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TRANSCRIPT
Chapter 5
Methods, Material and Techniques
Before the invention of paper man's record were carved on stone,
metal and wood, inscribed on clay tablets or written. After the invention of
paper, it has widely been used for writing purposes. Probably no other
commodity has had a greater impact upon the mankind in general and
specially on the development of world commerce than paper. It played an
important role in both ancient and contemporary civilization. Various materials
which were very near to the dwelling units of our ancestors were explored by
them and, therefore, studied their usefulness as a writing material. Invention
of iron and the advancement in its metallurgy brought implements for cutting
trees and removal of their bark.
STONE
Stone is probably the first material since used in ancient times upon
which epitaphs, characters and letters were engraved. In India some
inscription dated back 4'^ B.C. are used. The Egyptian oblique and Cleopatra
needle, 70 feet high, central park of New York these days. Bricks: The earliest
inscription on brick (3000 B.C.) exists at Chaldeans in Babylon. The bricks or
the clay tablets were also used in Chandra Gupta period from 3̂ ^ B.C.
onward. From the 9*̂ century B.C. onward, the wood was introduced for
writing upon. The slabs of wood wee coated with wax, chalk or plaster. Sheets
of these metals were used for preserving treatise, laws and articles of
common good. These metals were used from 4*̂ A.D. onwards. Since ancient
times all over the world, leaves were used for writing purposes. The Roman
used olive tree leaves for writing purpose in 23-79 A.D. The palm leaves very
much used in India and Ceylon.
BIRCH BARK
Bhojapatra (Betula Utilis) a plant product was one of the most popular
materials used for writing purpose in ancient India, before the invention of
paper. The naturally occurring, inner bark of this tree was used for writing.
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There are four varieties of birch bark available e.g. one is yellow birch that is
called Betula Luta that is mostly grown in New England to Georgia, and
second is Black birch that is called Betula Lenta restricted distribution, and
third is white birch or paper birch that is called Betula Payrifera north eastern
US across Canada and forth is Himalayan Silver birch that is called Betula
utilis in Himalayas. It is slowly dried, oil is applied 6n the surface, and
polishing is done by rubbing with a polishing stone to make it smooth. The
sheets are then cut according to the required size. It peels off in thin layers
and is flexible like paper consisting of cellulose and lignin with natural gums
and essential oils.
Inner bark is used for writing purposes and its lignified tissue
constitutes 20.3% of the whole and it's known as sclerenchymatous tissue. It
can take up ink as in paper. It contains birch oil which has Methyl salicylate
acting as a preservative. It imparts a fragrant odor and makes it durable. In
Russia books bound in Russian leather do not become moldy and prevent
moldiness in books bound in leathers which come in contact with it. In India,
holes are pierced in the center of the birch bark sheet for a cord to pass
through it to keep them together before wrapping them between two wooden
covers. Insect repellent is an important property of birch bark. Fungus cannot
attack the birch bark easily. In spite of that, aging affects it. In many old
houses in Himalayan reign of Uttarakhand we find religious books written in
Prakrit, Pali and old Sanskrit languages. It was mainly used in his northern
India due to its easy availability. The main attempt of the Conservation
Scientists in India has been to understand the material of the birch bark after
necessary scientific study of D.G. Suryawanshi of NRLC for his Ph. D under
the guidance of Dr. O.P. Agrawal, so that the decay aspect could be analyzed
to know the possible cause of their decay. I was outside examiner for his
thesis. The birch bark is composed of the inner bark of the tree birch (Betula
utilis) which when studied in detail comprise of several thin layers.
These is a natural adhesive in between the layers initially which looses
the adhesion power with time of sticking the sheets together, resulting in
brittleness and consequent loss of physical strength due to aging and
handling. Birch-bark (bhogi-patra or bhurja-patra) was one of the main
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materials used in India for writing since second and third century A.D. It is in
fragments that describe Dhammapada and is written with black ink in Kharosti
scrip. Birch- bark is composed of several layers, each of which is very thin
almost like a tissue - paper. It normally has a very light streak of brown color
on one side and brownish white on the other. The layers are joined together
by a natural gum and woody knots and streaks which are composite part of
the bark. It becomes weak and fragile making them difficult to handle since
they loose their flexibility.
PALM LEAVES
Palm leaves were one of the main supports used for writing
manuscripts particularly in south and south - East Asian countries including
India. Nepal, Sri Lanka, Burma and Indonesia etc. its use was very popular
during 17**̂ -20"̂ century A. D. It is reported that palm leaf was being used
liberally for writing purposes and we get palm leaf manuscripts till 11'*^ - 12*̂
century but only very few examples have survived due to the adverse climatic
conditions in this part of the world. There are many varieties of leaves of the
Palm tree. Which are used for the writing purpose, Sri Tal (coryphe
umbraculifere) and Tadd Palmyra palm (borassus flabellifer). Of these the
former Sri Talam given leaves that are smooth and supple. The elasticity and
flexibility of the leaves allow them to be bent to a considerable extent. The tad
leaves on the other hand are thick, hard and non-elastic. They have a
tendency to break easily. There is a lot of different in their quality.
These were two different methods of writing on palm leaves. Tad
leaves are cut, trimmed to size and treated with lime water. On drying were
oiled with gingili oil and were written with a pointed style made of iron to incise
letters and illustrations into the body of the leaves. The leaves were then
rubbed with lamp black or charcoal powder or carbon black. Line drawings
were incised with a pointed stylus and smeared with charcoal. Some time the
sheets are stitched edge to edge together to get the required size. The other
method to write on Sri Tala is the use of pen and ink to write, illustrations,
monochrome as well as polychrome, were done with a brush as in case of a
painting. For this process, first an outline was drawn with black ink and then
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the paints are filled in on a ground as in case of a miniature which was laid
earlier.
