chapter 6 environmental consequences of...
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CHAPTER - 6
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES OF GROWTH OF URBAN POPULATION, CORRESPONDING
SPATIAL GROWTH AND LAND TRANSFORMATION IN TlRUPATl AND VIJAYAWADA
6.1 INTRODUCTION
6.2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF URBANIZATION IN GENERAL
6.3 AIR POLLUTION
6.4 NOISE POLLUTION
6.5 WATER POLLUTION
6.6 SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT
6.7 PERCEPTIONS OF SLUM HOUSEHOLDERS IN TlRUPATl AND VIJAYAWADA THROUGH PRIMARY QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY.
6.1. INTRODUCTION
The heavy urban population growth and the slum population growth
and corresponding spatial growth is already explained in the chapter 4 and 5.
The urban growth both spatially and demographically puts heavy
pressure on infrastructure, particularly road network, traffic and transportation,
water supply, sewerage, sanitation, solid waste, etc. Unless infrastructure is
not improved, quality of life will suffer. Most importantly, it impacts economic
development of the city and investment climate. Thus the Land use of Tirupati
and Vijayawada city reflects the economy of the city as well as the level of
environmental pollution where its level increases with the increase of city size
and its functional character. Heirike (1996) presented the environmental
impact of urbanization and housing environment especially on its components
of population, land use, transportatton and services.
6.2. Environmental Impact of Urbanization in General
Environmental Component
Atmosphere
More intense use of resources
lncreased
Impacts of Urbanization
Source: R. Uttama Roddy Unpubl ished Ph.D., thesis, S.V. University, T intpat i - 2008.
Ra~n, surface water polluted with lead Dlalnage altered by infra-
str-
O~sruptlon of disfigurement of landscape
Increased noise levels health effects of nolse, air pollut~on
Human impacts
Leachlng of pollutants from land fill. Discharges from sewage out falls pollution from boats.
Sanitary land fill of urban wastes and Installation, repairs of selvlce disturb the landscape
Social awareness and Individual responsibility
~ 0 ~ 3 a t i o n (Numbers and
Density) Increasing release of Co2, decreased production of oxygen as plant calories are destroyed by spreading to urban
transfOrmatlon Of uninhabited agr'cultural Or unutilized land to urban uses. -
Ps~chOlOgical impacts of high density living
Land
most of the urbanized areas
Transportation
A r pollution from combustion of fuels, Photo chemical smog emlsslon of lead from some engines
Complete changes due to construction, landscaping e t c
psychological impacts
Sewices
Parliculates, noxious fumes from incineralors land fill, sewage treatment works, etc.,
6.3. AIR POLLUTION
According to Indian Air Prevention and Control of Pollution Act, 1981
"Air pollution means any solid, liquid or gaseous substance present in the
atmosphere in such concentrations that may or tend to be injurious to human
beings or other living creatures or plants or property or enjoyment".
A complete definition of air pollution given in the Dictionary of
Environmental Terms by Alan Gilpin, 1976 is "Substance present in the
atmosphere in concentration great enough to interfere directly or indirectly
with man's comfort, safety or health or enjoyment of his property.
Air Pollution is a major health problem globally, Industrialization and
ongoing development of large urban areas in many countries are exposing
increasing number of people to potential hazards of air pollution. There are
reports of adverse effects of major air pollutants with aerodynamic diameter
less than 10 micrometre on hospital admissions for cardiovascular and
respiratory diseases as well as daily mortality. On the other hand, the effects
of the ambient air poilution on general population causing minor complaints
not resulting in medical consultations. (Savindra Singh, 1991)
6.3.1. Major Air Pollutants, Sources and their effects on Human Health:
The World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 70 per cent of
the global urban population breathes air that is unhealthy at least some of the
time, while another 10 per cent breathe air that is "marginal".
Air Pollutants range from visible particulate smoke and dust to
invisible gases (Carbon-monoxide). The major air pollutants occur either in
gaseous forms or as particulate matter. The gaseous pollutants include
Sulphur-di-oxide (SO2), Nitrogen Oxides (NOx), Carbon monoxide (CO),
Carbondi-oxide (CO,), Hydrocarbon (HC) and Ozone (Oo). Particulate matter
pollutants are particles of solid and liquid substances like Lead (Pb),
Fluorides(F), etc.
Many substances contaminate the air quality of Tirupati and
Vijayawada. The main sources of air pollution in these two cities are
automobiles and burning of municipal garbage. Automobiles emit huge
quantities of unburnt gases, hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide. Fuel
combustion in stationary sources contributed to most of the sulphur-di-oxide,
a substantial proportion of particulates and oxide of nitrogen. Along with
these, sewage manholes are also sources of air pollution, which generate
mainly gaseous pollutants like methane, oxide of nitrogen, carbon-di-oxide.
With this purview an attempt has been made here to analyze the temporal,
seasonal and spatial pattern of air pollution in Tirupati and Vijayawada city
(APPCB, Regional Office, Tirupati and Vijayawada).
6.3.2. Road network coverage in Tirupati and Vijayawada City
Road Network in Tirupati City:
Roads play an important role in the urban areas as they are the
major source of connectiv~ty. The roads in Tirupati are very narrow with heavy
encroachments and high predestination especially along the core area and
surrounding areas of the temples, mainly due to temple related commercial
activities. The Road infrastructure in the municipality is not adequate with 25
km of Kutcha Roads. The Road length is given in the table No 6.1.
Apart from the above mentioned inadequate roads Tirupati has
regional roads such as Chittoor road, Tiruchanoor road, Renigunta road,
Tirumala Ghats road, Mangalam road, Rayalacheruvu road, Karakambadi
road, etc.,
Table 6.1: Roads Classification and Break-up in Tirupati
City Network: It includes several narrow, medium and broad roads
running North -South and East- West along with some diagonal roads are not
capable of accommodating the vehicular as well as human population.
BT [ Tirupati 113.60 84.90
Source: TirupaU Municipal Corporation, 2001
WBM
38.82 .-
13.25 250.57
6.3.3. Central Area in Tirupati City:
Tirupati Central Area (CBD') where main commercial activities take
place is surrounded by Tirumala bypass on eastern side, railway line on
southern side and old Alipiri road on western side, TUDA ofice road, Mosque
road'and Maternity Hospital road on northern side. Roads in the central area
are characterised by narrow carriageway width with less Right of Way (ROW),
heavy traffic volume and disorganized on street parking.
Road Network Inventory Survey in Tirupati (City Development Plan, Tirupati) :
* The Roads are not uniform and not developed to the Master Plan
Width.
Except Alipiri Ring Road, Bypass Road, Prakasam Road within the city,
and all other roads are narrow and not wide enough to carry the
present traffic demand.
Regional roads have wider ROW.
Very few roads are having 4 lane carriage way. All other roads have
only 2 lanes or substandard 3 lanes.
Only one road (Alipiri Ring Road) is partially concretized. All other
roads are bituminous.
6.3.4: Road Network in Vijayawada (VGTM UDA)':
The major traffic bearing roads are NH 5, NH 9, Kanakadurga
temple to K.R Market, Bandar Road, Eluru Road, Gollapudi to Tunnel Road,
Chitti Nagar to S.N Puram route, KBN College Road, Pinnamaneni Polyclinic
Road, No.5 Route from Old Bus Station to Siddhartha College, Nakkala Road,
Rajagopalachari Road, etc.,
Central Business District Vijayawada, Guntur, Tenali and Mangalagiri Urban Development Author~ty
6.3.5: Characteristics of the Roads and facilities with respect to Land
Use in Tirupati and Vijayawada:
There are no defined pedestrian zones in both the cities except for the
areas within the temple premises at Sri Govindaraju Swamy Temple ' and Kapilatheertham in Tirupati and Sri Kanaka Durga Temple in
Vijayawada.
Most of the roads have chaotic traffic as there are no dividers and
roads are narrow for two way traffic.
The road surfaces are not good and there are water logging pits and
large hoardings with advertisements and these are actually causing
visual discomfort (visual pollut~on).
In many places the footpaths provided are unusable as they are
blocked for utilizing it for some other purposes or too high for
convenient access. The pedestrian traffic volumes in the core area are
so high that wherever feasible dedicated pedestrian zone need to be
planned.
The road width varies from 15m to 45m in both the cities. The roads in
the core area are only 18 m wide and 18 feet in Tirupati. Many of the
important roads require widening, redesigned sections or a proper
traffic management system.
The demand for parking is very high in the core area due to the
predominance of religious places attracting pilgrims and the
accompanying commercial services. Govindaraja Swamy temple, The
Railway Station and the Bus Stand, Gandhi Road in Tirupati and
Kanaka Durga Temple, Railway Station, K.R. Market and Bus Stand in
Vijayawada are the areas with high parking demand. Although there
are some areas like the taxi Stand and other places which are used as
parking places, they are grossly inadequate and the resultant on street
parking reducing the road width effectively, leading to increasing
congestion.
Majority of roads are devoid of footpaths. Few have footpaths partially
and generally very narrow. Most of the footpaths are occupied by small '
shops or vendors or with illegal extensions of the permanent shops.
All the arterial roads have commercial and residential land use on both
sides. The commercial development is in the form of shops, retail
business, restaurants, etc., which attract visitors and vehicular traffic.
Thus Tirupati and Vijayawada city is facing certain problems like
inadequate road infrastructure and safety issues, uneven and inadequate
carriageway to handle the high vehicular traffic flow on the arterial roads, Lack
of road signs or intersection markings, Traffic signalling light at the junctions
uncontrolled pedestrian crossings, parked vehicles on both sides, too many
junctions spaced very close to each other, no wider proper footpaths for
pedestrians and hence all the roads need widening to 60', go', 120' and 150'
to accommodate the ever increasing traffic of all sorts.
6.3.6. Traffic and transportation in Tirupati City:
Tirupati serves as a transit place for the pilgrims visiting Tirumala.
As mentioned earlier the average influx of pilgrims on a normal day is around
70,000 and swells considerably during peak seasons and on auspicious and
religious days to about 80,000 to 1,00,000 persons. On the holiest occasions
there will be 4.00 to 6.00 lakh for few days In a year. Because of migrants and
natural growth along with floating populat~on, Tirupat~ has been witness~ng
tremendous growth (bulging) in the recent years and is the fastest growing
urban centre in the state itself. Thus the road and transport network has to
cater to three types of traffic - Pilgrim (floating) traffic, migrant population
traffic and normal traffic of the residents.
The road network of Tirupati does not follow a specific pattern but it
approaches the ring radial pattern. The traffic enters the city mainly from four
traffic conidors: NH-205 from Pudipatala, NH-205 from Renigunta constitutes
about 80% of the total vehicular traffic, MDR~-~I from Tiruchanoor, Z P R ~ - 45
from Karakambadi.
The Railway line, which runs in east-west direction, bisects the city
into 'Nvo parts. The city has mainly grown in the east-west direction along the
NH-205 and Railway line. According to Regional Transport Office data (2005),
in a day about 70712 vehicles enter and 73078 vehicles depart from Tirupati,
total volume experienced is 1, 43,250 vehicles. Almost at all the junctions
motorized traffic is dominant accounting for 85% and remaining is non-
motorized vehicles significant at Rayalacheruvu Road, Annamaiah Road,
Padmavathi College and Church circle Road, etc.
The high traffic congestion is observed during the survey, which includes the following:
Four Pillar junction to Railway Station, Gandhi Statue to Ambedkar
Statue, Town Club Junction to S.V. Music College Junction, Old Municipal
Junction to Town Club Junction, Old Market to V.V. Mahal Junction, M.R.
Palle to S.V. Nagar Junction, Nethaji Street to Annamaiah Junction, Gandhi
Road to Railway Station.
It is observed that the high traffic congestion is primarily generated by the following land uses:
75% of city dwellers have vehicular access. Hence the passenger
traffic, intense commercial activity and on street parking is one of the
main reason.
Others are presence of group theatres, petrol pumps, hotels.
r Major traffic generates at railway station, educational institutions, and
holy and pilgrim places, places of accommodation. This congestion has
resulted in reduction of average speeds of the vehicles over a period
with just 19 kmlhr within the city limits and at the outer cordons with an
Mandal Development Roads Zilla Parishad Roads
average of 40 kmlhr. With the yearly increase in traffic it is likely to
reduce if there is no improvement in the road situation which finally
increases the traffic congestion putting the people into hardship.
Modal split
Table No. 6.2 explains that the highest 28.16% of vehicular traffic
Table 6.3: Pilgrim's Mode of Travel - 2001
covers trucks and other large vehicles, followed by two and three wheelers
-- Mode
Air Train Bus Mini Bus CarlJeep (Private) - Taxi (Private) Two wheeler
with 24.69%, four wheelers 19.59O/0, Buses 16% and cycles and cycle
rickshaws 12%. Pilgrims to the city normally travel by buses 66.4% from the
-
neighbouring states and next by Rail 22.3% (Table 6.3) from distant places of
Passengers - From Outside to Tlrupy-,
0.2 - -- . -. - 22.J 66.4 ." I
- - 9.3 .- - --- .-
-- 0 5 0 1 B y a L 1
India. All other modes of travel contribute very less percentage of travellers.
