between the superpowers.

Yugoslavia was a founding member of the Non-Alignment Movement along with Egypt, India, Indonesia, and Ghana.

CONTAINMENT & DETERRENCE

American foreign policy during the Cold War was one of containment.

If a nation looked venerable to a Communist takeover, the US would intervene often financially and occasionally with military intervention.

The practice was controversial, since the Anti-Communist regimes were often brutal totalitarian governments.

CONTAINMENT – THE “BUFFER ZONE” United States policies – The Truman Doctrine,

Marshall Plan and NATO.

Soviet Union – COMECON ( Council for Mutual Economic Assistance) & the Warsaw Pact

BRINKMANSHIP – CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS Brinkmanship – Both the Soviet Union

and the US were on the brink of war during the Cuban Missile Crisis.

Cuba had a communist government and fell under the Soviet sphere of influence.

Soviet Union leader: Nikita Khrushchev. 1962, he placed nuclear missiles in Cuba – 150 km off the Florida Coast.

US had missiles at a base in Turkey aimed at the Soviet Union.

BRINKMANSHIP – CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS

The world was on edge so President JFK ordered a blockade of Cuba and threatened the Soviet Union with massive retaliation should any missiles be launched from Cuban bases.

Khrushchev (Soviet premiere) declared the blockade illegal and promised retaliation should any Americans interfere with Soviet ships.

This Brinkmanship showed how unwilling both superpowers were to back down.

BRINKMANSHIP – CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS The world stood on edge until the a

consensus was reached. Consensus = The Soviets and

Americans removed their WMD.

DETENTE – FURTHER CONSENSUS By the early 1970s, both superpowers were

growing weary of the constant tension. The nuclear arms race was expensive and was

taking a toll on the superpowers economies. There was increasing political and civil unrest

in the United States due to the nuclear situation and the Vietnam War.

Soviet Union had their own list of problems including a political split from communist China.

It was in the best interest of both parties to ease tensions. This is known as Detente (French for "relaxation")

DETENTE – PERIOD OF `THAWING OUT`

The detente period is marked by a series of treaties between the superpowers.

The treaties were drafted to limit the nuclear arsenals of the superpowers and to prevent the development of nuclear weapons in other countries.

TREATIES OF DETENTE – FOREIGN POLICY NPT (1968) – Nuclear Non-Proliferation

Treaty. Under the terms only the US, Soviet Union, UK, China & France were permitted to possess, acquire, and manufacture nuclear weapons.

SALT 1 (1972) – The first Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty. Under the terms, the superpowers agreed not to increase the number of missile launchers beyond the existing levels.

TREATIES OF DETENTE - FOREIGN POLICY AMB Treaty (1972) – The Anti-Ballistic Missile

Treaty. Under the terms the superpowers agreed not to build up defences against ballistic missiles to equalized the balance of power.

SALT II (1979) – The second Strategic Arms Limitations Treaty. SALT II was never actually approved by the US, but both superpowers abided by its terms, which further imposed limits and reductions on strategic ballistic missile launchers.

SOVIET CHANGES

In the 1980s, Soviet General Secretary Gorbachev introduced a series of reforms: Restructuring (Perestrokia) Reform of the Soviet Economy Openness (glasnot) Reform of the political structure – more

freedom Beyond Gorbachev`s intentions, these

reforms resulted in the collapse of the Soviet Union.

SOVIET CHANGES Liberation movements swept through communist

countries. In East Germany and Czechoslovakia, mass

popular uprisings toppled their Communist governments in 1989.

1989, Hungary and Poland organized open, fair elections.

Violent overthrow of the government in Romania. Soon enough, the nations that were part of the

Soviet Union began to declare their independence.

December 30 1991, the Soviet union was officially dissolved.

WALL COMES DOWN June 12, 1987 

Speaking in West Berlin at the wall, US President Ronald Reagan says : "General Secretary Gorbachev, if you seek peace, if you seek prosperity for the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe, if you seek liberalization: Come here to this gate. Mr. Gorbachev, open this gate. Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall."

May 2, 1989Dismantling of the Iron Curtain – the boundary between Warsaw Pact and NATO countries – begins through the series of reforms.

Sept. 10, 1989Hungary reopens its border with East Germany, allowing 13,000 East Germans passage to escape

Nov. 4 , 1989One million people rally in East Berlin during weeks of mounting demonstrations.

Nov. 9, 1989The Berlin Wall falls.

April 8, 1990Hungary elects a non-communist government.

Oct. 3, 1990Germany unifies.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VkTO8ZDcOeg&feature=related