SANCHI-PAT
Sanchi-pat is made from the bark of the Agar or Aloe tree (Acquilaria
agallocha) and is the most common carriers for manuscripts of Assam. Tula-
pat is mostly made by atoms and others of Shan extraction. Tangible aspect
says it is a plant product so the knowledge of science to be utilized to
preserve them was there even in 7^^ cent. A. D. \niang\b\e aspect says of their
worship as EK Sania 'devotion of solo almighty' Lord Vishnu or Krishna. Lord
Krishna to be worshiped through Nam Prasanga or fourteen prayers instead
of a statue in the shrine. Though manuscript tradition prevailed in Assam
since quite an earlier age, it attainted its zenith from 15*"̂ cent. A.D. onwards
during neo-Vaisnavite movement under Srimanta Sankardeva and his disciple
Madhadev started this cult.
It has been examine a large number of these manuscripts stored in the
Vaisnavite Satras resembling Buddhist Monasteries, where these are
worshiped in place of an image. Lord Krishna, unlike in Hindu temples, in
other parts of India, where idol is worshiped but in these Satras Puthi of
Bhagwat is kept in the Centrum sanctorum for worship. The Satras are still the
living cultural centers with regular activities including music, dance, drama
and total learning. These are the centers of learning, hearing, Kirtan and
Nama Sranwan in the prayer hall within the premises of a Satra. Majuli is the
largest river island in the world in Brahmaputra which contains 66 Satras of
which Auni Satra, is the largest and the oldest. Culturally rich Majuli has a rich
tradition of Assam and has a unique traditional technique of making Sanchi
Pat manuscripts. It is on the River Brahma-Putra, which means son the only
male river in India where as most of the other rivers in India are female.
Agar bark (Aquilaria agallacha) Sanch-Pat or Hansi Pat which consists
of cellulose and lignin. It absorbs ink just like Sri Tala. Sheets are dried for
many days before curing, seasoning and polishing. This is followed by
treatment with Orpiment to make them immune from insects and rubbing them
with a conch shell to make it smooth. Painting is done by using both organic
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and inorganic colors. Carbon as well as iron gall ink are used as per
requirement of the manuscript besides a special ink called 'Sanchi Mahi'.
Palm leaf and Tengna, a local plant from Manipur, are also lignified
cellulose, whose leaves resemble palm leaves and were also used for writing
manuscripts in Manipur. These are kept in a kitchen and smoking helps in
their preservation. It contains essential oils also. Color are mostly organic,
besides lac, soot and 'Uti Machi' a local name. Writings have a glaze/shine. It
seems to have been in a way influenced by the neighboring country Myanmar
(Burma) and at times by China as well. Later after the advent of paper,
Manipur also started making paper by hand.
PAPER
(a) Ancient Paper
The Sialkot paper has been largely used for the illustrated handwritten
Pahari manuscripts. The writing and illustrations were done on a single page
only. Wherever there was a need for illustrations or paintings, space was left
there. Many artists were involved in creation, illustrations and paintings that
were included in the handwritten illustrated manuscripts.
The credit for the invention of paper goes to a Chinese, Ts'si Lun in
105 A.D. some scholars say that paper was first made in India as there is a
reference of paper making in India in 'Indica' authored by Niorchus, a
representative of Alexander the great, in Punjab, around 327 B.C..
Megasthenes, in the court of Chandragupta Maurya in 306 B.C. had also
mentioned that Indian people used paper in small scale as 'Kagad' or 'Kadgal'
before the Chinese. This aspect needs further study to come to some
conclusive fact. Before invention of paper Chinese used wood, bamboo strips
and silk, etc. for writing purposes as they used these materials continuously
for many centuries. An account of making various kinds of paper would be
discussed later keeping its importance in mind.
According to a rough estimate there are many lakhs of manuscripts in
Sanskrit, Prakrit, Pali and many other south Indian languages from the various
parts of the country. It is also a fact that a large number of Indian ancient
manuscripts are now in countries abroad. Chinese ink was being made by
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grinding of soot in water and glue. Today paper is the main material used for
writing but many scholars abroad say it's origin is not in India. In India,
however, the technique of paper making was acquired as early as 327 B. C.
In the accidental origin paper was made from cotton and linen rags or mixture
of these fibers. But the production was so little that it became difficult for the
paper makers to cope with the growing demand of the 18'̂ century.
Paper word derives its origin from the world 'Papyrus' (earlier
mentioned). The earliest evidence of papyri has been dated to 3500 B. C.
Papyrus existed as the main civilized writing material at least about 4000 year
back. The history of the development of paper is interesting and more so
because some of its basic steps in its processing have not yet changed.
Parchment the second source of writing purpose was introduced in or about
170 B. C. It was recognized as a substitute of papyrus. Parchment had the
advantage of being more durable than Papyrus, Egyptian ink was reported to
have been prepared by mixing carbon black mixed with oil to protect it from
the relatively damp Mediterranean climate.
According to Forbes, during the early middle ages in Europe, the best
parchment was made from the skin of unborn lambs or claves. Later on
bamboo strips were substituted with woven materials. They made scroll of
woven textiles to write upon. But the textile material suffered heavy losses
due to unnecessary wastage taking place in the scrolling process. In due
course of time, however, they thought over to utilize this waste, by beating the
discarded cloth and separating them into fiber form. This fibrous material after
squeezing the extra water was transformed into sheets. The sheet so
prepared was dried and used for writing purpose. The Chinese nationals kept
to themselves the secret of the art of paper making for almost five centuries
then, to exercise a monopoly over the art.