(%) From Tlrupatl to Tirumala
. 72-'-
10 - 11 2 5
The Tirupati city is almost exploded by the decade-wise (Table No. 6.4) and
Source: Report by Regional Engineering College, Warangal, "Traffic Improvement Plans for Tirupati". The findings are based on a Pilgrim Opinion S u ~ e y carried out at Tirumala.
category wise (Table No.6.5), growth of vehicles which bring people from far
of places and make dense population which bursts by not having the required
amenities at the place of destination. The increase of vehicles is almost same
in all the decades but more than the increase in many of the class-l cities.
Two wheelers are growing more in number because of the city road network
condition as already explained, secondly, the presence of several educational
institutions and the student population. Then jeeps and cars are growing in
more numbers because they carry pilgrims to holy spots within or outside
Tirupati and to the institutions and offices.
Table 6.4: Growth Trends of Registered vehicles in Tirupati City
Source: Regional Transport Ofilce, Tirupati.
Source: ~e~io%l Transport Office, Tirupati.
6.3.7. Traffic and Transportation in Vijayawada City:
The land lay and topography have collectively rendered the city a
"nodality of the first order" in the network of arterial transport routes in the
country in general and the state of Andhra Pradesh in particular. The north
south arterials both roads and railways pass through the city, and this has
greatly influenced transaction of commercial trade in the city.
The traffic volume has been growing very heavily and bounds each
year and the narrow streets, congested junctions, haphazard parking and
violation of traffic regulations etc., is the obstacles to free flow of traffic. The
two National Highways namely NH 5 and NH 9 passing through the city has
heterogeneous character of traffic with fast and slow moving vehicles all along
the road network, therefore the traffic congestion is very high. And also due to
huge pedestrian traffic, lack of diversion of routes for one ways, ring roads,
flyovers, the traffic becomes almost unmanageable. The number of motorized
vehicles in the city stood a phenomenal count of 4.6 lakh in 2005 (Table
N0.6.6) and the trend indicates growth of almost 25,000 to 30,000 vehicles
during 2001 to 2003 and in 2004 and 2005 the increase was 43,000 and
62,000 respectively. The annual growth rate increased by 1% from 2001 to
2004 but in 2005 it increased by 4%. This shows that people desire to use
vehicles was supported by banks and financiers for reasonable interests.
Therefore, of the total vehicle, 62% are registered in the Vijayawada
Corporation alone and table No 6.7 shows that two wheelers are more in
number where the trend is similar to Tirupati.
Table 6.6: Growth Trends of Registered Vehictes in Vijayawada Clty
Table 6.7: Type of Vehicles --- Registered in Vijayawada City (2000-2005) --"-,
33143 362472 - -- - -- KT 42529 3 405001 - - 2005 61530 466531 -
-
Buses 2965 3496 3996 4253 5430 81 50
10.06 -- 11.73
15.19 --
Two Wheelers 7585 9454 10250 12343 16590 23895 - CarsIJeeps 2569 3551 3885 4105 - 5200 --
Three Wheelers 2998 3890 4153 5653 61 50 8600
Source: Regional Transport Offlce, Vijayawada
6.3.8. Rail and Air Transport in Tirupati and Vijayawada:
Miscelianeous
Total
As already said Tirupati and Vijayawada are connected to all parts of
India by rail which brings heaps of people from different areas influx the
population of both the cities creating several consequential environmental
problems. The airways of both the cities move to limited places and bring only
a meagre passenger. The environmental impact on both the cities is only due
to the automobiles and railway$ the former brings people and liberate
pollutants and the later brings people and create problems of Traffic
Source: Reglonal Transport Offim, Vijayawada
191 3
19254
2317
24823
2908 1 4089 1 5414 8185
27417 1 33143 1 42529 / 61530
congestion, household congestion and finally disturb the normal life of the
citizens.
6.3.9. Congestion due to increased Vehicular Traffic:
There is no clear cut hierarchy in the road network of both the cities with the result; the distribution of traffic is not smooth. Lower order roads do
not appropriately linked to higher order roads. Thls results in large traffic
volumes in certain areas. This is coupled with spill over d the regional
activities, haphazard parking and encroachments, inadequate design of the
roads and large number of private vehicles in the absence of public
transportation system, has created congestion on these two city roads. There
are five level crossings (Rail gates) in Tirupati city and frequent closure of
these results in enormous delays and causes pollution and associated economic and environmental losses. In the case study areas of Tirupat~ and
Vijayawada vehicular pollution is one of the major cause for air pollution and pollutants released from vehicles would concentrate in the stagnate air. The
two cities had further gone In vertlcal rise of housing which further hinders the
circulation of fresh air. All these factors add to air and noise pollution
problems.
6.3.10. Ambient air quality in Tirupati City:
The APPCB~ Regional Office, Tirupati collected data to work out the
ambient air quality. According to their report traffic Island is a major junction
with high traffic and pollutior~ load. There are 62 Traffic Junctions in Tirupati
but among them 12 were chosen randomly which represent Tirupati Ambient
Air Quality. The air pollutant were analysed from these twelve traffic centres
and air pollution was monitored. The analysis of air pollutants (SO2, NOx,
SPM and CO) and particularly on festival days (Brahmotsavam) in Tirupati
was carried out yielded very drastic results (Fig. No. 6.1).
Andhra Pradesh Pollution Control Board
217
Table No. 6.8: Average Concentrations of Air Pollutants i.e., SPM, SO*, NO,, CO at different locations in Tirupati - 1998-2001
Monthly Mean - .- -4 SPM / SOI 1 NO3 1 CO -.,I
R.T.C Central Bus Stand [ 349 1 S.V. Universitv Junction 24
I BalajiColony Junction 1 319 1 40 1 45 1 1896 1 West Church Cross Roads
Mahila Universitv Junction 1 118 1 16 1 . 26
Gandhi Road Junction
Railway Station Junction
SVl MS Junction 176 26 26
Alipiri Junction
S.V. Univenity Campus -- S.V. Naaar Junction 136 14 994
M.R. Pall1 L-- 958 1 Source: APPCB, Reglonal - Tirupati
Levels of Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM):
The table no 6.8 explains that the monthly mean and yearly
averages of SPM levels were measured for 1998-2001. The SPM levels
showed two peaks one showing high levels during April (290 and 292pg/m3)6,
May (348pg1m3 and 346pglm3), June (3201glm3 and 316pglm3) and the other
during mid October (220pglm3 and 210pglm3), November (300pglm3 and
302pg1m3) and mid December (296vglm3 and 298pglm3). In other words, high
SPM levels were recorded in summer (April to June) and in winter (mid
October to mid December) during 1998-01. High SPM levels during April-June
might be due to increase in the vehicular traffic during summer holidays. For
example, the traffic data collected at Alipiri junction shows that the vehicles
passing through the Tollgate to Tirumala during summer and also during
September to October due to Brahmotsavams, exhibited high vehicular traffic
than in other months (Table No. 6.9).
"icrograms per cubic meter
-- --
Fig. No.B.1 Source : Draft of Urban Environmental Profile of Tinrpati Town, Tirupati Municipal Corpontlon
Table No. 6.9: Vehicular traffic at Alipiri Tollgate to Tirumala during
APSRTC buses are ndt included in the above ilat.
The other SPM moderate levels during the other months might be
due to influence of meteorological factors. Thus here the SPM peak levels
correlate to the vehicular traffic and the other levels correlates to
meteorological factors.
Sulphur-Di-Oxide Level (Sod:
The monthly mean SO2 levels showed two peaks between the years
1998-2001 and during winter months (November 40pg/m3, December
38pg1m3 and November 39pglm3 and December 37pglm3. A second peak
levels were observed during summer months (May 38pglm3 and 32pglm3,
June 36pglm3 and 30pglm3. Comparatively low levels were observed during
other months. High levels are due to meteorological factors in winter and
combustion of fuels in summer.
Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx):
The levels of NOx do not exceed norms prescribed by the Central
Pollution Control Board of India for National Ambient Air Quality Standards.
However, correlation was observed between concentrations of NOx and
meteorological parameters, namely air temperature, solar radiation, wind
speed, relative humidity and rainfall, showed statistical significance (APPCB,
Regional Office, Tirupati).
Carbon monoxide Level (CO):
CO Level is a public health concern both as pollutant and as an
indicator of air quality. The monthly mean concentrations of CO were
measured for the period 1998-2001. High concentrations of CO were
recorded during summer months of May and June and comparatively low
levels during November and December. A low concentration of carbon
monoxide was there during the rest of the year and is in permissible limits as
prescribed by Central Pollution Control Board, New Delhi. CO levels showed
two peaks during the years 1999-2000 and 2000-01. Thus high levels are due
to heavy vehicular traffic during bummer months of April, May and June is
usually released into urban air mainly from exhaust emissions of automobiles,
as per the Local Pollution Board.
Tirupati Traffic Centres namely RTC Central Bus Stand, Balaji
Colony Junction, Gandhi Road Commercial Junction, Railway Station
junction, Alipiri Junction showed high percentage of violations for SPM
exceeding recommended limits ranging from 70 to 80 per cent. Total monthly
mean SPM levels ranged from 210pg/m3 to 348pglm3 exceeding recommend
limit of 200pglm3 for the residential area.
Concentrations of SO2 did not exceed recommended limits
(60pg1m3). Yet Balaji Colony Junction, Railway Station Junction, Alipiri
Junction and Gandhi Road junction registered maximum violations for NO2
ranging from 12 to 20 per cent. CO levels showed maximum violations at
Alipiri junction, Railway Station junction and RTC Bus Stand junction. The
levels range from 83 to 97 per cent. The mean CO concentration ranges from
960pg1m3 to 2200pg1m3.
6.3.11. Ambient air quality in Vijayawada City:
As a result of rapid urbanization and industrialization, Vijayawada
experiences air pollution beyond permissible limits.
Table 6.10: Concentrations of Air pollutants Parameters in Vijayawada 2001
Units in m Parameter Benz Circle Patamata Auto Nagar Average for the city
105.30 69.37 126.78 100.48
242.31 188.15 362.91 264.46
2.90 ---. - - --.
NOx 70.59 36.59 72.18 i - - - i -1
Source: APPCB Keys: RSPM - Respirable Suspended particulate matter, PPM- Parts per Million
The pollutant loads of the city when compared with acceptable limits
show that RSPM and SPM are hbher by 20 ppm and 51 pprn respectively.
The table Nos. 10, 11 and 12 also show that except SO2 level, the standards
of all the other parameters have been far exceeded in many areas of the city.
In the case of NOx it is nearing the tolerable limit and may cross the limit very
shortly while SO2 may take few more months to become unacceptable.
Table 6.11: Concentration of Air Pollutant Parameters in Comparison with Standards in Vijayawada, 2001
l U n h in nnml
i Parameten i Benz Circle i Patamata 1 Auto h o a r 1
Status of Air Pollution in Vijayawada City - 2001
I N M X
mHRn MODERATE
500111 0 500 1500 3000m
SCALE :- 1 : 30,000
Fig. No.6.2.
It is learnt that if SPM and RSPM levels exceed the standards there
considered, that the city is highly polluted. Except in the case of NOx,
pollution is moderate. However, the confronting fact is that the pollution levels
in the city are comparatively much less than the similar cities in the country as
per the APPCB study.
Table No.6.11 exhibits that in the city only at certain spots where the
commercial activities, heavy vehicular traffic, small industrial units are located,
there the concentration of pollutants are more. For example, some circles like
Benz circle, Patamata and Autonagar possessing the above factors suffering
from the more concentration of pollutants have more exceedence factor. But
according to table No. 6.12 the average pollution levels calculated for the
entire Vijayawada are not exceeding the normal pollution standards as
indicated by the Pollution Control Board. This shows that the life of people in
the polluted centres is miserable when compared with the normal areas or
less polluted areas(Fig No. 6.2)
ritical Pollution(C) - When the EF is more than 1.5
igh Pollution (H) - when the EF is between 1 .O-1.5
oderate Pollution (M) -when the EF is between 0.5-1.0
Source: CPCB, APPCB
6.3.12. Impact of Air Pollution on Human Health:
The impact of stagnant air over the cities of Tirupati and Vijayawada
has tended to produce health hazards. A sample study from the unpublished thesis on the traffic policemen indicated that 26% of the traffic cops have asthma and most of them suffer from low lung capacity. Major symptoms that
have arisen over these two cities for the last decade or so are asthma, cough,
burning sensation of eyes, wheezing, running nose and breathlessness. Air
pollution is the major one among many reasons for this allergic hazard.
