Chapter 5

Gender Comparisons: Social Behavior, Personality, Communication, and Cognition

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Gender-Related Social Behaviors and Personality TraitsAggression: Behavior that is intended to

hurt someone, either physically or verbally

Boys demonstrate higher levels of physical aggression than girls across age, socioeconomic group, and culture

Girls demonstrate higher levels of relational aggression than boys: Harming others through nonphysical hurtful manipulation of peer relationships

Explanations for gender differences in aggressionBiological: TestosteroneEnvironmental: Adults less tolerant of physical aggression in girls than in boys

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Gender-Related Social Behaviors and Personality TraitsProsocial behavior: Voluntary behavior

intended to benefit someone else

Girls help or comfort others more than boys

Men help others more than women, especially in dangerous situations

Women are more likely to provide psychological support than men

ExplanationsGirls expected to be nurturant and kindBoys more rewarded for rescuing and chivalry

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Gender-Related Social Behaviors and Personality TraitsInfluenceability

Women more easily influenced than menPersuasion studies: Small gender differencesGroup pressure conformity studies: Small but stronger gender differences

ExplanationsFemales socialized to yield to social influence, males socialized to wield social influenceAccepting others’ views maintains social harmonyIndividuals with lower social status tend to conform to those with higher social status

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Gender-Related Social Behaviors and Personality Traits

Are females more emotional than males?FearAnger

Are females more likely to express their feelings than males?

Are females more empathic than males?If assessed overtly: yes

If assessed unobtrusively: no (

Emotional socializationParents more accepting of fear in girls, anger in boysParents encourage boys to control their emotions and girls to express their emotions

Emotionality

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Gender-Related Social Behaviors and Personality TraitsMoral reasoning

Males show higher levels of moral reasoning based on justice than females

Females show higher levels of moral reasoning based on caring than males

Research generally does not support either viewResults vary across studies or find only slight gender differencesMoral reasoning appears to be more dependent on context of situation than on gender of individual

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Communication StyleVerbal communication

TalkativenessStereotype: Women talk more than menResearch: Men talk more than women, speak more frequently, and speak for longer time

Interrupting Affiliative interruption: to show interest and affirm what the other is saying

More common among females than among males

Intrusive interruption: To usurp the floor and control the conversation

More common among males than among females

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Communication StyleVerbal communication, continued

Conversational styleFemales’ speech more emotional, polite, soothing; males’ speech more direct, goal-oriented, abruptIs females’ speech more tentative than males’ ? (

Females have lower self-esteemFemales have lower social statusSpeech style is communal, not tentative

Conversational content

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Communication StyleNonverbal communication

Demonstrations of interest and warmth more likely among females than males

Mutual eye contactSmiling and leaningSensitivity to nonverbal messages and emotionsExplanations for differences

Socialization toward social concern among girlsFemales’ subordinate social status

TouchMany different kinds of touchImportance of gender and social status_______________________

Gender Comparison of Cognitive Abilities

No gender differences in intelligence

Gender differences in cognitive abilities generally small

Cognitive skills develop in social context

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Gender Comparison of Cognitive AbilitiesVerbal ability: Language skills such as

vocabulary, reading comprehension, spelling, etc.Gender differences appear very early

Girls more vocal and verbally skilled than boys

ExplanationsParents vocalize more with girls than with boysParents believe girls are better than boys at language and reading

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Gender Comparison of Cognitive AbilitiesVisual-spatial ability: visualizing objects

or shapes and mentally rotating themMales outperform females in many, though not all, areas of visual-spatial ability

Mental rotation: Largest differenceSpatial perceptionSpatial visualization

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Gender Comparison of Cognitive AbilitiesVisual-spatial ability, continued

Explanations for gender differencesBiological

Genes and hormonesLateralization

EnvironmentalGender stereotypesDifferential encouragement in gender-typed activities

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Gender Comparison of Cognitive AbilitiesMathematics ability

Meta-analysis by Janet HydeNo gender differences in understanding mathematical concepts at all agesHigher problem solving ability in boys after age 15Differences in studies from general population versus highly select samples

Gender differences in mathematics performance have decreased over time

Girls receive higher grades in math than boys

Magnitude of gender difference in mathematics achievement differs across cultures

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Gender Comparison of Cognitive AbilitiesMathematics ability, continued

Factors associated with math performanceStrong association between math achievement test scores and number of math courses takenSome college women avoid math and science courses

Gender differences in mathematics self-efficacy

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Gender Comparison of Cognitive AbilitiesMathematics ability, continued

Explanations for gender differencesBiological

Very little empirical supportEnvironmental

Parental encouragement and expectationsTeacher encouragement and expectationsStereotype threat: members of stereotyped group underperform on tests because they are anxious about whether their performance will confirm a negative stereotype about their group’s ability

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Gender Comparison of Cognitive AbilitiesMathematics ability, continued

Gender equity in science and math educationIncreasing emphasis toward gender equityWhat can teachers do to make math and science classrooms more “girl friendly”?

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