After this the Arabs got this art of paper making when they repelled the
invasion on Samarkand. Arab generals persuaded the invaders and took
some Chinese prisoners. From these prisoners Arabians learnt to make
paper. Later on the art of paper making was brought to Japan by a Buddhist
monk Dokyo in 610 A.D. through Korea, so this art spread to central Asia and
Europe. Spain manufactured first paper in 1055 A.D. the route of transmission
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of paper making technique is described in various Chinese version as stated
above.
(b) Modern Paper
Drawing paper is strong; well-sized paper, is used for making drawing
formerly it used to be made from rages but today it is usually made from
chemically refined pulp to which rags (now usually textile scraps) are
sometimes added; Glazed paper can be compressed and glazed by pressure
between the rollers if a calendar according to the degree of gloss glazed
paper is termed hot pressed or not hot pressed the latter is known as cold
pressed in America paper that has not been glazed is known as rough.
Impregnated paper is dipped into solutions of impregnation agents in order to
endow it with certain properties: wax paper is waterproof; silicone paper is
hydrophobic; there is paper that does not ignite easily, and paper that is
resistant to attack by micro-organisms.
Handmade paper is also known as_ vat paper that is to say paper
removed from the vat by hand a characteristic of handmade paper is the
deckle edge that forms along the inner edge with irregular edges is today
sometimes also called deckle-edged; deckle edges closely resembling those
of handmade paper can be made on the cylinder mould machine imitation
deckle edges made with irregularly serrated knives are barely distinguishable
from "genune" deckle edged. Deckle-edged paper is generally made from
constituents that ensure its high quality. In addition to having size added to its
pulp, it is usually surface-sized.
Works of Art on modern paper are such as Lithographs, Etching,
Engraving and Water color to mention a few. Lithograph is a print produced by
lithography which is an art or process of making a print using greasy ink or
Crayon on porous stone (Lime stone) or roller which has been treated to
accept in ink only where it is required for printing. Lithographic printing. Photo
lithography is called Litho print. It was introduced in Gemiany by Aloys
Senefalder in 1798. In it the person who draws it differs from who has printed
it. Etching consists of drawing with fine steel point or needle on a soot
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blackened metal plate which has been coated with a ground acid resisting
wax or varnish. The first dated etching is of 1513 A.D.
In other words it is a copy or representation produced by the process of
etching; an impression from an etched plate. An etching ground is prepared
with a protective substance with which a surface is coated preparatory to
etching. Here also the person who has drawn it would differ from the one who
has engraved it. From 16'̂ century. AD onwards, the Portugusse, Duch,
English, Danish and French established trading settlements etc. around
coastal India important of which were Madras (Chennai), Bombay (Mumbai)
and Calcutta (Kolkata). Professional portrait and landscape painters as well
as engravers began to arrive with permission from the East India company
from 1760 A.D. onwards. The heyday of artistic activity among British artists in
India is considered with the golden age of engraving and lithography in the
18"" and 19'̂ cent.
Engravings drawn and engraved by Daniell brothers (Thomas and
Williams), Kolkata are predominantly available in various collections of
institutions like the Victoria Memorial Hall, Kolkata or Fort Saint George
Bhavan which depict India of that period artistically are very important in the
Indian history of that period. These prints have been given the tonal gradation
of colors by the technique of 'aquatints'. The aquatints as described by
Sutton, were used to be done by drawing on wax coated copper plates and
then by repeated beatings of the copper plate. Oil painting by the use of a
powdered resin and some acid resistant substance. These were then printed,
binding the pigments by use of processed linseed oil, to better drying
substance. A water color is a painting done in water soluble medium making
the colors to be absorbed by paper support and the point layer is very thin as
compared to miniature.
MANUFACTURE OF PAPER AND ITS DEMAND
Gradually paper manufactures took to advertising for collecting rags in
exchange of story books, candles, rings etc. The paper manufactures started
selling the paper by weight. They put loading material was introduced in
paper. Various raw materials such as bamboo, jute, flax were used for making
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paper. Paper was also produced from water silk cocoons; since it cracks it
was not used by painters. The various centers of paper manufacture, by the
16*̂ century, started producing excellent paper of thick and durable variety
capable of being highly burnished and decorated.
The best paper however, came from Kalpi (U.P.) and was
manufactured from the old nets of fisherman and hence called Mahajala.
Such a paper had always been white in color; flax obtained from finishing nets
was perfectly bleached in water. Till the 18'*̂ century the production centers
and methods of manufacturing paper for Muslims and Hindu manuscripts
were different, Hindu paper making was apparently much more localized and
the sheets of paper produced were much smaller in size, normally to the size
of a folio required for a manuscript. The larger sheets were favored in the
Muslims centers and were cut into required sizes. Paper making was
considered to be one of the premier cottage industries before the
commencement of the British rule in India.
Asrarul-khat a 17"̂ century text in the collection of the National
Museum, New Delhi describes various types of papers being manufactured in
India. The first paper factory was started in Bengal in the latter half of 18"̂
century AD by a Christian missionary. The hundred years that followed never
saw the foundation of another such industry. It was only in 1867 A.D. that a
real beginning was made and a modern paper mill was established at Bali
near Kolkata in Bengal. Paper played a very important role in our civilized
society. By the 16*̂ century many centers of paper manufacture came to be
established. For this process the chief raw materials used for the manufacture
of paper were bamboo, jute, flax, cotton, old discarded fishing nets, it was
very white because of the flax obtained from it was perfectly bleached.
