chapter 41
DESCRIPTION
Chapter 41. Animal Nutrition. Overview: The Need to Feed. Herbivores eat mainly autotrophs (plants and algae) Carnivores eat other animals Omnivores regularly consume animals as well as plants or algal matter. Essential Nutrients. There are four classes of essential nutrients: - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
Chapter 41
Animal Nutrition
Overview: The Need to Feed
– Herbivores eat mainly autotrophs (plants and algae)
– Carnivores eat other animals
– Omnivores regularly consume animals as well as plants or algal matter
Essential Nutrients
• There are four classes of essential nutrients:
– Essential amino acids
– Essential fatty acids
– Vitamins
– Minerals
Essential Amino Acids
• Animals require 20 amino acids and can synthesize about half
• Essential amino acids- must be obtained from food in preassembled form
• “Complete” proteins- provides all the essential amino acids (meat, eggs, and cheese)
• Most plant proteins are incomplete in amino acid makeup
Beans and otherlegumes
Corn (maize)and other grains
Lysine
Essential amino acids for adults
Tryptophan
Isoleucine
Leucine
Phenylalanine
Threonine
Valine
Methionine
Essential Fatty Acids
• Animals can synthesize most of the fatty acids they need
• The essential fatty acids are certain unsaturated fatty acids
Vitamins
• Vitamins are organic molecules required in the diet in small amounts
• 13 essential vitamins
• Two categories: fat-soluble and water-soluble
Minerals
• Minerals are simple inorganic nutrients, usually required in small amounts
Dietary Deficiencies
• Undernourishment- diet with less chemical energy than the body requires
• Malnourishment- absence from the diet of one or more essential nutrients
Undernourishment
• An undernourished individual will
– Use up stored fat and carbohydrates
– Break down its own proteins
– Lose muscle mass
– Suffer protein deficiency of the brain
– Die or suffer irreversible damage
Malnourishment
• Malnourishment can cause deformities, disease, and death
The main stages of food processing are ingestion, digestion, absorption, and elimination
• Ingestion is the act of eating
Suspension Feeders• Many aquatic animals are suspension
feeders, which sift small food particles from the water
Substrate Feeders
Leaf miner caterpillar,a substrate feeder
Caterpillar Feces
Substrate feeders are animals that live in or on their food source
Fluid Feeders• Fluid feeders suck nutrient-rich fluid from a
living host
Mosquito, a fluid feeder
Bulk Feeders• Bulk feeders eat relatively large pieces of food
Rock python, a bulk feeder
• Digestion is the process of breaking food down into molecules small enough to absorb
– Enzymatic hydrolysis splits bonds in molecules with the addition of water
• Absorption is uptake of nutrients by body cells
• Elimination is the passage of undigested material out of the digestive compartment
Ingestion Digestion Absorption Elimination
Undigestedmaterial
Chemical digestion(enzymatic hydrolysis)
Nutrientmoleculesenter bodycells
Smallmolecules
Mechanicaldigestion
Food
Piecesof food
1 2 3 4
Digestive Compartments
• Intracellular Digestion- food is engulfed by endocytosis and digested within food vacuoles
• Extracellular Digestion- food particles are broken down outside of cells
