Chapter 4

Individuals in Schools

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Individuals are motivated by their:• Needs• Beliefs• Goals

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I Maslow’s Theory of Needs

Assumptions:1. Individual needs are universal and arranged in a hierarchy.2. Unfilled needs lead individuals to focus on those needs.3. Lower-level needs must be satisfied before higher-level needs

become strong motivators.

Needs:1. Physiological Needs (Air, Food, Sleep, etc.)2. Safety and Security Needs (Protection against danger and threat)3. Belongingness Needs (Belonging to groups, having friends, etc.)4. Esteem Needs (Self-respect and the respect of others)5. Self-Actualization Needs (Being all you can be; finding potential)

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Theories of Motivation: NeedsTheories of Motivation: Needs Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs– Basic set of human needs arranged in a hierarchical

order

• Level 1: Physiological Needs

• Level 2: Safety and Security

• Level 3: Belonging, Love, and Social Activities

• Level 4: Esteem

• Level 5: Self-actualization or self-fulfillmentW. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011

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Theories of Motivation: NeedsTheories of Motivation: Needs II Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory:

Two Types of Needs

Assumptions:

1. Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are two separate factors, not opposites.2. Factors that produce satisfaction are different from those that promote

dissatisfaction.•Motivators are generally intrinsic factors such as achievement and the work itself.•Hygiene factors are generally extrinsic factors such as salary and working conditions.

3. Motivators are higher level needs and tend to promote satisfaction.4. Hygiene factors are lower level needs and tend to promote dissatisfaction

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Theories of Motivation: Needs

Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory

Hygienes Motivators•Interpersonal relations (with subordinates)•Interpersonal relations (with peers)•Supervision (technical)•Policy and administration•Working conditions•Personal life

•Achievement•Recognition •Work itself•Responsibility •Advancement

Dissatisfaction Satisfaction

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Theories of Motivation: NeedsTheories of Motivation: NeedsIII McClelland’s Achievement-Need Theory

Assumptions:

1. The prospect of achievement motivates more than extrinsic rewards.2. Motives are learned and when people learn to value achievement, it becomes a

strong motivator.

To instill motivation:• Place people in situation where they can succeed.• Emphasize setting reasonable and achievable goals.• Get people to take responsibility for their actions.• Provide clear and constructive feedback on performance.

3. When achievement motivation is high, then individuals set high, but achievable goals, value and use feedback, have a single-minded absorption with task accomplishment.

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Theories of Motivation: NeedsTheories of Motivation: Needs

IV Need for Autonomy

1. Individuals have a need to have a choice in what they do and how they do it; they need to be in charge of their own lives.

2. The need for autonomy is a higher level need--likely above self-esteem and below self actualization in Maslow’s hierarchy.

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Theories of Motivation: BeliefsTheories of Motivation: Beliefs

V Weiner’s Attribution Theory: Beliefs about Cause

Assumptions:1. Individuals naturally seek understandings of why thing happen the way they do.2. Individuals make causal connections, i.e., they create knowledge.3. Once knowledge is created, they use it to manage their behavior.4. The basic causes of achievement are ability, effort, difficulty of the task, and luck.5. Key questions:

• Causal: What are causes of outcomes?• Locus: Is the cause internal (ability & effort) or external (difficulty & luck)?• Stability: Is the cause fixed or does it change?• Responsibility (Controllable): Can I control the cause?

6. Maximize motivation by knowing what causes outcomes, knowing the cause is internal and controllable, and knowing cause is amenable to change.

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Theories of Motivation: BeliefsTheories of Motivation: Beliefs

Beliefs continued

• Ability– Stable view• Ability is uncontrollable and unable to change• Set performance goals that protect their self-esteem

– Incremental view• Ability is unstable but controllable• Expanding reservoir of knowledge and skills• Hard work and persistence can pay off• Set performance goals to gauge progress

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Theories of Motivation: BeliefsTheories of Motivation: Beliefs

VI Greenberg’s Equity Theory: Beliefs about Fairness

Assumptions:1. Individuals care about being treated fairly.2. People make social comparisons regarding fair and equitable

treatment.3. Perceived inequity tends to reduce motivation.4. Individuals attempt to reduce feelings of inequity by:

• They try to get increased benefits--get a raise.• They try to leave--quit and find another job.• They reduce their inputs--expend less effort on the job.

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Principles of Organizational JusticeEquity Principle --Rewards should be proportional to contributions.

Perception Principle --Individual perceptions of fairness define justice.

The Voice Principle --Participation in decision enhances fairness.

Interpersonal Justice Principle --Dignified and respectful treatment promotes fairness

Consistency Principle --Consistently fair behavior promotes a sense of justice

Egalitarian Principle --Self-interest should be subordinated to good of whole

Correction Principle --Faulty decisions should be quickly corrected.

Accuracy Principle --Decisions should be anchored in accurate information

Representative Principle --Decisions should represent those concerned.

Ethical Principle --Existing moral & ethical standards should prevail.

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Theories of Motivation: BeliefsTheories of Motivation: Beliefs

VII Vroom’s Expectancy Theory (Beliefs about Outcomes)

Assumptions:1. Individuals make conscious decisions about their behavior.2. People evaluate subjectively the expected value of outcomes.3. Forces in the individual and environment combine to determine

individual values and attitudes.4. Motivation is a function of the interaction of expectancy,

instrumentality, and valence.

Expectancy: Can I perform the task?Instrumentality: If I succeed what are the consequences?Valence: How strongly do I value the consequences?