Paper is a substance made in the form of sheets or leaves from rages,
straw, bark, wood or other fibrous material for various use. Experto grass was
used in 1861 A.D. Chemical and mechanical wood pulp were used in 1880
A.D. and 1885 A.D. A sheet of paper consists chiefly of vegetable fibers of
different lengths and sizes twisted and interlaced with each other and finally
squeezed together to make a sheet or web with a suitable surface for writing
or printing. Paper is an inter-laced web of fibers formed by the action of tiling
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from water suspension which is dried and finished. At present, it is an
important means of transmission of thoughts through bool<s, manuscripts,
journals and newspapers. Paper requires a specialized knowledge as per its
manufacturer. The quality and stability of paper is governed in the first
instance by the raw materials from which it is made and different types of
cellulose fibers used for paper which consists of a felted mat of natural fibers,
and although it might contain sizes, fillers and other additives most of its
mechanical strength originates from the physical interlocking of these
irregularly surfaced fibers. The strength of paper is detemnined not so much
by the strength of the fibers themselves but by the strength possessed by the
linkage will lead directly to a decrease in its durability. Length and
arrangement of linear chain of cellulose molecule are discussed later.
The raw material for the paper making are numerous in the modern
world. Before 19'̂ ^ century paper making cellulose fibers came from cotton
rags, grasses, bamboo, esparto, cereal streams etc. Bast fibers from flax,
hemp, jute etc. and seed hairs from cotton were there, since AD 1800. Forest
tree trunks were the major sources fro cellulose fibers. For improving upon the
quality of paper surface which is used today for printing and writing, sizing and
loading are two important steps in paper manufacture. Loading materials are
inorganic such as china clay, calcium carbonate, talc, asbestos, gypsum,
titanium dioxide etc. Sizing materials are both inorganic and organic such as
starch, casein, gelatin, rosin and sodium silicate.
INKS IN INDIA
Most people, when they look at manuscripts, hardly give a moment's
thought to the type of ink that is used to write or illustrate it. However, ink is
one the most important elements of a manuscript and deserves due
consideration.
While it is now a common perception to associate ink only with writing,
it is actually defined as a liquid containing various pigments and/or dyes used
for coloring a surface to render either an image or some text. From a technical
aspect, for an ink to fulfill its function it must have certain basic components: a
coloring matter (pigments which color the ink), a solvent (a medium in which
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the pigment is dissolved or dispersed), a binding agent (which holds the
particles of pigment together and binds it to the support) and a mordant (a
chemical substance which fixes the ink to the support and which may replace
the binding agent). These are fixed components irrespective of whether there
also exist within it other elements such as thickeners, fragrances, antiseptics,
etc.
The origin of ink follows the invention of writing when the practice of art
had advanced beyond the age of stone inscriptions/clay tablet and
necessitated the use of some material for marking the reed and the use of
brushes. It was not difficult to prepare black/colored mixtures for this purpose.
With the advent of thee mixtures, forty centuries or more ago, we may ink the
genesis of ink. Therefore, even before the birth of Christ, making colored
mixtures from inorganic substances found in the earth and different types of
stones was prevalent in India and elsewhere.
If we look closer into the history of ink, we find that blue inks were
potentially possible for many years before writing inks of that color actually
appear to be used. Primitively prepared for ritualistic purposes and for a
continuing period of more than two thousand years, it was a simple mixture of
powdered charcoal or soot with water, to which gum was sometimes added.
Lampblack was first made by the burning of oil, tar or rosin, which was then
commingled with gum and honey and pressed into small wafers or cakes to
which water could be added when wanted for us. Charcoal made from the
young shoots of grape vines could be used in stick form for drawing or could
be ground fine to make ink. Mortars and pestles were used in the first step to
break up the large pieces. To grind the particles even finer, the pigment was
ground on a stone slab.
In Assam to create white color, chalk was in use for a long time. Lac
(sealing wax) was mixed with red and yellow pigments to produce a golden
color. This practice was known as "Lasoluwa". The red color of the
'Bhagavada Gita', which is preserved at Rampur village in Kamrup, was
derived from Puroi (a kind of reddish ripe seed, having a violet color).
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In India some of the writing materials and their sources are described
here which speak of the wide variety of materials. Ink is one of the most
important elements of a manuscript and to be dealt in details. The origin of ink
followed the invention of the writing material when the practice of this art
which had advanced beyond the age of stone inscriptions, rock edicts, clay
tablets and wooden plaques etc. besides the reed pen "Kalam" and brushes.
We may, therefore, link the genesis of ink to 4000 years back from now i. e.
well before the birth of Christ. It might have been not very difficult to make
black/colored mixtures for this purpose which came from plants or inorganic
substances from the earth.
First: Carbon Inks
Carbon based inks are among the oldest of inks and wee perhaps the
first to be used about 2000 years back and wee made from charcoal powder
mixed with water and gum. These were obtained by a process of semi-
combustion of organic materials, which were then dispersed in water. Carbon
inks are usually made from charcoal soot suspended in a glue or gum
medium. In fact most of the quality inks were made from lamp black. The color
varied from dark brown to blue black. Carbon based inks were used in ancient
Egypt, china and India. It is permanent and has no adverse effect on the
material written upon. Dating of ink can be done on the basis that iron gall ink
was first used in the 12''' century A. D. Indian ink and carbon ink were being
used earlier than century in India.
Second: India Ink
It is also called as China ink or formerly known by the ancients and
classical and later time's Indian ink. This was obtained from soot produced by
the smoke of pine and the oil in lamps, mixed with the gelatin of ass's skin
and musk to improve the odour of oil. This ink is easily washed away unless
bichromate of ammonium or potassium in minute quantities is added to it. If
the paper is exposed to sunlight for a sort time, gummy compound will be
rendered insoluble and can not be removed with any fluid, chemical or
othenwise. Metallo-acid inks are very common in manuscript and are
characterized by their color, obtained from a metal to which acid is added as a
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fixative. Abut 1200 years before the Christian era, the Chinese perfected this
method and invented 'Indian ink', ostensibly for blackening the surface of
raised hieroglyphics. This was obtained from soot produced by the smoke of
pines and the oil in lamps, mixed with isinglass of asses' skin and musk to
improve the odour of the oil. This ink is easily washed away unless
bichromate of ammonium or potassium in minute quantities is added to it.