Gastrovascularcavity
Food
Epidermis
Mouth
Tentacles
Gastrodermis
Esophagus
Mouth
Pharynx
Crop Gizzard
Typhlosole
Intestine
Lumen of intestine
Anus
(b) Grasshopper
Foregut
(c) Bird
(a) Earthworm
Midgut Hindgut
Esophagus RectumAnus
Mouth
Crop
Gastric cecae
Esophagus
Mouth
CropAnus
StomachGizzard
Intestine
Gastrovascular cavity- functions in both digestion and distribution of nutrients
Complete digestive tract (alimentary canal)- digestive tube with two openings, a mouth and an anus
Esophagus
Mouth
Pharynx
Crop Gizzard
Typhlosole
Intestine
Lumen of intestine
Anus
(a) Earthworm
(b) Grasshopper
Foregut
Mouth
Crop
Gastric cecae
Esophagus RectumAnus
Midgut Hindgut
(c) Bird
StomachGizzard
Intestine
Esophagus
AnusCrop
Mouth
Organs of the mammalian digestive system
• Peristalsis- rhythmic contractions of muscles to push along food
• Sphincters regulate the movement of material between compartments
Anus
Liver
Pancreas
Smallintestine
Largeintestine
Rectum
StomachGall-bladder
A schematic diagram of thehuman digestive system
Esophagus
Salivaryglands
Mouth
Cecum
Anus
Ascendingportion oflarge intestine
Gall-bladder
Smallintestine
Largeintestine
Smallintestine
Rectum
Pancreas
Liver
Salivary glands
TongueOral cavityPharynxEsophagus
Sphincter
Stomach
Sphincter
Duodenum ofsmall intestine
Appendix
The Oral Cavity, Pharynx, and Esophagus
• Oral cavity- mechanical digestion takes place
– Salivary glands deliver saliva to lubricate food
• Amylase- initiates breakdown of glucose polymers
Anus
Liver
Pancreas
Smallintestine
Largeintestine
Rectum
StomachGall-bladder
A schematic diagram of thehuman digestive system
Esophagus
Salivaryglands
Mouth
The Oral Cavity, Pharynx, and Esophagus
• The tongue shapes food into a bolus and provides help with swallowing
• Pharynx (throat)- opens to both the esophagus and the trachea (windpipe)
Anus
Liver
Pancreas
Smallintestine
Largeintestine
Rectum
StomachGall-bladder
A schematic diagram of thehuman digestive system
Esophagus
Salivaryglands
Mouth
The Oral Cavity, Pharynx, and Esophagus
• Esophagus conducts food from the pharynx down to the stomach by peristalsis
– Swallowing causes the epiglottis to block entry to the trachea
Anus
Liver
Pancreas
Smallintestine
Largeintestine
Rectum
StomachGall-bladder
A schematic diagram of thehuman digestive system
Esophagus
Salivaryglands
Mouth
LarynxTrachea
Epiglottisup
Pharynx
Tongue
Glottis
Esophagus
Esophagealsphinctercontracted
Food
Tostomach
Tolungs
Epiglottisdown
Esophagealsphincterrelaxed
Glottis upand closed
Epiglottisup
Esophagealsphinctercontracted
Sphincterrelaxed
Relaxedmuscles
Contractedmuscles
Relaxedmuscles
Stomach
Glottisdownand open
Digestion in the Stomach- Chemical Digestion in the Stomach
• Gastric juice is made up of hydrochloric acid and the enzyme pepsin
• Parietal cells secrete hydrogen and chloride ions separately
• Chief cells secrete inactive pepsinogen, it is activated to pepsin when mixed with HCl
• Mucus protects the stomach lining from gastric juice
Esophagus
Small intestine
Stomach
Sphincter
Folds ofepithelialtissue
Sphincter
5 µm
Interior surfaceof stomach
Interior surfaceof stomach
Chief cells
Epithelium
Parietal cell
Pepsinogen and HClare secreted.
HCl convertspepsinogen to pepsin.
Pepsin activatesmore pepsinogen.