6.3.13. Measures to check Air Pollution:
As the level of air pollution in Tirupati and Vijayawada city is increasing, there is an urgent need to control it. The following suggestions
have been made for the control of air pollution.
I The present measuring and monitoring systems are highly inadequate
to depict air quality. It is necessary to make available information on wind direction and velocity, temperature, levels of pollution, etc., from
many locations (at least 20 to 30 In the city)
Monitoring air quality at present is confined only to pollutants such as SPM, RSPM, SO,, NOx, CC2. This should be extended to cover other
elements like hydrocarbon, carbon sulphide, hydrochloric acid,
hydrogen fluoride, ammonia, ozone, lead, etc., around their respective source areas.
The use of unleaded petrol should be highly promoted. This should be popularized and compulsorily put to use.
Flyovers and subways should be constructed at the areas of maximum congestion to relieve traffic congestion; speed up operations and save
fuel.
Laying roads must be proportional to the growth of the city, so that the
plans of the planning and transport departments can function in co-
ordination to each other.
Civic consciousness and awareness should be created among the
vehicle owner regarding adverse effects of air pollution on public
health.
Ban the vehicle which is more than 15 years old to reduce the exhaust
of Carbon-monoxide and Chlorofluorocarbons.
Firm action should be taken against the vehicle owners who fail to
maintain emission standards in their vehicles.
In the vicinity of Tirupati and Vijayawada cities there has been sharp
reduction in the tree cover. Green belts should be developed and , maintained which help the exchange of gases. At road junctions and
industrial units trees are to be planted and gardens are to be
maintained to absorb some pollutants released on roads.
Burning of garbage should not be allowed in the residential and commercial parts of the city should be moved away trom the city to the
identified places of that purpose.
Specific plans should be thought of to mingle local communities and NGO's to take up several correcting and learning methods. Public
interest is very essential for the control of air pollution.
Last but not least that the rule breakers, policy evaders, trouble makers
and system destroyers should be heavily fined like in the foreign countries which are assumed to bring down the misbehaviour of human
beings.
6.4. NOISE POLLUTION
As per the WHO report Noise is "Prejudicial to social life, mental and
physical health". Nclise unlike other pollutants like garbage, oil spills, etc., is
not visible and hence tends to get less attention. High noise levels are known
to have been linked'with high blood pressure, suicides and other ailments,
degrade response, and impair hearing and speech loss and less resistance of
diseases. It is also causes reduced learning ability. Noise thus is considered
as one of the many intrusive elements of our environment.
6.4.1. Sources of Noise Pollution:
There are 3 major sources of noise generated indoors and 5
outdoors, Indoor noise originates in apartment and houses, office or factory
and other places of amusement (disco, pub, etc.). Here sound emerges from
loud voices, heavy footsteps, radio, television, stereo equipment, and
plumbing, air-condition and noise appliances such as blenders, vacuum
cleaners, washing machines, etc., Outdoor sources include transportation,
consjruction, industrial operation, the individual human being (shouting, etc.,)
and miscellaneous noises such as metal garbage can, air conditioners,
generators, mikes, etc.,(CPCB)
Source: CPCB
Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) Standards for Noise Level
6.4.2. Noise Pollution in Tirupati and Vijayawada Cities:
Category of area
lndustnal - - - -
Noise pollution is the latest and the most sinister hazard affecting
Tirupati (Fig.No. 6.3) and Vijayawada City (Fig. No. 6.4). Noise levels in these
Commerc~al 65 55 -- Res~dent~ai
- - - - - -- - -- - i-- 5.5
- -1 S~lence Zone 50
h i t s tn Day - - - -
75
cities experience outdoor at commercial and residential localities. The most
d ~ ' (A)" ~e~~ - - ~
common outdoor source of noise is produced by the automobiles and different
- - - - - 70
- - - - - - - - -
types of motor vehicles. In addition to this loud speakers and modern gadgets
in residential areas and generator sets and air conditioners in commercial
areas produce different intensity of noise level.
Noise levels at certain traffic junctions in the two cities were doubled
the permissible limits. The reason cited were vehicular population, bad road
conditions, disregard for traffic rules, excessive application of brakes, change
of gears and habitual honking.
Decibel is a unit in which noise is measured Denotes the frequency weighting in the measurement of noise and corresponds to frequency response characteristics of the human ear ' It is an energy mean of the noise level over a specified period
226
Intersections in Tirupati:
The following intersections are categorized as important from the point of
view of the traffic and connectivity within major roads.
Alipiri Toll Gate, Nandi Circle
Leela Mahal Circle TMR Circle
Garudanjaneya Swarny Circle
Kalashram Circle Ramanujam Cirlce
/ Lakshmipuram Junction
Dr. Ambedkar Circle
Gandhi Clrcle
TMC Office Vegetable Market
TUDA C~rcle
Balaji Colony / Town Club (NTR Circle)
/ Annamaiah Circle
Intersections in Vijayawada:
The major intersections experiencing traffic congestion are
Veterinary Hospital
Executive Club
Prakasam Barrage
Vijaya Taik~es
Benz Circle
I Madhu Kala Mandapam
/ S~tard Ctnema Nethall Br~dge
NTR Colony
Ramavarappadu Ring
The above areas experience high level of noise because of the fact
that these areas have major commercial centres, roads as the major arteries
for intra and intercity heavy traffic flow. It can be seen read from an unpublished thesis ("A Study in Environmental Pollution, by P.Prabhu, 2000 Bangalore University) that the increasing noise levels are on par with the
increasing traffic density. The noise level and traffic peak occurs twice a day that is 10-11 a.m. and 5-7 p.m. The lowest noise level and traffic density was
at 1-2 p.m. The noise level recorded during these peak period of traffic density
are 82.8dB (A) and 86.4 dB (A) respectively and it IS 73.1 dB (A) during lean
hours and in the residential areas the noise are mainly due to indoor sources.
Status of Noise Pollution in Tirupati City - 2001
Nandhl 1 SCALE :- 1 : 30 000
w9 Muntcipal Corplrohoo Boundary -
Revenue Wards Boundary P""1"
Hlqh iJO.100 db) ~ a d a r b t e (60- 70 db) - -
Lo* ( 60 db) .III
_II I Fig.No. 6 3. Source . Draft of Urbac Environmentai Prof i l~ of Tirupatt Town, Tirupati Municipal Corporation
Status of Noise Pollution in Vijayawada City - 2001
500m 0 500 1500 3000m
SCALE :- 1 : 30,000
Fig.No. 6.4.
r n w
5 HIOH
a MODERATE
LOW
Table 6,13: Monthly Average Noise levels in Tirupali City at two locillions Gandhi Road (Commercial Areal and M,R,Palli (Residential Area)
hrea: APPCB, lirupati Regional OfRce
Table 6,14 Monthly Average Noise levels in Vijay awada City at two locations hnz Circle (Commercial Area), Patawata (Residential A~a)~2001~2007
M a r :
Jun . Jul
57.7 52.3 54.2 55.7 504
j 52.3
$MI: @PCB, Vijayawada Regional Office
79.9 1 68.8
Oet ' Nov
bc
72.1 n
78.9, 789 72.7 8 i f 68.9 19.9 1 2 1
68.1 504 57,l 52.3,
63 1 87.8 62.5 m,i 67.3 65.15 62.5 74.4
59.65 68.8
754 734 7145 73.55
74
61.6 as
63.5 63
62s 60.2
6 2 . 5 . 6 1 . 6
85.2 ao3
86.8 87.8 80.3 87.3 85.2
53.3 152.6 60.251 54.8
618 65.6 59.3 634 607
68.9 1 85.6
68.1 66.2 68.2 66.5 68,l
63.9 60.2
75.15 754 7145 73.75 734
68.2 sss 65 65
83.2 87.8
77.25 1 45.6 1 60.7 88.6 15.6 804 88.6 8 0 . 7 1 74.4 59.9
684 4.8 55.7
554
a15 ' 46.5
56.25 61.6
604 ai 67.9 62.7
184] 52,l nos 1 5 3 4
56.25 srr
127 76.8
88.3 177.251 54.9 78.9 68.9
54.6 511
705 1 9.5
47.2 52.3
88.6 1 784 85.6 116.05 80.7 1 7 4 4
56.6 51.1
634 54.2
67.3- 62,15'
5J51 49.9 57.5 148.6
63.5 68.2 61.2 56.9
51.6 534 519
5105 55.7 55.55 52.75
64.6 65.2
5 9 4 " * i j i - . ~ 71.2 72
60.6 62.15
67.3 63.14
Noise levels in Ti~pati City - Commercial and Resldential Amas (2001-2007)
-COandhi Road 2001 +Qandhl RoPd 20M +Gandhl Rod 2007 *M.R.Palll2001 +Wi.R.PallI 2004 *M.R Pa111 2007
(161
Noise levels in Vijayawada City -Commercial and Resldential Areas (2001 -2007)
-- -"- -- +Baw Circle 2004 --Ben2 Clrak 2W7
+Patamata 2007 +pdamata 2004 - - 80.
75 -. d 5 7 0 .
-- -. -- -. ---- -- --
w.
55
50 q i
Jan Fob Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aup Sop Oct Nw Doc Months
[email protected]. 6.6.
It is evident from the table Nos. 6.13 and 6.14 that in Tirupati (the
two points of study) Gandhi Road, Commercial and M.R. Palli, Residential
and Vijayawada Benz Circle, Commercial and Patamata, Residential the
monthly Average noise levels recorded during 2001 to 2007 seems to be
increased because of increase in the usage of vehicles. Noise levels are
observed to be more in the month of April 73.05 dB(2001) and 79.9dB (2007)'
May 72.15dB (2001) and 78.4dB (2007) October 68.6dB (2001). 73.05 dB
(2007), November75.05dB(2001), 80.6dB (2007) in the commercial area of
Tirupati and 45.9dB(April 2001) and 58.8 dB( April 2007), 47.6dB (May 2001)
and 55.1 dB (May 2007), October 46.2dB (2001), 67.ldB (2007), November
48.ldB (2001), 67.2 dB (2007) in residential area of Tirupati. In Vijayawada it
is observed to be 62.5dB (April 2001) and 78.4 dB (April 2007), 63.ldB(May
2007) and 76.05dB (May 2007) October 59.65dB (2001), 78.4 dB (2007),
November 68.8 dB (2001), 76.05 dB (2007) in Commercial area and 56.25dB
(April 2001) and 62.15dB (April 2007), 58.05dB (May 2001) and 66.4 dB (May
2007) October 55.45 dB (2001), 66.8 dB (2007), November 58.4 dB (2001),
61.6 dB (2007) in the residential area where number of vehicles increased
due to increase of pilgrim population who come to visit God and the Goddess
in summer vacations and. Brahmotsavams and Dasara festivals respectively
(Fig.No. 6.5 & 6.6)
Thus the noise pollution is extremely high during day and night in the
core areas, which are nearer to the railway station and bus stand and low in
the city boundaries and surrounding areas.
6.4.3. Nature of Industrial Pollution:
The units within the city of Tirupati and Vijayawada are too small and
do not seem to genarate hazardous waste. The large scale industries outside
the city contribute to the air and water pollution.
6.4.4. Impact of Noise Pollution on Human Health:
The most notable effect of noise pollution is on hearing. Noises
produce headache, irritability and a feeling of fatigue and may reduce a
worker's efficiency and is one of the major cause of stress and anxiety.
It also has its impact on blood pressure and is a cause of other
cardiovascular diseases. ~osinophilia", hyperglycemiall, hypoka~aernia'~ and
hypoglycaemia13 are also caused by a change in blood and other body fluids
due to noise.
6.4.5. Measures to Reduce the Noise Levels:
The noise created by mus~cal instruments and other ~ndoor
equipments can be checked by indrviduals in their own interest.
Widening nf exlst~ng narrow, congested roads for smooth flow of traffic.
Constructions of flyovers and sub-ways at major traffic junctions in
order to facilitate smooth flow of traffic.
Setting lower speed liniits at sensitive areas.
Proper maintenance of roads and constructior~ of bye pass road
Reduction in the number of city bus stops in congested and sensitive
areas.
Planting of trees on either side of the roads especially after widening
the roads for shade and absorption of CO, can reduce noise intensity.
Impose rules to use smooth horns according to the size of vehicle.
l o Help the body to defence aga~nst paras~tes b a ~ t e r ~ a Increase of this wh~te blood cells cairses Asthma and paras~trc rnlect~ons
l 1 High blood glucose level results In stroke and heart attack 12 Concentration of potassrum In the blood IS low results in blood pressure i J Low blood glucose level results In nervousness, sweat~ng feei~ng of numbness
Imposing both civil and criminal penalties for noise violations and
Bringing a legislation to ban old and noise making vehicles.