Since it acts as paint, it also possesses great advantages for drawing
purposes and will give any degree of blackness according to the quantity of
water mixed with it.
Third: Iron gall Ink
Iron tannin ink replaced the carbon inks in the middle ages as the
general writing fluid because these were easier to handle. Iron gall ink is the
most important ink especially in the western history. It has been analyzed and
proved that Leonardo Da-Vinci wrote his notes using iron gal ink. To make
iron gal ink, galls from oak trees were crushed to obtain Gallo Tanic acid and
finally mixed with water to form Gallic acid. As the ink is prepared by the
reaction of iron with gall solution, it is known as iron gall link. For writing
purpose carbon ink as well as tannate ink was used. When freshly made, the
ink has very little color and cannot be used, but with time, oxidation takes
place and gradually a blue-black color develops. The oxidation of ink
continues even after it has been used to write on paper and the ink fixes itself
permanently on paper. This oxidation of iron-gall ink leads to the formation of
acid. The acid is mixed with hydrochloric acid to the ink to improve its flow but
has an adverse effect on paper. Often a dye, usually of blue color, is added to
the iron-gall ink which turns the initial blue writing to blue black on oxidation.
Forth: Sanchl-mahi
For writing on Sanchi Pat mention of a special kin of ink called Sanchi-
mahi was used. The ink used in Assam is of very quality and can resist very
UN favorable conditions without facing. It is also reported that the
characteristic of Assamese ink is it's tenacity to glossy and slippery surfaces.
Its durability has been proved by the old manuscripts whose ink has not faded
appreciably. The most commonly used ink in Assam is prepared from Silikha "
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Terminalia Citrina" mixed with bull's urine or blood of a locally available fish
that known as Kuchiya. Sometimes iron powder is also used to intensify the
ink. Inks and colors were prepared from various indigenous products. A
special kind of ink was prepared for writing by boiling burnt almond shells in
cow's urine till such times as the urine gets evaporated completely. This ink
was said to be indelible and is reported to be insoluble in water.
Inks and colors are also prepared from (a) Amalka "Phyeanthus
amblica", (b) Alandhu "Soot" Lamp Black, (c) Keharaj "a kind of dark green
creeper", (d) Lacquer, (e) gold "leaf or powder with gum of bhotera", (f)
Hengul, (g) Haital, (h) Khari-Mati and sap of earth worm was used as an
invisible ink.
As we have seen, the story of ink is a fascinating one, and for
conservationists a most important tool to understand in order to preserve the
heritage inked in the millions of manuscripts scattered across the world.
TECHNIQUES OF MAKING: MATERIALS SUITABLE FOR WRITING
To prepare Papyrus, as writing material, it is reported that the stem
was cut into longitudinal strips those form the center of the plant being the
broadest and made them suitable for use. The strips were laid side by side to
the required width, thus forming a layer across which another layer of short
strips were laid at right angles. The two layers thus woven formed a sheet
which was ten soaked in water. The sheet was finally hammered and dried in
the sun. Any roughness was leveled by polishing with ivory or a smooth shell
to roll.
The birth is a moderately sized, deciduous tree growing at a height of
about 4600m in the Himalayas. It was actually the inner bark of the tree which
was used for writing. The bark after being peeled off the tree was dried, oil
was then applied over it and it was polished. Finally it was cut to a suitable
size strips and kept between two wooden covers for protection. The written
was done on the bark with a very soft brush and Kalam using carbon ink.
Writing is made on the palm leaf with sharp metallic needle by
scratching/inscribing for convenience in reading carbon black (charcoal
powder) mixed with oil is applied on the surface for legibility. To prepare the
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palm leaves for writing they were first dried after boiling them for a few hours
and then these are dried again. When these are completely dry, they are
burnished with a stone or conch shell. The leaves are then cut to a required
size. According to customs prevailing in south India, fresh palm leaves were
dried in the shade and then gingili oil was applied over their surface to make
them smooth in some parts of south India, tender palm leaves were hung for
several days in the kitchen where smoke was emitted. Afterwards they were
cleaned and used for writing. This practice is also prevalent in Orissa and
some other eastern states of India. Some Orissa people apply turmeric paste
to them and the turmeric gives the leaves a light yellow color. Leaves are
dried completely in the sun and are kept under mud or silt of a pond for 10-15
days. Afterwards these are removed, cleaned and dried again in the sun for
some time. Finally a paste of turmeric is applied. Orissa use to boil the rough
and matured leaves in water for some time. This made the leave thin, soft and
then cleaned with soft cloth and kept alternately in cold and hot water.
People of Assam choose the bark (sheet) of the Agar tree. Sanchi-Pat
for these manuscripts because of its easy availability very near to the Satras
and thus having also associated with the religious sentiments of the devotees
dedicated to Lord Krishna. Tula-pat, where as was used for manuscripts and
also for making miniatures it is reported that a Tula pat folio was made by
stitching two sheets together or y folding a bigger and longer sheet and then
stitching them together. Some scholars still describe it to a paper made from
wood pulp. Perhaps a detailed scientific study would clarify the position. The
wood used has been reported as a specific variety of Mulberry "Bronsanettia
spp .
(a) Composition and Fiber Properties of IVIaterials
Cellulose comprises 60% to 80% of the total solid matter of wood. It is
mostly in the form of water insoluble fibers. Fibers from different sources have
different physical properties, length, width, wall thickness, cavity, diameter in
addition to this varying chemical composition, varying amount of main
constituents of wood cellulose, hemicelluloses, lignin and extractives. Rag
used for paper making consist almost of cellulose of various chain lengths. A
typical wood on the other hand might contain about 29% lignin, 43% cellulose,
136
27% other carbohydrate material and one percent extractives. These
constituents may vary.