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Theories of Motivation: BeliefsExpectancy

Belief that I canaccomplishthe task

Instrumentality

Belief that goodperformance willbe noticed andrewarded

Valence

An assessment ofthe attractivenessor value ofthe rewards

Force ofMotivation

According to expectancy theory, workmotivation is strongly influenced by theinteraction of three factors: expectancy,instrumentality, and valence.

M = f (E x I x V)

Expectancy Theory

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Theories of Motivation: BeliefsVIII Bandura’s Self-Efficacy Theory: Beliefs

about CapacityAssumptions:1. Individuals make conscious decisions about their behavior.2. The extent to which people believe that they have the capacity to execute a

course of action that is required to succeed is their self-efficacy, their self efficacy, motivates behavior.

3. Self-efficacy affects individual choice: Choose activities in which you will succeed and avoid those in which you believe you will fail.

4. Strong self-efficacy increases effort at the task.5. Strong self-efficacy increases persistence.6. Strong self-efficacy increases resilience.7. Sources of strong self-efficacy:

• Mastery Experiences• Modeling (Vicarious experiences)• Verbal Persuasion• Physiological State

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Sources of Efficacy

•Physiological Cues•Verbal Persuasion•Vicarious Experience (Modeling)•Mastery Experience

CognitiveProcessing

Analysis of theTeaching Task

Assessment ofTeachingCompetence

TeacherEfficacy

Performance

Consequences ofTeacher Efficacy

•Effort•Persistence•Success

A Model of Teacher Efficacy

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Building Self-Efficacy in Schools

• Administrators should try to orchestrate the following:

– Secure instructional time and resources for teachers to plan, collaborate, and research, to build MASTERY EXPERIENCES.

– Allow teachers to have access to models, in the form of conferences, workshops, visitations, etc., for cultivation of VICARIOUS EXPERIENCES.

– Foster emphasis on professionalism and reflective teaching, and reward those who collaborate and share feedback, to increase SOCIAL PERSUASION.

– Attend to teachers’ affective states and provide encouragement during times of frustration. Frame performance as a function of acquired skill rather than inherent capability.

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Theories of Motivation: Goals

IX Locke’s Goal Theory

Assumptions:

1. If goals are accepted by individuals, they are strong motivators.2. Why?

• Goals focus attention.• Goals mobilize efforts.• Goals enhance persistence. • Goals promote the development of strategies for success.

3. Specific goals are generally more effective than general goals.4. Difficult, but attainable goals are more effective than easy ones. 5. To be effective, goals must be embraced by individual.

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Theories of Motivation: Goal Setting

Characteristics ofEffective Goals

•Specific•Challenging•Attainable•Embraced

Goal Mechanisms

•Focus attention•Mobilize effort•Enhance persistence•Develop specific task strategies

Performance

FeedbackActual versus Desired Behavior

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Intrinsic motivation comes from such factors as interest and curiosity in the task itself.

Extrinsic motivation comes from incentives and disincentives to act, for example, rewards and punishments.

The key difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation is the reason for acting--internal (intrinsic) or external (extrinsic).

The dichotomy between the two, however, is a bit too simple because what starts as extrinsic motivation (studying to get good grades) may become intrinsic as the individual becomes curious about the learning at hand.

Theories of MotivationX Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

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Summary & ReviewNeeds Theory

Suggest that people work hard when:Lower-order needs are met—physiological, safety, and belongingness needs.Higher-order needs present the challenge—esteem and self-actualization needs.

Motivation-Hygiene TheorySuggests that:

Unmet lower-level needs produce dissatisfaction with the job.Gratified higher-level needs produce job satisfaction.

Goal-Setting TheorySuggests that people work hard when:

They have realistic, specific, and challenging goals.They are committed to the goals.They receive feedback about progress toward the goals.

Attribution TheorySuggests that people work hard when they believe that causes for success are:

Internal—due to ability and effort.Not fixed—effort, for example, can be varied from one situation to another.Controllable—causes can be controlled by hard work, using proper strategy, etc.

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Summary & Review

Equity TheorySuggests that people work hard when they have been fairly treated and:

They have been given the rewards they deserve.The rewards have been allocated fairly.They have been treated with respect and courtesy.

Expectancy TheorySuggests that people work hard when:

They believe extra effort will improve performance.Good performance will be noticed and rewarded.The rewards are valued.

Self-Efficacy TheorySuggests that people work hard when:

They believe they have the capabilities to be successful.They believe that the task is not too difficult.They have had success at completing their tasks.They have good models of success.

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Practical Imperatives• Celebrate the successes of your faculty: Positive reinforcement is a strong

motivator.• Articulate clear, specific, and achievable goals: They provide focused targets for

persistent effort.• Nurture an incremental view of intelligence: It enhances achievement.• Be fair in both deciding and distributing school resources: Participants expect to be

treated fairly.• Equip teachers with skills and resources needed to succeed: Teachers work smarter

when they have the right tools.• Develop a sense of efficacy in teachers and students: Both increase academic

achievement.• Provide teachers with constructive feedback in their quest for goal achievement;

Verbal persuasion increases perseverance.• Create teacher situations that lead to successful experiences: Mastery experiences

are the most valuable source of teacher self-efficacy.• Provide teachers with models of successful practice: Such models are strong

determinants of self-efficacy.• Encourage teachers to accept responsibility for achievement: Responsibility

produces commitment, perseverance, and success.

W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011