The above study indicated that noise becoming a major hazard in
Tirupati and Vijayawada. The reason for this is mainly because of the
vehicular increase and secondly, increases of pilgrimage which in turn
increases the usage of vehicles, thirdly the use of mikes especially during
election and festive period.
6.5. WATER POLLUTION
6.5.1. Water supply in Tirupati City:
Sufticient quantity of good quality water is essential for a healthy
living. Peoplr: cannot achieve a consistect quality of life tjnless they have
access to safe drinking water. The United Nations declared 1981-90 as "The
International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade, to impress upon
the nations. the need to give due priority to the provision of safe drinking
water. At the end of the decade, the supply of drinking water has improved
markedly though it could not keep pace with the increasing population,
especially in urban areas.
The Tirupati h4unicipality is responsible for the provision and
mainterlance of water supply delivery within the city. Though the city has both
surface and ground water sources of water, the city is largely dependent on
surface wate; sources (l'able No.6.15).
At present the demand for water supply is estimated at 71.9 MLD '~
(2001) and it is expected to rise to 114.33 MLD in 2021.
--,.
' 4 Mega litre per day
Water Supply Sources in Tirupati City. 2001 -- - Surfacs water eourcp Ground water source Kalyani Dam system watertreatment plant 25.0 MLD Bore wells with power pumps 265 nos. (2 MLD) Kandaleru reservoir system water treatment plant Bore wells with hand :lumps 558 nos. (4 MLD) 31.5 MLD
Though the designed capacity of surface water is 56.5 MLD, the
current water drawn from the above two sources is only 44 MLD catering to
the 85% of the city population. The remaining population is served by 6 MLD
of ground water sources. In addition to the bores provided by Mun~cipality
50% of the households in Tirupati city have individual bore wells drawing
water extensively and continuously causing depletion of underground water
deeper and deeper.
Table 6.15: - Details of Water Sup I Sources in T i r u p G i t r e a r o i 7 E ~ c r brim r - ~ r g i e d $r:!iLter
Name ' e$taliiibhn~ert at the CI~J (Km) Capac~ty (MLD) drawls (MLR) 1 -- - 4 - 2. T ~ i n d j i r ~ ~ - TeluyuGanqal 1979 1 Rebervolr 17 1 2 5 0 1 2 0 0
,
Kdlyanl 199A I Kalydni Dam 32 31 5 24 0 -- - - l-~rserv_o11__C ----
Total 56 5 44 0 Source. T~rupati Munic~pal Corporation.
In addition to these major sources of water supply, Tirupati also had
two mini water supply schemes namely Narasimha theertham Tank
(Implemented in 1974), Rayalacheruvu Pumping Unit (Implemented in 1975)
and are not functional at present because they are dried up.
Details of distribution of water in the city:
Piped water is supplied to most of the city area except for a few
slums. At present the per capita supply of water to the households is 120
litreslday, toral being 2, 73, 84,240 litres supplied for 3 hours every alternate
day. The water is stored in underground sumps or rooftop tanks. The average
per capita consumption in the city is estimated to be 136 LPCD'~. In the slum
areas it is estimated to be much lower. But there is limited coverage and
access.
l 5 Litres per capita per day
Of the Kalyani water some quantity was diverted, lifted and supplied
to Tirumala hill station due to the increasing use of water by pilgrims, shortage
of water sources due to vagaries of monsoons. This is also one of the reasons
for shortage of water supply in Tirupati city. Both the water supply and
sewerage lines in some places have resulted in the contamination of water.
The depleting depths of groundwater have harmful effect.
Some samples were collected (by APPCB, Regional Office, Tirupati)
from 10 selected stations in Tirupati city for physical, chemical and
bacteriological examination. The water samples were tested for major ions
like hydrogen ion concentration (PH), CI, Ca, Mg, Total Hardness (TH), Total
Dissolved Salts (TDS) and trace elements like Fe, Cr and Pb. Total bacterial
counts were also examined as per the standard methods (1998) and Rain
Water and Thacher (1960). To wark out the quality of water in Tirupati the
normal standards are followed.
Source: CPCB
Basing on the above standards the table No. 6.16 is showing the
concentrat~ons of various major and trace elements determined In the water
samples of the study area. It is observed that the concentration of PH, CI. Mg
and Total Hardness are well within the permissible limits as per the standards
of WHO (1984). The water is safe for drinking purpose. On the other hand
concentration of some trace elements like Fe, Cr and Pb are higher than their
standard limits, cause adverse effect on human health.
Chromium (Cr) is highly toxic metal and is widely distributed in the
environment as traces. High concentration of Cr gets accumulated in the liver
and kidney and it also cause lung disease. The high concentration of Lead
(Pb) causes mental retardation in children, increase abortion rates in females
and infertility in males. It is observed from the table below that the
concentration of Cr and Pb is higher than the permissible limits in few
samples.
Iron becomes highly toxic when administered parentally. Affected
persons frequently developed diabetes mellitus and heart failures. The water
of the study area is slightly alkaline: the PH value ranges from 7.10-8.00. The
highest value 8.60 was recorded it! the water sample collected from Maruthi
Nagar Area which has high residential density. Chemically, the water is
classified as hard and alkal~ne ir: the southern part of the city. Along the
foothill area (North) the water is moderately hard and tasty due to the
percolation from the hills. As per WHO guideline the drinking water in
distribution system should be 01100 ml.
It was observed that water supply is badly contaminated ~ i t h
sewage. Count of bbth total bacterial and faecal. coli ,form is higher in
municipal supply as compared to water from hand pumps because the
aquifers for the hand pumps are much protected due to deepsr depths. This
indicates the extremely poor condition of the distribution system of municipal
water. The pipes often leaking are submerged in drains and are spreading on
ground surface.
There is an inflow of raw sewage into the distribution system when
water pressure is low or when the supply is stopped. Though the water is
chlorinated at some points in the distribution system but the illegal and
improperly fitted connections, breakages and loose joints of pipes which run
through gutters cause iocal on tam in at ion of water supply. These conditions
are generally prevailea in th'e city and continued to be environmentally
problematic.
Table 6.16: Results of partial chemicals analysis and trace elements of water samples i n Tiru ati Cit 2006-07
Stat~ons 1 PH -- C - - C a M 4 % " " F " l - .
RTC Bus Stand Area / 7 79 1 99 82 194 515 1661 0 148 0013 I 1
Bhavan~ Nagar
T K Street 757 152 90 25 350
Maruth~ Nagar 860 52 87 27
Korlagunta
Reddy & Reddy Colony 8 19 72 64 44
VaradharajaNagar 749 88 100 32 160 ~- Balraglpatteda 7 31 62 35 02
Balal~ Colony
Note: All values are in ppm except PH Source Test results from Environmantal Lahoratory of the Clvrl Englneertng Department, S V
Universtty (2007)
6.5.2. Sewerage System i n Tirupati City:
Provision of adequate sewerage disposal system for the city and
region as a whole is extremely essent~al as the improper disposal has a direct
implication on the quality of environment thereby affecting the quality of life.
Source Tirupat~ ~un idpa l Corporation
The Tirupati Municipality had no proper sewerage system till 1990's.
In the year 1999 the sewerage (Underground Drainage -UGD) system was
developed and commissioned covering the entire city financed by TTD and
administered by Tirupati Municipality. The existing network coverage with
underground drainage covers the entire municipal area with sewers except
few pockets i.e., about 20 krns of main sewers and 140 kms of sub-main
sewers, branch sewers, lateral sewers and sub lateral sewers. This system is
having capacity of 90,000 connections with 25 MLD sewerage treatment plant
for the prospective population.
Total quantlty generated -__ - -
Source. Tirupat~ Mun~ccpal Corporation, 2001
Table 6.18: Sewerage performance Indicators
Prior to the commissioning of the Underground Drainage Scheme
(UDS) for Tirupati city, the sewage was drained out into the open or natural
Indicator Total Population
Network Coverage
streams or drains in the city. These natural drains form an interconnected
network linking various water bodies in the region and city. The disposal of
untreated sewage in these open drains has led to pollution of land and water
environment due to accumulation of sewage in these water tanks or ponds.
The households continue to dispose the sewage and sullage into open
Tirupati City -_ _ -- 1
2282C2 (2001 ) -
- - 80% I _ . I
1
nallahs even after the UGD system 1s set in place which has to he curbed
(Table No. 6.1 7 & 6.1 8).
6.5.3. Sewage Treatment Plants (STP) in Tirupati City:
'The sewage from all the mains (A- main, G- main, K- main) meets at
one common manhole and is then disposed through the outfall sewer to the
STP located at Renigunta (outside the Corporation area). It was
commissioned in 1999 and treatment is proposed in two stages.
At present the STP receives only 25 MLD (2U01), which also
includes the storm water drainage and sullage. The total design capacity of
the STP is 100 MLD considering a total population of 4.5 lakh. Therefore the
plant is felt sufficient for 2011 population also when it is fully kept under
operation but not yet.
After the treatment, Biological Oxygen Demand of the treated
sewage is reduced from 350 to 30 mgll. Harmful products such as
phosphates, nitrates, etc., are removed at the maturation ponds with 10 hours
detention period, Inadequate sewerage treatment facilities resulting in
discharge of untreated sewerage into water bodies.
Thus Implementation of timely plan for sewerage disposal and
treatment is needed.
6.5.4. Sanitation in Tirupati City:
Sanitation system forms the integral part of the physical
infrastructure, therefore proper and healthy sanitation system is a basic
requirement of today in any city or locality. Majority of the toilets are
connected to UGD in Tirupati Municipality. But after conversion into
Corporation no further attempt was made to cover the incomplete areas to
protect sanitation. No proper execution was taken up, putting the residents
into problems. Both bathroom water and toilet matter was allowed in UGD,
somewhere only toilet IS connected to UGD. The left over drains are still over-
flowing on to the roads during rains and blockages. There are 12 public
convenier~ces constructed by the Tirupati Municipality and are maintained by
Sulabh International and Comrr~unity development societies which are very
less to serve the population of the city including the floating population. The
status of sanitation coverage can be seen from the table below.
Sanitationsoverage - 2001 Percentage households with san~taty latrines + 51 40°/u Percentage households connected to sewers -- 25% Percentage households with unsanitary latrines- 0 95% Percentage households w~th no fac~i~ty 3 40% Source. Tirupati Mun~c~pal~ty, 2001
Access to Sanitation Facilities Indicatcrr -- - 4 _- - X u P a t 1
Total Population - - - - - . - .L 22%5?-@ol . _- Access to ~nd~v~dtral to~lets (ent~re c~ty) - --I 40% Access to commun~ty to~lets for pool_Lslum area?! - 20% NO of commuri~ty to~iets - _ - -. _ I 0 9 Source: Tlrupati Munic~pal~ty, 2001
Thus from the above tables it is clear that limited attempts for
delivering affordable sanitation services to the people in the city was observed
and hence more community toilets need to be constructed on user fee basis
in the city.
6.5.5. Storm Water Drainage in Tirupati City:
Storm drainage or rain water surface flow forms an important aspect
in the context of Tirupati city since the improper design or blockage to the
natural drainage pattern car1 result in severe water logging and unhygien~c
conditions in the city.
There are four major storm water drains originating from lirumala
Hills which pass through different localities of Tirupati city. During rainy
season it is common scenario that most of the important roads are flooded
with water, but the flood water is drained out quickly to the outskirts owing to
natural North-East slope of tlie city from Tirumala hills (200 metres) to
Renigunta road (180 metres). Tirupati city mainly slopes from West to East.
Water during heavy rains flood froln west (complex of Universities) to the east
(Railway station, Bus stand ana Commercial area (CBD)) through the main
roads of the city becoming into pools inconveniencing the travel, traffic and
eroding the roads and cutting down the open drains. No plan for diverting this
flow of water is drawn so far. There are two major natural drains passing
through the city
r The outfall of the major drains in the city is Chennayagunta
r There are drains which are partially covered and drains wh~ch are fully
covered.
r The partially covered drains are observed to have garbage dumped in
them.
r The drains are generally stagnant and badly smelling.
r During the monsoon season there are areas which are affected by the
stagnation of water and flooding.
In general the topography exhibits that the city has nine stretches of
storm water drains spread across north-west to south-east directions which
ultimately confluence in the south-east direction and finally connected to
Swarnamukhi River. Except for a few 100 metres, the drains are not pucca
and lead to frequent inundations during monsoons. The width of drains ranges
between 1.5 to 4 metres depending on the area. The drains have been
designed long back for a velocity of 1.5mlsec and a maximum rainfall of
10mmlhour but the situation is in all terms are different.
Due to these problems many of the areas some in the centre of the
city and some in the periphery mainly almost all the slums are under frequent
and severe flooding causing most of the small houses, roads are inundated
and severely damaged.
Hence all the open drains should be widened, lined and linked
together and maintained properly Disposal and treatment waste, avoiding
encroachment of drains should be thought of through an integrated drainage
plan by the concern.