The properties of paper depend upon the structure of fibers and the
other addition from which it is made; base of the fiber is mainly cellulose.
Cellulose is a linear polysaccharide, composed of glucose anhydride units
linked together end of end. The total number of glucose units that are joined
to form a cellulose molecule is termed "degree of polymerization". Cellulose is
in the form of bundles of molecules or fibrils within the fiber wall. It is logical to
believe that the structure and properties of paper and their variations can be
better understood by having a great knowledge of the properties and
interactions of the individual fibers. Investigations recognized the importance
of fiber dimensions to the properties of paper i.e. fiber length, width, wall
thickness, and ratio of fiber to width especially between softwood and hard
wood species. During recent years more attention has been given to the
mechanical properties of the individual fibers, such as tensile strength,
bonding strength, fiber flexibility and collapse and effect of these properties by
chemical and mechanical treatment.
(b) Suitability of Raw Material for paper making
Wood represents the most important renewable natural resources and
the annual growth is sufficient to satisfy many essential needs indefinitely into
the future, the major component of wood, cellulose is one of the most
abundant naturally occurring organic compounds, which is having a
indispensable for the field of paper making industries. Cellulose is 50% of the
woody structure of the plants. 10% of the dry weight of the leaves and over
98% of the cotton fibers. It is easily accessible, replenish able and easily
harvested and transported. It has a great affinity for water which facilitates
fibrous mixture get dry. It is naturally white; it is insoluble in water and neutral
organic solvents.
It is another term which refers in a loose way to a class of substances
rather than to a definite compounds. They may be regarded as complex
compounds. They are important constituting of the walls of the fiber cells, and
help to "cement" the fibers together. In the cooking condition the degradation
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of hemi cellulose always takes place. HemI cellulose is responsible for several
important properties of pulp fibers. It improves the flexibility of the fibers by
imbibing water.
(c) Structure of Paper
The carbohydrates are represented chiefly by the polysaccharides,
which account for roughly three fourths of the wood substance. Almost all the
carbohydrates in wood are composed of long polymeric chains of an hydro
sugar units and that is called polysaccharides. They include cellulose the
group of cold water insoluble non cellulose. Polysaccharides commonly
designated as hemicelluloses. Starch and peptic substances they form a
partially ordered structure. Lignin is distributed in the structure but is
concentrated particularly in the middle that forms lamella the typical
intercellular material.
Lignin is the principal constituent other than cellulose of plant materials
and which comprises up to 30% of the total plant product. Lignin is distributed
in the structure but is concentrated particularly in the middle lamella which
forms the typical intercellular material. In spite of several researches the
structure of lignin is not known completely. Lignin is the generic term for the
non crystalline complex, aromatic, components, believed to be predominantly
polymeric phenol propane type, containing a varying amount of methoxy
group liquids which contain minor amount of various aromatic acids. Lignin is
the 'glue' that holds the fibers of wood together and present to some extent in
the cell walls where it is associated with cellular structure. By means of
appropriate color reactions, lignin has been shown to be present in all
vascular plants. In mature plants, stems, roots, barks, leaves, fruit shells and
seed hairs are all lignified to varying degree. The lignified cellulose have been
found in the loosening of its lignin content as it bound to decay due to the
photochemical degradation which though more prone to decay due to the UV
rays which spreads due to the UV radiations a smaller portion of which
extends in the visible light portion of the spectrum in to the first few radiations
but does not reach up to the last radiation i.e. the red of the visible portion.
138
FABRICATION TECHNIQUES
Wood consists of cellulose, lignin and hemi cellulose (acting as a
binding material) waxes, resin and colored materials. The separations of
cellulose from the associated materials from wood can be achieved by
chemical or mechanical process.
1. Pulping process
Paper does not occur in nature as other writing materials. It has to be
processed from other materials such as cotton rags, woods, and grass etc.
which has to under go the processes described here under.
The pulping process is of three types: mechanical, chemical and semi
mechanical. It is made from either soft or hard wood most important
commercial processes are sulphite, sulphate and soda. These chemical
treatments dissolve most of the ligneous binding material and permits
separations of the cellulose fibers. The pulp is bleached to remove colored
materials and other impurities.
2. Sulphite Process
Pulp is prepared by cooking wood chips with solution counting calcium
bisulphate with an excess of free sulphurous acid. Other bases such as
sodium ammonium and magnesium are being substituted for calcium because
of improved product, ease in recovery of inorganic chemicals. Basically
sulphur dioxide in the presence of bisulphate salts combine with lignin to fomn
ligneous sulphonate which enters into solution and thus removed.
3. Alkaline Process
The chips are digested with a solution of caustic soda of about four
percent concentration and at the tem. of 170°C to 175°C for two hours. The
soda process has declined in importance with the growth of the sulphonate
pulp industry.
Employed exclusively for writing on palm leaves incising would be
more appropriate as a description the metal stylus has a along history in India.
The local names for it vary from region to region, the most commonly used
however being Kittalekhani or Lohakantaka. The fomner word seems to have
139
been used not only for a metal stylus but any hard, pencil-like instrument, as
different from a brush or reed pen. An early Shilpa text, Shilparatna, describes
the making of a Kittalekhani thus, for instance: 'At first some cow dung and
old powdered slag were to be mixed and pounded to a thick past with an
equal amount of water in a stone-mill. Now the paste was ready to be molded
into the shape of a pencil. It was wick shaped and was in different sizes (of
what translates into) two and three or four inches. It was used in drawing the
first sketches of birds, animals, deities, flowers etc. The same term continues
to be used in Orissa- where the tradition of writing/incising on palm leaves
flourishes till today however, for a metal stylus. The other term mentioned
above-Loha-Kantaka- leaves one in no doubt what it refers to, Loha reminding
one of iron or a similar metal, and, Kantaka, of its pointed nail-shaped end.