Chief cell
PepsinPepsinogen
HCl
H+
Cl–
Parietal cells
Mucus cells
Gastric gland2
3
1
1
2
3
Stomach Dynamics• Coordinated contraction and relaxation of
stomach muscle churn the stomach’s contents
• Sphincters prevent chyme from entering the esophagus and regulate its entry into the small intestine
Esophagus
Small intestine
Stomach
Sphincter
Folds ofepithelialtissue
Sphincter
5 µm
Interior surfaceof stomach
Oral cavity,pharynx,esophagus
Stomach
Lumen ofsmall intes-tine
Epitheliumof smallintestine(brushborder)
Carbohydrate digestion
Polysaccharides
Smaller polysaccharides,maltose
Polysaccharides
Maltose and otherdisaccharides
Disaccharides
Protein digestion Nucleic acid digestion Fat digestion
Proteins
Small polypeptides
Pepsin
Pancreatic amylases
Salivary amylase
Disaccharidases
Monosaccharides
Small peptides
Amino acids
Amino acids
Polypeptides
Smallerpolypeptides
Pancreatic trypsin andchymotrypsin
Pancreatic carboxypeptidase
Dipeptidases, carboxypeptidase,and aminopeptidase
DNA, RNA
Pancreatic nucleases
Fat globules
NucleotidesFat droplets
Nucleosides
Nitrogenous bases,sugars, phosphates
Nucleotidases
Nucleosidasesandphosphatases
Glycerol, fattyacids, monoglycerides
Bile salts
Pancreatic lipase
(starch, glycogen) (sucrose, lactose)
Digestion in the Small Intestine
• Major organ of digestion and absorption
• Duodenum (first part of small intestine)- acid chyme from the stomach mixes with digestive juices from the pancreas, liver, gallbladder, and the small intestine itself Anus
Liver
Pancreas
Smallintestine
Largeintestine
Rectum
StomachGall-bladder
A schematic diagram of thehuman digestive system
Esophagus
Salivaryglands
Mouth
Secretinand CCK
Stomach
GallbladderLiver
+
Duodenum ofsmall intestine
Bile
Gastrin
Secretin
PancreasCCK
CCKKey
StimulationInhibition
+
–
+
++ –
Pancreatic Secretions
• The pancreas produces proteases trypsin and chymotrypsin, protein-digesting enzymes that are activated after entering the duodenum
• Its solution neutralizes the acidic chyme
Anus
Liver
Pancreas
Smallintestine
Largeintestine
Rectum
StomachGall-bladder
A schematic diagram of thehuman digestive system
Esophagus
Salivaryglands
Mouth
Bile Production by the Liver
• Aids in digestion and absorption of fats
• Bile is made in the liver and stored in the gallbladder
Anus
Liver
Pancreas
Smallintestine
Largeintestine
Rectum
StomachGall-bladder
A schematic diagram of thehuman digestive system
Esophagus
Salivaryglands
Mouth
Secretions of the Small Intestine
• The epithelial lining of the duodenum produces several digestive enzymes
• Most digestion occurs in the duodenum; the jejunum and ileum function mainly in absorption of nutrients and water
Absorption in the Small Intestine
• The small intestine has a huge surface area, due to villi and microvilli that are exposed to the intestinal lumen
• The enormous microvillar surface greatly increases the rate of nutrient absorption
Muscle layers
Vein carrying bloodto hepatic portal vein
Villi
Intestinal wall
Key
Nutrientabsorption
Largecircularfolds
Microvilli (brushborder) at apical(lumenal) surface
Key
Nutrientabsorption
Bloodcapillaries
Epithelialcells
Villi
Lymphvessel
Basal surface
LactealEpithelial cells
Lumen
Absorption in the Large Intestine• Colon of the large intestine is connected to
the small intestine
• Cecum aids in the fermentation of plant material and connects where the small and large intestines meet
• Appendix- an extension off the cecum, which plays a very minor role in immunity
• The colon recover waters that has entered the alimentary canal and houses E. coli strains, some of which produce vitamins
Cecum
Anus
Ascendingportion oflarge intestine
Smallintestine
Largeintestine
Smallintestine
Rectum
Appendix
Dental Adaptations
• The teeth of poisonous snakes are modified as fangs for injecting venom
• All snakes can unhinge their jaws to swallow prey whole
Incisors
(c) Omnivore
Molars
(b) Herbivore
(a) Carnivore
Canines Premolars
Stomach and Intestinal Adaptations
• Herbivores have longer alimentary canals than carnivores, they need more time to digest vegetation
Cecum
Small intestine
HerbivoreCarnivore
Colon(largeintestine)
StomachSmall intestine
Mutualistic Adaptations
• Many herbivores have fermentation chambers, where symbiotic microorganisms digest cellulose (ruminants)
Esophagus
OmasumAbomasum
Intestine
Rumen Reticulum1 2
4 3
Energy Sources and Stores
• Animals store excess calories primarily as glycogen in the liver and muscles
• Energy is secondarily stored as adipose, or fat, cells
Overnourishment and Obesity
• Overnourishment causes obesity, which results from excessive intake of food energy with the excess stored as fat
• Obesity contributes to diabetes (type 2), cancer of the colon and breasts, heart attacks, and strokes
• The problem of maintaining weight partly stems from our evolutionary past, when fat hoarding was a means of survival
LeptinPYY
Insulin
Ghrelin
Obese mouse with mutantob gene (left) next to wild-type mouse.