6.5.6. Water Supply in Vijayawada City:
River Krishna is the main source of water for the city because it is
located on its bank. The city also depends on ground water resources. As per
table No. 6.19 VMC draws about 45.4 MLD from bore wells. The protected
water supply scheme was introduced way back in 1907 located on the bank of
river Krishna behind the Kanaka Durga temple. This water supply scheme
with the capacity 22.7 MLD could not meet the then demand. Increase in
population with corresponding increase in water demand was met by
augmenting water from Dr. K.L. Rao Head works. The capacity was increased
four times during 1965-2003 to 131.66 MLD. Totally from all sources
Vijayawada draw 177.06 MLD which is insufficient then and now
(www.cpcb.nic.in).
Table 6.19: Water Source Locations
Head waterworks Pushkaram Ghats waterworks Kr~shna Lanka water works
I
i Source. K L Rao Head Water Works ~ G C O ~ ~ S
6.5.7. Existing Surface Water Quality in Vijayawada City:
Bandar Canal:
The canal traverses for a distance of 7 5 km on the southern s~de of
the city. For free movemer?t of traftic, the canal has 10 bridges built across it.
5 sewage outfalls discharge around 15 MLD of sewage into the canal from the
nearby areas polluting the canal water.
Ryves Canal:
The canal flows for a distance of around 7.6 km on the north eastern
side of the city. There are about 8 br~dges across it. 8 sewage outfalls
discharge around 25 MLD of waste water into the canal fromi the neighbouring
areas.
Eluru Canal:
The canal runs for a total distance of around 65 km in Krishna and
West Godavari district. There are about 6 road bridges, two railway bridges
and two foot-over bridges across the canal. 18 outfalls discharge around 22
MLD of waste water into the canal from the surrounding areas. Apart from the
waste water outfalls the other source of pollution for all the three canals are
solid waste dumping, washing clothes, bathing, cleaning of live stock, open
defecation acd encroachments along the canals.
The data collected from Wilbur-Smith Associates at Vijayawada
there are number of point and non-point sources of pollution along these
canals. The BOD, COD and Dissolved Oxygen (DO) levels of the canal water
show somewhat satisfactory picture as their levels are less than the
prescribed norms. Except Eluru canal, all the other three come under Class B
Category (water can be used for bathing and cleaning) while Eluru canal is
under Class C (water can be used for drinking after conventional treatment).
Budameru Stream:
It is observed that the pollution level is high in this canal. The water
surface is covered with weeds indicating the presence of organic content in
the stream. The main sources of pollution to this stream are waste water
discharge mainly from the western sewerage zone and indiscriminate
dumping o i solid waste along the bed. Encroachments along the stream bed
for habitation and agricultural purposes.
Thus the Dissolved Oxygen level of the three canals is less than 6
ppm. If this is not attended immediately shall soon become heavily polluted,
leading to formidable health related problems both for aquatic and human life
depending on the canal water. It is found that sewage of nearly 63 MLD is
diskharged into the four canals directly without any treatment. Maximum
amount of waste water is discharged into the Ryves canal and nearly 1O0/0
(50-75 tonnes) of the solid wastes generated in the city is dumped on the
canal banks, major part of which slip to the canal beds. Other activities along
the canal like washing (around 17 dhobi Ghats on the three canal banks),
bathing and open defecation from the bank side and nearby households
contribute heavily to the canal pollution (Table No. 6.20).
Storages:
Surface water is pumped into the service reservoirs after primary
treatment. There are 25 large tanks to store Krishna rivet' water with a total
capacity of 24 ML. Besides there are 6 large Over Head Tanks which will be
filled with ground water with a total ~apacity of 4 ML. The reservoirs have a
total supply capacity oi arourid 55 MLD. Boosters are used at places and to
generate required pressure to supply water effectively.
Distribution:
The operation and maintenance of the water supply distribution is
the responsibility of the VMC. For administrative purposes, the city is divided
into three circles for efficient delivery of services such as water supply.
Table 6.21: Distribution of water supply coverage in three Circles, Vijayewada 2001
Source. Clrcle Office
Though the aggregate length of the water pipes amount to 98% of
the total road length in circle I, giving apparently an impression that the entire
area is supplied through pipelines, in reality it is not so as per the opinion of
the people of that area. Circle II has an average coverage of around 84% of
the total road length. The Ill Circle has the least with only 62% coverage in the
circle. The distribution network of the city piped water supply indicates
inadequacy (Table No. 6.21 ).
Water is supplied in the city to the houses through house service
connections, public taps and hand pumps by the VMC. Some more houses
were served only by hand pumps. Though the average water supply in the city
is around 157 LPCD, on an average only 27% ot the city houses have
individual house connections. Among the circles, circle II has 34% house
coverage by the public water supply. As per the primary Household (HH)
survey, 1% of HHs are supplied water for an hour, whereas 63Y0 of HHs get
for 2 hours and 36% for more than 2 hours.
Thus the water supply is very much uneven and low pressure supply
in some areas. Most of the hand bore are not in working condition, large
amount c~f water ts being waqted at different points in the supply systsm
where the loss is rnainly due to leakages from old and improper points and
faulty taps from Head word to supply points.
Sewerage, Sanitation and Storm Water Drainage System in Vijayawada City:
For the purpose of providing and maintaining the sewerage system,
Vijayawada city is divided into four zones namely, central zone, western zone,
eastern-south eastern zone and northern zone. The existing UDS Scheme
mainly covers the central zone of the city. The several natural and man-made
canals fiow parallel to the major railway lines. VMC has divided the total area
into 3 phases. Phase I has no UGD in its entire locality. Phases I1 and Ill have
an existing UGD coverage of aboi~t 21% of the city area. At present, of the
57.62 km2 of total VMC area, only 11.6 km2 is under the UGD system.
According to primary sources, the sewerage connections at individual house
level are very less in the city. Circle I has no underground sewerage system
and the sewage is led to open drains. The localities under the north zone do
not have underground sewerage system and are at present provided with
open drains by the VMC.
6.5.8. Sewage Treatment in Vijayawada City:
There are four pumping stations with a total pumping capacity of
21.14 MLD installed in the city in 2001. These pumping stations were
established in the year1964-65 as part of a comprehensive underground
drainage scheme for the central part of Vijayawada.
A Sewage Treatment Plant was commissioned in the year 1963 wlth
a plant capacity of 27 MLD at Ajith Singh Nagar. Vijayawada. Total efluent
quantity for treatment is 20 MLD.
Table 6.22: Parameter Values in the Sewerage Treatment Plant - Vbyawada - - --"
-
B~olog~cal Oxl~xygen Demand (BOD) I- 240 - - Source Project report on dcvelopnrental activit~es in VMC, 2001
There are few areas like Pothina Appanna street, Padi street, Nehru
Road and few other areas where there is a need for up gradation of the
existing open drains as the existing ones are in bad shape and usually over
flow during rainy seasons and sometimes the drains get silted up thus
blocking the sewage flow. Almost the entire city drainage and sewerage
network is inefficient as of 2001.
As per the VMC report the total sewage generation is estimated at
14.8 MLD. Of this only 20 MLD gets treated before disposal. There is a
necessity tc establish, additional ST? in the city to treat the remaining 128
MLD of sewage before disposal. Otherwise this will not onljl p~l lute both
surface and ground water but also becomes unfit for irrigation in the lowlands.
After all it pollutes the environment to the level of discomfort for living. But it is
understood that STPs are under execution and 2 other are proposed to treat
the left over sewerage and also generated sewerage in future (Table No.
6.23) at different places of the city.
6.5.9. Sanitation in Vijayawada City:
Table 6.23: Canal-wise Proposed STPs, Vijayawada (2001)
Absence of proper drainage system and proliferation of slums all
over the city have adversely affected the hygienic environment in the city in
general. A? already said as of 2001, '109 slums have been identified and 106
of them notified in Vijayawada. Many of these slums lack sanitary facilities
particularly the individual toilets. Most of the Public places and activity centres
like markets bus stands, railway stations, public offices and recreational
places aiso lack adequate toilet facilities. There are around 11 30 km of drains
in the entire city and 896 drain cleaners work for the operation and
maintenance. The total road area in the city measures to be around 6.5 km7
and for this 1339 sweepers are appointed. As per the norm of one worker1300
families, there are only 85 workers for 1,57,953 families in Circle I and II. Thus
it is necessary to have proposals like Public toilet maintenance must be
improved and should be privatized. Community toilets must be increased in
number near the slums and in areas along the river bed where open
defecation prevails. Day to day garbage shall be collected and disposed
without accumulation.
Name of the Canal
Bandar Canal
Ryves Canal
Eluru Canal Area requ~red t
6.5.10. Storm Water Drainage System (SWD) in Vijayawada City:
Unlike Tirupati the city has an undulating ,topography characterized
by small and large hillocks scattered in the city. The entire southern part of the
Source Pollution Prevention for irrigat~on canals In Vilayawada-W~lbur Srn~th Assoc~iltes
Location --*
- Beh~nd canal z e s t house Near skew bndge - -- . Near Enamalakuduru foot br~dge -
,Near Aliur~ S~taramaraju Br~dge _ Near Madura Nagar Temple -- - At Gunadala Centre - - - -
P r ~ o s e d STP Capacity in MLD --
- 6 00 -.- - - - - - 2 00 -. --
- 6 oo 7 00
4 0 ~ ' - -- - - - - 2000 -
Opposite to Prabhas College ----It 6" .-- - -- , ' a c r e s - - - - -
city slopes down towards the river Krishna in the south while, the central part
slopes down towards the north and, the northern areas have a downward
slope towards south. Apart from the river Krishna there is a major drainage
area with three major irrigation canals namely Eluru Canal, Ryves Canal,
Bahdar Canal all originating from Prakasam barrage and a major water
course Budameru channel flow across the town and draining the surface run
off from the city. Other than this there are no separate systems to carry the
sewage, silage and storm water separately. Some road side drains without
UGD also serve as sewers round the year. They carry storm water during
monsoon months and only the sewage during the rest of the year. During the
monsoons, the waste water from the kitchen and toilets gets diluted with the
storm water but in the non-monsoon season the sewage contain high BOD
requires treatment for firrther use.
It is observed from this study that Tirupati and Vijayawada being the
fcstest growing cities have very high rate of consumption of water, ranges
from 150 to 200 litres per person per day. The consumption includes 55% for
domestic, 13% non- domestic, 23% commercial and 8% industrial use. There
is a continuous increase in water consumption in all the sectors due to growth
o i population. The rapid rate of urbanization in the last three decades and the
sprawled growth of the city nave resulted in the extinction of a number of
tanks (VMC Report).
In Tirupati and Vijayawada city water is consumed in huge quantities
and nearly 80% of the water is returned as waste water, which is ultimately
discharged into sewers and into rivers. This contaminated water with various
toxic chemicals causes pollution of river water. The contamination of water
occurs due to entry of sewage/polluted water into the water supply system.
Contamination occurs in the location of leakage near the crossing of the water
lines and sewer lines. AS explained in the case of Tirupati city during non-
supply hours, wher? water lines are empty the sewage enters into the water
distribution system by way af partial vacuum and gets collected in the ernpty
lines. This reaches the most downward point of the distribution system. In the
subsequent supply the collected sewage enter into the houses, before nonnal
supply resumes. In sewage water, human excreta is one component of
domestic sewage along with the waste of washing, household cleaning and
home food preparation added to the dissolved and suspended organic and
inorganic material and these alone contribute to the high level of pollution.
Open discharge of sewage at several places in both the cities increase COD
and BOD content of the stream.
6.5.1 1. Impact of Water Pollution on Human Health:
On a worldwide scale, thlt: pollution of water supplies is probably
responsible for more human illness tnan any cther environmental influence.
The diseases transrn~tted are rhiefly caused by micro-organisms and
parasites. Sewage and polluted water are responsible for several water-borne
diseases. Some of the diseases caused by polluted water are cholera,
typhoid, infantile diarrhoea, dysentery, infectious hepatitis, polio, amoebic
dysentery, jaundice, etc.,
6.5.12. Future Preservation Measures against Pollution of Lakes
(Kuntas) in Tirupati and Vijayawada City:
blo layout should he allowed in lakebed areas (for example in
Tirupati 32 fresh water lakes or Kuntas were occupied by the Government for
constructions or by migrants to form slums). A baslc drainage systam has to
be established in the slums and all the sullage flowing out cf the hutments
should be connected to the dralnage system. Creating public awareness
through the media as well as audio-vlsual presentations should be made
regarding importance of wetlands. Research on ecological and conservation
related issued should be encouraged. Period~c desilting and cleaning of lakes
is necessary. This process not only helps in increasing lakes capacity to hold
water, but also percolates down to recharge the aquifers to improve the
ground water table.