The palm leaf-weather of the Palmyra or tall pot variety-especially in
the southern region and in Orissa, is literally incised into with the Loha-
Kantaka, the leaf held firmly down with one hand, and the stylus, pressed
down, cutting into the surface of the leaf. After inscribing, or incising, the
leaves were usually smeared with carbon-based ink, and then cleaned and
smoothened with sand, leaving were usually smeared with carbon-based ink,
and then cleaned and smoothened with sand, leaving the ink in the incised
letters so as to make them clearly visible. One can still see the stylus in use,
the concentration on the face of the scribe as he goes about his task-for he is
performing tow demanding tasks at the same time: holding the leaf down with
force with one hand, and incising with the other, using varying degrees of
pressure-making for a very engaging study. It is of great interest at the same
time to see the variety of shapes in the styli that have come down. The length,
the weight, the material, the smoothness, the balance, must obviously have
been taken seriously into account while forging the instrument. In appearance,
the instruments range from the very plain and the functional to elaborate
ones, the finials at the top taking delightful shapes-a peacock's tail, the crown
of a tree, a jali-pattern. The familiar urge to innovate and the desire to play
with shapes of functional objects that one associates with Indian
craftsmanship, comes into play yet again. In all this, however, it is doubtful if
the essential functionality of the object was ever lost sight of.
140
The making of a manuscript involved a number of processes and the
use of different materials at different stages. Writing on manuscript required
different kinds of writing material, which depended on the method employed
and the material of the surface on which it had to be written. Various kinds of
ink made from indigenous natural products were used for writing on
manuscripts. Various kind of inkpots and ink-wells were used for storing inks.
Intricate techniques were employed in the making of these link pots, which
made them excellent places of art, apart from them functional use. Mostly,
brass was used in the making of these ink pots, which were molded into
different shapes and sizes. The shapes given to these ink pots varied from
square to round, to curvaceous and elongated ones.
Brass ink pot I, for instance, is octagonal with two compartments and
one pen stand inside. The compartments were meant to be used for different
purposes like storage and filtering of ink. It has a solid and fairly utilitarian look
about it, through with modest carved orbits around the shikhara or peak on
top of the lid.
Brass ink pot II is, on the other had an exquisite place of
craftsmanship. It is round with lotus leaf motifs carved around the neck, and
intricate oblique rings or malas wrapping the body of the vessel. The lid of the
inkpot has a screw-like coll carved on it to prevent the ink from spilling out.
There are three legs to give a stable support to the ink pot. The shape and
sized of the ink pots and ink-wells changed from region to region and reflected
local aesthetics.
Brass ink pot III, from Orissa in eastern India, is elongated, tapering
from the bottom to the top. The expanded base holds the ink while the cap
has the towering Shikhara form, resembling a tapering vertical arrangement of
Kalashas or round containers used to store liquids sin India. The entire
structure has neat engravings at every edge, giving a distinct artistic sheen.
The cap and the base have corresponding loops to hold the writing
instruments. Such varieties of ink pots reflect the variety of accessories
associated with the making of a manuscript.
141
Writing on manuscripts was done by different kinds of writing
instruments, which depended on the material of the surface to be written on.
On palm leaves metal stylus was used for incising words, and the words were
then filled up with carbon-based ink. Special cases were made for the storing
and safe keeping of these writing instruments and ink. These cases came in
delightful shapes and sizes. Apart from the ink pots we have just seen, there
are others, which were often crafted to serve dual or multiple functions, like an
ink pot cum pen-case or an inkpot cum pen-case cum drawing tool case. The
kind of material used was varied- pen cases made in brass intricately carved
with floral designs and those made of paper Mache, with different designs
again painted in an array of colors.
The brass pen case cum inkpot I is an example of fine craftsmanship
and testifies to an in-depth knowledge of metals. It is a circular brass bottle
with a round carved cap and a protruding pointed and long tip. This is joined
to a pen case by a chain. The pen-case is shaped as two round hollow
columns, in which pens can be safely put.
The 19'*̂ century brass Quiamdaan and pen-case II from Rajasthan is
another very interesting piece. It is oblong, brightly polished and plain from the
outside. Its Spartan outer cover is fully compensated for on the inside. A finely
carved brass screen is fitted on the inside of the cover for keeping pens and
other writing and drawing instruments. The box also has compartments made
for storing ink and other writing related material. This metal pen-case derives
its Cham from its apparent simplicity, yet has a distinctly multi-layered
aesthetic. The qalamdann, brass pen-case IV, is another example of a 20'*̂
century brass pen case from Western India. It is a very intricately carved
piece in the shape of a rectangular pipe with Jali-work.
Another material used in the making of these ink and pen cases was
Papier Mache. The art of paper-making was invented in China in the 2"^
century AD, from where it spread to Persia. It appears that in the 8"̂ century
some Chinese were taken prisoners by the Persians during a was between
China and Persia. These Chinese prisoners in Samarkand taught the art of
paper making to the local people by using waste material. From there, the art
spread to the rest of the world including India through merchants and traders.
142
In the 1700s and 1800s this technique became very popular and well
established in India. It is from this period that we find extravagantly lacquered
and ennbellished Paper Mache pen-holders and other items. Kashmir in
Northern India was an important centre of this art; its products were exported
to Europe during the 16'*̂ and 17"̂ centuries. The technique, however, did not
remain confined to one region but spread across the county including to the
south. The Paper Mache lacquer pen case III, from Tamil Nadu, is an
excellent example of the quality of work done by using this technique. This is
a temple pen case which is rectangular. It is painted yellowish cream on the
outside and has images of gods and goddesses in various poses. This gives it
a very religious character and sets it apart from the rest of the more secular
looking ones. On the inside it has floral designs painted dark red. It is divided
into a number of compartments and has a removable tray. The Paper Mache
and brass box for inkpots and pens V, from North India is also very beautifully
painted in different colors. The inside is red with floral designs in black. The
outside is painted vibrantly in a yellowish golden color and has images of
birds on it. The designs used show an Islamic influence. This piece stands out
because of the use of two kinds of materials in its making Paper Mache and
brass. The pen case on the inside has a delicately carved brass screen.