6.6. SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT (SWM)
6.6.1. Solid Waste Management in Tirupati City:
Solid Waste Management is an obligatory function of Urban Local
~ o d i e s (ULBs) in India. However this service forms an important aspect In
maintaining the quality of life and environment of a city, but unfortunately it is
poorly performed resulting in problems in health, sanitation and environrnental
degradation. Lack of political wills, inadequate financial resources, institut~onal
weakness, improper choice of technology and public apathy towards solid
waste management have made this service far from satisfaction. The Health
department of Tirupati Municipal Corporation is responsible for management
of solid waste in Tirupati city (India Today, 1994).
As already explair!ed there are 54.457 households in the town, out
of which 9258 houses fall below poverty line. All the households generate
195MTlday of solid waste. Wh~le there is no segregation of waste at source,
the waste is collected through various containers viz., baskets, plastic
containers, cartons, plastic bags, etc., by the households themselves that is
later dumped into the garbage bins provided by the municipal corporation
street wise. Tirupati city adopted a rudimentary solid waste management plan
with partial inclusion of some of the elements of the solid waste management
system as explained below.
6.6.2. Source and Quantity of Waste Generated in Tirupati City:
Total waste generated per day in the city is 151 MT'"~ 1.75 kglHH
(4200MTIMonth, 50400MTIYear). Landfill site of area 29 acres is located at a
distance of 19 km away from city limits near Ramapuram. The major sources
of solid waste generation in Tirupati city are domestic waste, waste generated
at commercial establishments, markets, hotels, hospitals and restaurants, etc.
''jtvIi~~ion tons
The sources and quantity of waste generated is presented in the below table
No.6.24.
Table 6.24: Details -- of Waste Generation in Tirupati City - 2001 - _ -_- -~ - - - -
SbtJrce of Generation (SWM) Tirupati Municipal Corporation I ,- -- -- - - - -
Waste in Million Tonslday % to total I
- Household waste - 105 - 72 .
27 --- I 5 -- .
7 - -- 5 I Hos~~ ta l waste 5 1 - 3- -- I _ - --- - - - - - - ---- ---t- i 1 Street sweepinglDratn c l e ~ i -- --- - 7 - - . . I
Total I L- I 151 ~ o u E ~ i r u ~ a t i Municipal Corporation, 2001
Primary Collection of Waste:
A majority of the households (i.e 92.42%) in the city use these
garbage bins for the d~sposal of the domestic waste. In some of the slum
areas the domestir: waste is being dumped on the streets, open spaces and
vacant places thereby creatrng unhygienic conditions in the neighbourhood.
Absence of source segregation, especially the recyclable waste is
encouraging the rag pickers to a large extent.
Door-to-door collection IS initiated on a pilot basis (in 8% of the city
area) in the municipal corporation. Despite the above initiative, about 1500
community bins still exist across all the wards contributing to its partial
success. The ULB (Urban Local Body) could not scale up the initiative of
door-to-door collection through twin bin system i.e., storage of biodegradable
waste and recyclable and non-biodegradable wastes separately in green and
red coloured bins respectively, owing to the lack of public awareness and
finances.
Table No.6.24 explains apart from the waste from the households,
the shops, hotels, Offices, etc., generate 27 MTlday of Solid Waste followed
by markets and commercial centres -7MTlday, hospitals and nursing houses -
SMTlday, street sweeping and drain cleaning, constructions generate 5
MTIday of solid waste.
Street sweeping is one of the major activities of a city, which is to be
carried out on daily basis for the clean, green and healthy environment. The
number of sweepers per ward varies from 8 to 10 based on the population.
The MSW per day is always more than the waste collected. The gap between
management and collection is over 5 MT in a day. This gap is due tc the fact
that the number of sweepers engaged is always less than the required.
According to the Municipal norms, for every 10,000 people there should be 28
sweepers, whereas there are only 200 sweepers for a population of 2.28 lakh
as against the requirement of 672 sweepers.
Table 6.25: Physical Composition of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) in
All values are expressed in % Sourca Municipal Corporation of Tlrupatl, 2001
The primary component of the MSW is observed to be comprised of
decayed leaves, rotten vegetables, used food materials and other discards
from the household activities and from market place. The moisture content
was as high as 32% in the slum areas. Other wastes observed at various
locations include soil/silt~dust particles from street sweepings.
Paper, plastics, metals and other recyclable materials picked up by
the rag pickers is a limitation to the waste composition analysis. The
recyclable materials like the metal. scrap, newspapers, thick plastics, glass
bottles, used textiles, etc., are stored in-house and used for other purposes or
sold for alternate material or money.
Table 6.26.1 : Characteristics of Waste
For Tiru~ati City (0.24
Million All value2are in percentage and ancalculated on wet weight bash Source: NEERl Reporb Strategy Paper on SWM in India, August 1995.
Table 6.26.2: Characteristics of Waste -T^-ca'o*;- as ~hosphorous Potassium as 1 CiN Ratio Value in Range (in
Millions) Nitrogen as P205 K2O -- - -- . ---- K.callKg
O l t o O 5 0 71 0 63 0 83 30 94 1009 89 For Tirupati City (0.24 0.177-0.571 0.078-0.394 1 2 02-3.66 1 18.08-30 53 233-3195
Mklonr % Carbon is calculated on the basis of Caior~fic value Source. NEERl Reports Strategy paper on SWM In Ind~a. August 1995.
Secondary Collection:
The existing practice of manual garbage collection from community
bins and transportation to disposal sites is a time taking process. There is an
emerging need for the use of "dumper Placers" instead of manual lifting and
transportation of the garbage by tractors. There is a need to introduce dumper
placers along all wide roads in the city adjacent to the slum areas. This
proposal could cover a slum population of 29,704 who are below the poverty
line which is not only have a direct impact on their health and hygiene but also
will reduce the handling of garbage by the human beings.
6.6.3. Problems of Solid Waste Management in Tirupati City:
Most of the waste is disposed in open fields or river Swarnamukhi;
hence there is no proper treatment or disposal of the solid waste.
The analysis of ex~stiny solid waste management pract~ces of
Tirupati city indicates that the city has no structured primary and secondary
collection arrangements. The disposal arrangements of the city also need
substantial improvement. Integrated solid waste management requires the
use of various instruments for improved service delivery.
Lack of organized door to door collection practice.
No separate waste collection system is designed for slums, hotels,
offices, etc.,
Biodegradable waste generated from vegetable markets, fish and meat
stalls are not being profitably managed.
Biomedical waste is being mixed with the domestic Solid Waste (SW)
and is not being collected and disposed off in accordance with
biomedical waste rules specified.
Construction avd dgmolition wastes and hort~culture wastes are not
collected separately.
Burning of waste is still practiced in some of the slum areas.
The RCC bins not designed taking into account the quantities of waste
generation and population densities in any area of the city and they are
not situated appropriately for easy use. The SW stored in RCC bins is
exposed to open atmosphere. Manual handling of waste is entertained.
Lack of sufficient number of motorized vehicles for the collection of
waste from the doniestic and non domestic sources.
There is no pericdical maintenance of storage depots
It is observed that while transporting, waste is not covered with nets
causing spillage on the way and in some places waste is transported
openly without any cover.
The best alternative methodology to recycle solid waste is
preparation of Vermi Compost. Vermi culture is a simple low cost, low energy
biotechnology of multiplying earthworms by providing them optimum
conditions. for rapid ~iultiplication by feeding them with bio-degradable
materials available in MSW. It is a simple technique of using earthworms of
different species to convert urban wastes into biodegradable form i.e, vermi-
compost, is a natural bio-manure helps agricultural developmet.
Uses of Vermi Compost:
Worm casts produce nutrients which enable plants to utilize five
times as Nitrates, twice as much calcium, two and half times as much
magnesium, and seven times as much phosphorous and eleven times as
much potassium.
Provides nutrients like (N. P, K, Ca, and Mg). It is rich in several micro
floras like Azospirillium or actionmycetes which multiply through
digestive system of the earthworms.
Verrn~ compost contains several enzymes, auxins and complex growth
regulators like gibberellins.
It supplements humus contents. The worms churn and tunnel the soil
and make it porous, improve water holding capacity and the structure
of the soil.
Soil PH IS stabilized by buffering action. Due to buffering action,
mineral sand trace elements become available, more easily to crops.
It helps for the hygienic disposal of city wastes like solid and semi solid
waste, farm waste which cause pollution problems.
Therefore an effective waste management system includes the
following:
Waste collection and transportation
Resource recovery through sorting and recycling of materials.
Resource recovery through waste processing by using composting or
waste to energy approaches.
Waste minimization by reducing volume, toxicity or other
physicallchemical properties of waste to make it safe for final disposal.
Disposal of waste in an environmentally safe and sustainable manner
through land filling.
6.6.4. Solid Waste Management (SWM) in Vijayawada City:
During 2001 about 520 MT of solid wastes are generated per day in
the city of which about 450 MT (87%) is being lifted by the Corporation. Apart
from this, about 2.76% MT of bio-medical waste is also being generated in the
city daily which are handled and disposed of separately. As in the case of
Tirupati, the city's solid waste is contributed by households, markets,
commercial complexes, hotels, lodges, marriage halls, theatres, educational
institutions and hospitals. Around 70% of the city's solid waste generated is
organic in nature and the renlaining 30°h inorganic waste.
Primary Collection of Waste:
Vijayawada Municipal Corporation (VMC) has provided around
2,120 waste collection binslcontainers of 0.25 MT capacity each, all over the
city for the collection of the solid waste generated apart from 145 other means
of collection like tricycles (tricycles are not used in Tirupati). There is no
house-to-house collection of garbage. Households dump the waste directly
into the nearest community bin from where it is collected for d~sposal. VMC
has handed over the collection of solid waste in hilly areas to private parties
which make house to house collection using special baskets. The household
survey reveals that, about 65% of the HHs solid waste is collected by VMC
everyday, 20% of HHs in every second day and 4% in every third days. 8% of
HHs has no arrangement to have their garbage collected even once in a
week. No proper collection system is available for some of the areas in the
city. As per the survey conducted by VMC, 6l0/0of the HHs use the garbage
bins, 10% dump the garbage on the roads, while 29% of the HHs have door-
to-door collection arrangement.
Transportation and Dumping Wastes:
Waste is lifted from the bins using dumper placers and transported
in trucks and trailers to the disposal site and compost plant. Half of the city
area is privatized for lifting and transportation of the waste. In the other half of
the city area, VMC vehicles are used.
* Open dumping at Railway Dumping Yard - about 150 MT per day is
dumped here.
I Dumping at MSW Projects
Excel Industries (established in 1995-96, 3.33 ha of land in Ajithsingh
Nagar) - 125 MT per day is being processed for compost (30 to 40
tonnes of organic manure).
Srirom Energy Systems Private Limited, Hyderabad-225 MTlday is
being processed for power generation (6 MW of Powerlday).
Bio-Methanation Plant - 20 MTlday of vegetable waste and slaughter
house waste is processed for Methane Gas and Power Generation.
Still 150 MT of garbage is left out and it is being dumped.
6.6.5. Problems of Solid Waste Management in Vijayawada City:
Irregular garbage collection in all the areas of the city. Inefficient
collection and disposal. Street sweeping is confined to only main roads and
junctions of the city. lnadequate machinery and manpower. lnadequate
sweeping staff in the wards 1 and 12. lnadequate community bins in the
wards
Establishment of Sriram Energy Plants has led ro increase in noise
pollution, air pollution, rnosauito problem and foul smell in the surrounding
areas of ward 28.
As in the case of Tirupati the effective solid waste treatment method
suitable for the present situation 1s vermi-composting. The manure which is
rich in Nitrogen, Phosphorous and Potassium contents can be used for the
agricultural purposes. Vermi-cornposting is the best possible solution in the
city as 70% of the solid waste is organic. As a remunerative venture, the local
body can make 'wealth out of waste' (Alagappan Lakshmi (1993), "From
Waste to Wealth", the Hindu, Young World).
The bio-degradable waste of 60% of the total garbage accounting
for 90 MTIday of the leftover could be vermi composted in the available open
spaces in different colonies.
6.6.6. Impact of Solid Waste on Human Health:
The dumping of domestic. and municipal wastes is a serious problem
in cities because of its impact on environment and public health. Solid wastes
nay or may not cause diseases In man but are hazardous to health. Diseases
such as dysentery, diarrhoea, plague, malaria and numerclus others are the
result of the indiscriminate durnping of wastes.
6.6.7. Suggestions for Effective Management of Solid Waste in Tirupati
and Vijayawada City:
The corporations should make a serious endeavour to motivate the
households, shops and establishments to store the solid waste at the source
of generation and separate into three categories - organic recyclable, toxic,
and inorganic category used for composting (Manual on Municipal Solid
Waste Management - Ministry of Urban Development).
A significant proportion of cities garbage is organlc in nature;
therefore it can be composed to fertilizers. The aerob~c method of composting
urban garbage is most via& and this should be actlvely promoted. Intensive
campaigns :;hould be made to promote awareness to reduce the use of
plastics.
Bio-medical waste should be handled as per instruction contained in
the Ministry of Environment's Notification dated 2oth ~ u l y 1998. The instruction
of the CPCBISPCB'S" with regard to colour code of bags and source
segregation of waste, etc. shall be strictly followed by all concerned.
Incineration of bio-medical waste is strongly recommended as a method of
disposal for the maintenance of health of the citizens. Training of staff, private
sector participation, levy of penalties and adequate health care measures to
be rnade to make the solid waste management system effective and efficient.
Effective partnership between government agencies, NGO's and community
groups must be evolved for sustainable decentralized waste management
practices.
Conclusion:
The study thus ~nd~cates the nature and generation of wastes in
Tirupati and Vijayawada city. It is evident that generation of wastes in both the
cities is not able to keep pace with the infrastructural facilities, the growth of
population itself being phenomenal. As wastes are largely organic in
composit~on, there is a greater scope in recycling them to compost.
Technologies worked out in different parts of the city prove the capacities to
recycle organic wastes. The inorganic wastes find their way through rag
pickers and buyers, smail arid large dealers and entrepreneurs for recycling.
A broad based Environment Impact Assessment study in waste management
which includes three coniponents Storage, Collection and Transportation
indicate balances between health, aesthetics and cost in risk assessment.
6.8. PERCEPTIONS OF SLUM HOUSEHOLDERS IN TlRUPATl AND VIJAYAWADA THROUGH PRIMARY QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY:
The scientifically well prepared questionnaire to interview the slum
dwellers in each locality has been utilised and data compiled according to the
plan of the study. Out of 42 slums in T~rupati and 109 slums in Vijayawada, 10
" State Pollution Contml ~oards. '
developed' and 10 under-developed" slums was selected and 100
respondents from each of them in each city are interviewed on the basis of
multistage random sampling technique. By selecting 25 parameters such as
Type of house, drinking water, toilet facilities, dra inage, etc., the study was
conducted. The Chi-square statistical technique is adopted for these variables
(as mentioned in the tables below) to evaluate the quality of life of slum
dwel lers . W i t h the help of qualitative analysis of the data, level of qual i ty of life
is ascer ta ined. The study indicates tha t only 22% of slum dwellers are naving
better facilities and remaining are living in intolerable, unsafe env~ronmental
conditions.
Table No. 6.27.1: Housing conditions of the total sampled households in Tirupati and Vijayawada Slums - 2012 - - I . ---7 7-
- - - -- - - 24 v7.1
-- - -
33
Total
X1 (Pearson Chi-square) 56 491" 2 757NS -- - -- Source: Based on the field survey (2012-13) Note parenthews indicates parcentqes to the total 200 households. "Slgnlficant at 0.01 levels NS Not significant at 0.05 levels The figure Indicates the number of holiseholds lntewlewed
I 1 D,fieront regions 1 - Type of Housn I I t c h ~ i c c a c c
' Developed slums - 50% of development is seen regarding the infrastructure development, soc~al services, capacity building and linkage of infrastructure where pr~ority is given to supply of drinklng water, sanitation, construction of drains. roads, underground dratnage, streel lightning, garbage disposal.
" Under-developed ,slums the overalk condition of the slum is poor with respsct to housing, water supply, roads, drainage, poor health services, low income, poor education, lack of awareness about their rights, govemmeht welfare schentes, land tenure and security. etc.,
No. of Iivlng Rooms Presence of Kltchen -.
o n 4 I e I ii- 1
1 Housing conditions of the total sampled households in Tirupati and Vijayawada ~l;rns - 2012
Unly one 2 10 4
" r" . Y P' Nn
Presence of K~tchsn
'0 Davrlopnl alums of Tlrupatl U n d e r drvebpnl Slumt of Tlrupaln
D .ve&.d a1ums.f Vijryawada OVndrr devebpd Sluma d Vlpyawadr , Fig.No. 6.7
Type of Houses: The table No. 6.27.1 reveals that in the developed
slums of Tirupati 12% of the households responded that they are living in the
semi pucca houses and 11 Oh are living in pucca houses and 2% are living in
Kutcha houses. In the developed slums of Vijayawada 14% of the households
said that they are living in semi pucca houses, 8.5% are living in pucca
houses and 2.5% are living in the Kutcha houses. When the under developed
slums are surveyed it is observed that in Tirupati 8% of the households are
living in Kutcha houses, 14% are living in semi puma houses and 3% are
living in pucca houses, whereas in Vijayawada 14.5% are living in Kutcha
houses, 10% in semi pucca houses and 0.5% in pucca houses (Fig. No. 6.7).
Overall survey indicates that both in the deveioped and under
developed slums of Tirupat~ and Vijayawada about 50% of the households
among the total surveyed respondents are living In the semi pucca houses,
27% are in Kutcha houses and 23Oh in pucca houses.
From the survey it is found that the slum housing structure especially
Kutcha and semi pucca houses are very inconvenient with small sized houses
located close to each other, appeared over-crowded, congested and dark,
lacking proper underground sewage and garbage disposal system
mechanisms; as a consequence the area became a breeding ground of
mosquitoes causing high incidence of infectious diseases and epidemics such
as malaria, tuberculosis, etc:, High densities of dwellings and lack of internal
roads cause poor accessibility for emergency and life saving services. The
people living in pucca houses are also facing the same problems as they are
influenced by the surrounding unclean environment.
Number of living rooms: In the developed slums of Tirupati and
Vijayawada, majority of the households i.e., 15% and 16.5% are living in the
houses consisting of only one room and the remaining 10% and 8.5% are
having 2 to 4 rooms. In the Under-developed slums of both the cities majority
of the households are having only one room (18% &18.5%) and the remaining
7% in Tirupati and 6.5% in Vijayawada have 2 to 4 rooms. The responses
from the households revealed that most of them are migrated for their children
educational purpose and living in a single room causes inconvenience to their
children to leam in privacy and most of the elders also responded positively
about their loss of privacy (Fig. No. 6.7).
Presence of Kitchen: About 9.5% households in Tirupati and 8.5%
in Vijayawada developed slums responded positively on the presence of
Kitchen and the remaining 15.5% in Tirupati and 16.5% in Vijayawada have
no kitchens in their houses. In the Under-developed slums of both the cities.
majority of them have no kitchen facility (19Oio & 19.5%), the remaining 6%
and 5.5% have kitchen facility (Fig. No. 6.7).
The overall observation from the survey indicates that 29.7% are
having kitchen and they are not subjected to indoor pollution mainly smoke
whereas 70.5% are not having kitchen, cooking in a single room and spending
most of their times in a sirlgie room inhaling the smoke from the kitchen as
most of them are using wood as a fuel for cooking subjected to many types of
ailments like asthma and lung cancers.
Thus it is observed from the result obtained by the application of XZ
test on the above parameters that there is a significant association between
different regions and Housing conditions of the sampled households in
Tirupati and Vijayawada with reference to type of houses. The corresponding
X2 value is given by 56.491 which are highly significant at 0.01 levels. With
reference to the number of living rooms and presence of kitchen, the
corresponding XZ value is given by 2.757 and 4.303 which are not significant
at 0.05 levels.
Table No. 6.27.2: Sanitation conditions and Drainage of the total
Souror: B a r d on the fkld r u w y (2012-13) Note: prmnthrlr indlcater prrmtagms h, the h.1200 houwholdr. "SlgnAcrnt at 0.01 lewls
Sanitation conditions and Drainage of the total sampled Households In Tirupati and Vijayawada Slums - 2012
I RegJar Not Rogul~ I
Toilet Facilities: Table 6.27.2 shows the toilet facilities within the
house or without. Nearly 11.5% in Tirupati and 10.5% in Vijayawada
developed slums had individual in-built toilet facilities. About 5% and 10.5%
reported use of public toilets while 8.5% and 4% of the respondents reported
open defecation. In the under-developed slums of both the cities, 4S0h and
2% reported having toilet in the house, 1C% and 9% sharing public toilets and
10.5% and 14% reported open defecation (Fig. No. 6.8).
Overall observation from the survey depicts that both in the
developed and under developed slums of two cities, 28.5% are having toilet
facilities, 34.5% are using public toilets and 37% are not having toilets and
they are pract~c~ng open defecatiorl and this causes spread of many diseases
to the slum households where the flies are acting as a vector in transmitting
diseases iike dysentery, diarrhoea and numerous others are the result of the
indiscriminate unclean environment. The perception of slum households on
the condition of public toilets are very poor and appears to be a need for
greater attentior: to betrer maintenance of public toilet facilities to avoid open
defecation.
Drainage: Among all the respondents interviewed in Tirupati
developed and under-developed slums opened that the open drainage system
is the incidence of many diseases to the slum dwellers. In Vijayawada, only
6% felt that the presence of underground drainage in the developed slums.
The remaining 19% of the households responded negatively on the
underground drainage. Tho 25% of the household in the under-developed
slums reported the presence of open drainage system where the drains are
stagnant and releasing'bad odour. .In both the cities, combinedly, found that
6% of the slums are having underground drainage system (LIDS) which is
very negligible to tlie total population and the remaining 9d0/o have open
drainage system where people are positively responded about the incidence
of diseases frequently.
Cleaning of Drainage: A majority, 86% of the respondents from
bdth the cities of developed and under-developed slums reported cleaning of
drainage is not a regular phenomena. This is a cause of concern and needs to
be addressed on priority. About 14% responded positively on the regular
cleaning of drainage (Fig. No. 6.8).
The results obtained from the application of X2 on the above
variables reveal lhat highly significant association between different regions
and sanitation conditions and dramage of the total sampled households in
Tirupati and Vijayawada slums with reference to the toilet facilities, drainage
and cleaning of drainage. The corresporlding XZ value is highly significant at
0.01 levels (33.508, 38.298 and 11.628 respectively).
Fable No. 6.27.3: Disposal of Garbage and Solid Waste of the total
1 1366.. 1 21 443" I 47 059*' 87 gal*+ 1 90 061" 1 Source: Based on the field survey (2012-2013) Mote: parenthesis indicates percentages to the tda l 200 sampled households. "Significant at 0.01 levels
I Disposal of Garbage and Solld Waste of the total sampled households in 1 I Tirupati and Vijayawada Slums - 2012 I
I Quantitv of waste8 Generated In Ule slum ~n I
Regular I Not Regular
C l m l n g d duetbin*
Quantity of wastes generated in the slum: Generation of solid
wastes is a severe to moderate problems in allnost all the slums. About 6%
and 19% of the households in Tirupati and 25% in Vijayawada developed
slums generate 301-400 kgs and above 401 kgs of wastes respectively. And
in the under-developed slums of both the cities the quantity of wastes vartes
i.e, 7.5% and 7% of 201-300 kgs, 8% and 12% of 301-400 kgs, 9.5% and
0.5% of above 401 kgs and Vijayawada generate about 5.5% of 100-200kgs
(Fig. No. 6.9).
The surveyed slums includes mostly the household garbage such as
food scraps, old newspapers, a variety of plastic items, bottles, discarded
papers, etc., The total quantity of solid waste is large and increasing in some
areas due to their occupation. For example some of the slums arc engaged in
sellirig chicken and mutton where animal wastes are found in excess. The
amount of solid waste generated is directly destroying the prosperity of those
slums
The respondents reported that municipal workers are not cleaning
these wastes and thus the dumping of domestic waste is a serious problem in
their areas because of its impact on environment and public health. Solid
wastes are hazardous to numan health. Diseases such as dysentery,
diarrhoea, plague, malaria and numerous others are the result of the
indiscriminate dumping of wastes.
Cleaning of Pustbins: 76.5% of the respondents of the developed
and under-developed slums of Tirupati and Vijayawada explained that the
cleaning of the dustbins is vsrj irregular, whereas 23.5% are positwe for the
regular cleaning of dustbins (Fig. No. 6.9).
Where are the wastes dumped? : When the slums households are
posed by this question, 47% respondents of the developed and under-
developed slums of both the cities said that they dump on the streets, 45%
into the pits and the remaining 8% in the dustbins. It is observed that burning
of waste is still practiced in some of the slums. They pointed out that while
transporting waste is not covered with nets causing spillage and in majority of
the places waste is transported openly without any cover (Fig. No. 6.9).
Composting of wastes in the pits: It is evident from the survey
that 52% of the slum dwellers gave the response of compositing wastes in the
pits within the slum, 48% respondents said that waste is composted away
from the slum in the developed and under-developed slums of Tirupati and
Vijayawada.