Wooden learning boards and slates served as writing surfaces fro
practicing alphabets and, for instance, calligraphy. He object displayed here is
a rectangular piece of wood, varnished by lacquer, giving it a simple shine. It
is bordered with floral patterns in oil paint; the summit of the board has
images of Lord Genesha and of Saraswati, the Goddess of learning.
A large corpus of manuscripts, in India and abroad, is illustrated, and
even the non-illustrated ones can claim an artistic edge due to the keen
calligraphy or the various illuminations that adorn the texts. Apart from styli or
pens used for the incisions or writings on a manuscript, tools for drawing are
equally crucial. In these too we see a wide range of objects differing due to
their purpose, characterized by keen craftsmanship. These tools come in a
variety of shapes and sizes, from very plain ones to highly elaborate and
decorative ones. The material used also varied from wood to metal. These
drawing tools, often highly specialized, designed specifically for detailing.
143
engraving or incising, are made of brass and iron respectively, the latter in
particular, accurately shaped and minutely carved. It probably served the
purpose of applying opaque paint to the sketches or the engravings.
The iron compass serves as one of the most necessary tools in the
making of a manuscript in India. This is because, as may be observed, large
corpuses of Indian manuscripts have geometric patterns-ellipses, circles,
squares, triangles or hexagons- on them, weather they are astrological
scrolls, mathematical texts, maps or even some paintings requiring
geometrical precision. The compass also has a fairly long history of usage in
India. This iron compass has a design that is not too detailed and is actually
pronounced, using bold relief; the object is extremely functional and yet
retains its aesthetic appeal.
Manuscript boxes, along with covers, wrappings et al were also one of
the means employed to keep manuscripts safe from ravages caused either by
climate or insects. The 19**̂ century manuscript box from western India is
rectangular, painted red, with floral designs on it. It is a wooden box with a
lacquer finish. It has a bright sheen because of the protective polish. Lacquer
is the sap of a tree and is applied to objects as a coating material because of
the lustrous sheen it imparts. It gives a highly durable finish and therefore
keeps the surface safe from wear and tear. At the same time, the surface can
be polished to a very high gloss making it look bright and beautiful.
144
Stylus Stylus II Stylus
Stylus I
Size: 24.5x5.6 cms
Accession No.: 94.21
Figure-5.1
Stylus II Stylus III
Size: 25 cm Size: 27.5 X5 cms
National Museum, New Delini
Accession No.: 94.29 Accession No.: 94.33
145
KFi^isg J^ayl
r ^ ^
Stylus IV Stylus V
Figure-5.2
Stylus IV Stylus V
Size: 18.7 cms Size: 19.5 cms
National Museum, New Delhi
Accession No. 94.31 Accession No. 94.32
146
Figure-5.3
Brass Inkpot I; Size: 9.6 X 12.9X 11.3 cms;
Weight; 1120 gms
Period: Early 20'^ century
Provenance: Western India
Collection: Sanskriti Museum of Everyday Art, new Delhi
Accession No.: WR-15
147
Figure-5.4
Brass Inkpot III
Size: 33 X 11.6 X14 cms;
Period: Early 20'^ century
Provenance : Eastern India
Collection: Sanskriti Museum of Everyday Art, New Delhi
Accession No. : WR-52
148
Figure-5.5
Brass Inkpot IV
Period: 20^̂ century
Provenance : Rajasthan
Collection: National Museum, New Delhi
Accession No. : 78. 701
149
Figure-5.6 Papier Mache Lacquer Pen-case III
Size: 30 X 11.6 X 9.2 cms; Weight: 500 gms Period: Early 18'^ century
Provenance: South India Collection: Sanskrit! Museum of Everyday Art, New Delhi
Accession No.: WR-41
Figure-5.7
Qalamdaan, Brass Pen-case IV
Size: 30 X 2.5 X 3 cms
Period : Early 20"" century
Provenance: Western India
Collection: Sanskrit! Museum of Every Art, New Delhi
Accession No. : WR-54
150
^ ' " ^ ^ B L ^
Figure-5.8
Papier Mache and Brass Box for inkpots and Pens V
Size: 7 x 30.3 x 7, 2 cms;
Weight: 500 gms
Period : Late t9*^ century
Provenance: Kashmir
Collection : Sanskriti Museum of everyday Art, New Delhi
Accession No.: WR-11
151
END NOTES
1. Goswamy B.N., The Word is Sacred, Sacred is tlie Word: the Indian
manuscript tradition.
2. National Museum, New Delhi
3. Manuscript Department, National Museum, New Delhi
4. Numismatics and Epigraphy, National Museum, New Delhi
5. Pre- Columbian Art, National Museum, new Delhi
6. Decorative Arts and Objects, National Museum, New Delhi
7. Sanskriti Museum of Everyday Art, New Delhi
8. Orissa State Museum, Bhubaneswar
9. State Museum, Shimla, Himachal Pradesh
10. Art, Language and culture, Shimla Himachal Pradesh
11. Department of Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrit, Kurukshetra University,
Kurukshetra
12. Manipur State Archives
13. Oriental Research instituteTirupati
14. Krishna Kanta handiqui Library, Guwahati
15. Government Museum and Art Gallery, Chandigarh
16. Bhogilal Leherchand Institute of Indology, Delhi
17. Haryana Prantiya Puratatva Sangrahalaya, Jhajja
152