Landfill: About 51.5% respondents indicated that landfill is taking
place within the slum and 48.5% respondents said that landfill is outside the
slum in both the cities of developed and under-developed slums, where the
Kutcha roads of the slums are renovated by this landfill but still get damaged
due to rains and pressure on them. The road surfaces are not good and there
are water logging pits.
The results obtained from the application of X2 on the above factors
reveal that highly significant association beMeen different regions and
disposal of Garbage and solid waste of the total sampled households in
Tirupati and V~jayawada Slums with reference to quantity of wastes generated
in the slum in kgs, cleaning of dustbins, the wastes dumped, composting of
waste in the pits anu landfill. The corresponding X2 value is highly significant
at 0.01 levels (136.6, 21.443, 47.059, 87.981, and 90.061 respectively).
Table 6.27.4: Air and Sound Pollution of the total sampled household in Tirupati
I I
Developed slurn of T~rupat~ l-
1 otal t x2 / (5 00) l ( 2 l 00) l(27 5&4200] 13 50 (61 00) 1 (14 00) 1 (25 0 4 '
25 923 NS 41 362** -- - - 1 -- Source. Based on Fleld Survey (2012-2013) Note: parenthesis indicates percentages b the total 200 households "Significant at 0.01 levels. NS Not slgniflcant at 0.05 levels
C
Air and Sound Pollution of the total sampled household in Tirupati and Vijayawada Slums - 2012
I Vsh~clea I Faclones I othen
Sound Pdlutmn I - - -- --
B1Dmbpd alums of T l ~ p d l BUndar dav*bpad Bhmr of TlNprtl L D w a l o M m F n d .Uncler d.v*opa_ gtnlLnlLo!%L.Caj
Air Pollution: The respondents of the slum households indicated
that air pollution is due to transport Lorries, trains, buses, domestic and
factories. In Tirupati developed and under-developed slums factories are not
playing a major role in the air pollution as most of the medium and large scale
industries are concentrated away from the city. But 43% of the respondents
are unhappy towards air pollution in both the cities of developed and under-
developed slums their count being domestic (includes indoor and outdoor
pollution), 27.5% respondent said that due to buses, 21% of them indicated
trains, 5% households said that Lomes are responsible for air pollution and
3.5% respondents said that air pollution is due to factories (in Vijayawada).
Industrial pollution is not recorded in Tirupati city (Fig. No. 6.10).
The household views on air pollution are that the automobiles are
increasing day by day and have become a cause of air pollution and
degradation of the environment. It becomes clear from the above analysis that
the problem of air pollution is increasing with the growth and expansion of
industries (Vijayawada) and automobiles.
The slum dwellers are subjected to bronchitis, asthma and lung
cancer which are caused due to exposure to polluted air. It is found that the
local weather conditions are highly susceptible to air pollution.
Sound Pollution: In both the cites of developed and under-
developed slums the man reasons charted by the households for sound
pollution are vehicles, factories (mainly small scale industries like metal
making, vessel polishing etc.,) public address system, advertisements and
others which include quarrelling, hawking, children playing etc., In the
developed slums of Tirupati 15.5% indicated the sound pollution is due to
vehicles and 9.5% of the respondents indicated the pollution is because of
others. In the developed slum of Vijayawada the response of the dwellers
about 13% said that noise pollution is caused by vehicles, 8.5% said that due
to factories and 3.5% responded towards others. In the under developed
slums of Tirupati, 16.5% of the respondent indicated vehicles are responsible
for the pollution and 8.5% responded towards other factors. In the under
developed slums of Vijayawada, about 16% are positive towards vehicular
sound pollution, 5.5% towards factories and 3.5% due to others(Fig. No.6.10).
The perception of slum dwellers regarding noise pollution mainly
comes from transport. The number of road vehicles, particularly the diesel
engine vehicles has increased the level of noise enormously. Music has also
become noisy and the electronic medium and instruments have further
developed it's intensity.
In these areas it is observed that during social and religious
functions, marriages and other gatherings, including political meetings the use
of high volume loudspeakers has become a common feature or noise
pollution irritating the public.
Thus the most notable effect of noise pollution is on hear~ng. Noises
produce irritab~lity and a feeling of fatigue and may reduce worker's efticiency
and are one of the major causes of stress and anxiety wh1r.h is evident
through their responses.
The results obtained from the application of XZ reveals that there is
no significant association betweell different regions and air pollution. The
corresponding XZ value is not significant at 0.05 levels. The sound pollution
corresponding XZ value is 41.362 which are highly significant at 0.01 levels.
Table 6.27.5: Reasons for entering the slum by the migrants and others and Problems of slums of the total sampled households in Tirupati and
--A ---
Source: Based on the Field Survey (2012-13) Note parenthes~s indicates percentages to the total 200 sampled households "S~gnlficant at 0.01 levels *S~gnificant at 0 05 levels
Reasons for entering the slums: On survey, it is identified that the
reasons for entering the slums are rural poverty, Landlessness, Economic
problem, Irregular work, Unemployment and Displacement. Nearly 31% of the
respondents surveyed, reported that the economic problem is the main cause
for entering the slum. The remaining 25.5% is due to unemployment, 20.5%
irregular work, 18% landlessness, 3.5% rural Poverty and 1.5% displacement
are reported as the main cause for entering the slums in both the cities of
developed and underdeveloped slums (Fig. No. 6.1 1).
J
Reasons for entering the slum by migrants and others and Problems of slums of the total sampled households In Tinrpati and Yuayawada - 2012
Problems of Slums
F,- .,- .. A.
Problems of Slums: While nearly 31.5% of respondents in the
developed and underdeveloped slums of both the cities are reported no
adequate housing, the main problem, 30.5% of respondent reported the
problem of lack of drinking water, 16% responded against no sanitary
environment, 15% reported no clean drinking water and the remaining 7%
responded on no garbage disposal (Fig. No. 6.1 1 ).
Their perception is that the problems are due to inefficient working of
the municipal corporations where they are not even providing the basic
amenities thereby causirrg their livelihood tough. They felt that the problems
like lack or unclean drinking water, unclean sanitary environment and non-
disposal of garbage are the main reasons for the incidence of d~seases where
the slum dwellers are victim for all the unpleasant happenings which is due to
municipal corporation negligence.
I! is observed from the results that there is a significant association
between different reglons and reasons for entering the slum and problems of
urban s l ~ ~ m s of the total sampled households in Tirupati and Vijayawada. With
reference to the reasons for entering the slums, the XZ value is given by
49.483 which are highly significant at 0.01 levels and for the problems of
urban slums the XZ value is giver: by 23.187* which are significant at 0.05
levels.
Table No. 6.27.6: Chronic and Common Diseases (Season-wise) of the
Source: Based on the Field Survey (2012-2013) Note: parenthesis indicates psrcentagas to the total 200 sampled households ""Significant at 0.01 levels .
Chronic and Common Diseases (Seasonwise) of the total sampled '
households in Tirupati and Vijayawada Slums - 2012
1 Summer 1 Winter 1 Rs~ny 1 Spnng I
Chronic Diseases: The diseases reported by the slum dwellers are
diarrhoea, chicken guinea, viral fever, jaundice, malaria, typhoid, chicken pox,
tuberculosis, others (common cold, cough). Among these diseases, most
prevalent disease in the developed and under-developed slums of Tirupati
and Vjayawada are malaria due to stagnant of drainage where 24% of the
respondents reported this disease. Whereas 14.5% chicken pox and others,
15.5% jaundice mainly due to unclean water, 13.5% viral fever, 7.5% typhoid,
5.5% diarrhoea and 0.5% tuberculosis are reported. They also reported that
due to lack of medicai facilities w~thin the slum and poverty oftenly causes
more death who are subjected to diseases (Fig. No. 6.12).
' Common diseases (season-wise): 51% of the respondents
indicated incidence of diseases during rainy season, 36% during summer,
12.5% in winter and 0.5% during spring season in the developed and under-
developed slums of Tirupati and Vijayawada (Fly. No 6.1 2).
From the results obtained from the application of Xqest, that there is
significant associatiori between different regions and diseases with reference
to chronic and season-wise comrnori diseases, the corresponding X2 value is
56.136 and 26.907 which are highly significant at 0.01 levels.
Table No. 6.27.7: Social Infrastructure of the sampled households in
source. Based on the Fleld Survey (2012-2013) Note: parenthesis indicates percentages to the total 200 sampled householdb "Significant at 0.01 levels "Significant at 0.05 levels NS Not significant at 0.05 levels
I Social lnfrastnrctunr of the sampled households in Tinrpati and Vijayawada slums - 2012
Drinking water: 78.5% of the respondents from the survey
depended on the public taps, 10.5O/0 have their own private taps, 1%
depended on the private well and 0.5% on the public wells in the developed
and under-developed slums of Tirupati and Vijayawada (Fig. No. 6.1 3).
Discussion with the slum dwellers revealed that with the rapid pace
of the city growth and expansion, increase in density of populatior~ has
become insufficient to meet the present demand of drinking water. Frequent
power failures particularly during summer dislocates the water supply
distribution system which mainly depends on power both for supplying water
from the source to the city and to distribution areas within the city. It is also
observed that leakage of water due to corroded encrustation inside the pipes
further reduces the load carrying capacity. Er~try of sewagelpolluted water into
the water supply systern in the lo~ation of leakage near the crossing of the
water lines contaminates the uvater causing many diseases. Thus the slum
dwellers used to give frequent complaints of insufficienffintermittentlalternate
days supply and contamination to the munrcipal corporation and in their view
there is no use of these complaints.
Electrification: It is evident from the survey that most of the slums
are electrified. About 86.5% respondents of the developed and under-
developed slums of both the cities said that they have electrici!~ facility and
the remaining 13.5% reported that they are in dark. From the survey it is
found that especially in Vijayawada frequent power supply during summer is a
great problem for the people.
Availability of Health Centres: In the developed slums of Tirupati
and Vijayawada, 8.5% and 5.5% reported that they have the facility of mid-
wifelPHC (Primary Health Centre), 6% and 5% reported that they depend on
private hospitallclinic, 10.5% and 9.5% respondents said that RMP (Rural
Medical Practitioner) are available, whereas in under-developed slums of
Tirupati and Vijayawada 2% and 10% reported of having mid-WifelPHC, and
23% and 15% reported that they are not access to any medical facilities within
the slum. But health services are acute necessary in all the slums
(Fig. No.6.13).
Availability of Schools: Around 41.5% respondents of the
developed and under-developed slums said that the slums are possessing
Anganwadi centres, 21 % responded that they have primary schools, 4% said
about the presence of upper primary and 3% responded in having High
schools. Whereas majority of the under-developed slums lacks availability of
schools which was stated by the slum dwellers of nearly 30.5% (Fig. No.
6.13).
The slum dwellers said that for high school education their children
are facing more difficulty to attend the schools which are not easily accessible
in their localities.
It is observed from the results obtained, there is a significant
association between different regions and social infrastructure of the sampled
households In Tirupati and V~jayawada slum with reference to electrification
and availability of schools. The X' value is given by 35.410 and 101.10 which
are highly significant at 0.01 levels. With reference to drinking water, there is
no significant association where the corresponding X2 value is 13.826 and not
significant at 0.05 levels. With reference to the availability of health centres,
the X2 value is given by 133.00 and there is a significant association at 0.05
levels.
The study denotes that the slums of Tirupati and Vijayawada have
varying nature of morphological and demographic characteristics influencing
on the socio-economic conditiorls of slum dwellers and vary from one
category to another depending upon the functional and ecological system of
the localities. The data compiled reveals that the environmental problems are
prevailing commonly both in the developed and under-developed slums.
These problems between two areas are not significant at 0.05 levels
experiencing, inadequate water availability both in quality and quantity,
depletion of ground water table, lack of sanitation or toilet facility,
indiscriminate disposal of waste water, erratic electricity supply, unplanned
growth of residential areas, deteriorating urban air quality, inadequate solid
waste disposal and management, etc.,
The comparative study of Tirupati, ("the city of Vatican") and
Vijayawada, ("the city on fast track"), are highly significant at 0.01 levels,
where majority of the parameters taken for the study are at different levels.
Tirupati slums are having better amenities compared to Vijayawada, which
was recorded low quality in most of the parameters. Though Vijayawada is a
contemporary metropolitan city today but environmentally, socially and
economically unsustainable with the problems of infrastructure. The analysis
shows that the peripheral growth plays a significant role in the growth of city
through urban sprawl, the haphazard and arbitrary development of these
fringe areas damage the rural areas in many ways, and thus environmental
problems are erupted on a countable scale in Vijayawada than in Tirupati
which is having less population as against Vijayawada but because of its
special functions it was made as corporation. As per 2011 census it has
around 5.00 lakh population which is one of the norms to become corporation.
Added advantage is that Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanam is working together
with the co-operation and government wings in sharing, caring and shaping
the sustainable city and improving the quality of life of people living and
working. This is the gift of Tirupati and lapse to Vijayawada.
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