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3.1 STUDYING COGNITION

In Chapter 1, we attempted to define cognition. Let us revisit its meaning.

Cognition is defined as the act of knowing or acquiring knowledge. The mental

processes involved in the act of knowing are called cognitive processes and these

include perceiving, attention, reasoning, judging, problem solving, self-monitoring,

remembering, understanding and so forth. For example, to know that a triangle has

three sides, you need to understand and remember the attributes of a triangle.

Cognitivists or cognitive psychologists are researchers who scientifically study

cognitive processes to explain how organisms come to know or learn something.

Wilhelm Wundt who established the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany

in 1879 may be described as the first cognitivist or cognitive psychologist. The

research method he used was introspection. In this method, highly trained observers

reported what they were thinking under carefully controlled conditions. He believed

the contents of the mind can be studied if a person talks about what he or she is

thinking at a particular moment of time. In this chapter, we will discuss the

contributions of well-known Gestalt psychologists, Jean Piaget and Albert Bandura

who were the earliest to describe the mental processes involved in knowing or

learning something based on the behaviours exhibited.

3.2 GESTALT THEORIES OF LEARNING

While behaviourism was the rage among American psychologists in the

1900s, there was a small group of psychologists in Germany who were interested in

mental processes. They were called ‘Gestalt’ psychologists and Gestalt means

configuration or organisation. Apparently, the entire Gestalt movement started with a

discovery by Max Wertheimer (1880 – 1943) while riding a train. It occurred to him

that if two lights blink on and off at a certain rate, they gave the observer the

impression that the light is moving. Later, using a stroboscope (a device that presents

Upon completion of this module, you should be able to:

Explain the rise of cognitivism

Differentiate between behaviourist and cognitive theories

Discuss how Gestalt psychology explains learning

Evaluate Piaget’s theory of human learning

Discuss the social learning theory by Bandura

Explain the characteristics of the theory of meaningful learning by Ausubel

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visual stimuli at different rates), he performed numerous experiments and concluded

that the eye see stimuli in a certain way to give the illusion of motion. He called this

the phi phenomenon. Surely you have seen this phenomenon on neon lit signboards

and advertisements. What is so significant about this simple phenomenon?

The importance of the phi phenomenon is the explanation given as to why it

occurs. The sensation of motion cannot be explained by analysing each of the two

lights flashing on and off. So, the logical explanation is that we add something to the

experience that is not contained in the sensory data, and that something is called

organisation. We do not see the stimuli as isolated or separated (such as the ‘on’ and

‘off’ lights) but instead as combined together into meaningful configuration or gestalt.

We see people, chairs, cars, trees and flowers not as lines and patches of colours.

Emanating from this believe, came this famous statement made by gestalt

psychologists:

This statement may be difficult to understand at

first. Mathematically, it is not possible because ‘the sum

of the parts is equal to the whole’. How is it possible for

the ‘sum of its parts’ to be different or not equal to the

whole? It is possible because frequently we add

something to the experience that is not contained in what

we see or perceive. When we organise what we see, we

often add information or meaning consciously or

unconsciously.

Perhaps an example will help you appreciate this

powerful statement. Imagine looking at the Mona Lisa.

You will not be able to appreciate the full impact of this

famous painting if you look at first one arm and then

another, then the nose, then the mouth, and then try to put

all these experience together. In other words, TO

DISSECT IS TO DISTORT.

Similarly, a tree is made up of its parts – trunk,

branches, leaves, perhaps blossoms or fruit. But when

you look at an entire tree, you are not conscious of the

parts, but aware of the overall object - the tree. The tree is

different from the sum of the parts such as the trunk,

branches, leaves and flowers because your mind has

given organisation.

Based on their findings that people tend to

organize what they perceive, they proposed The Law of

Pragnanz which states that when an organism sees or

experiences something that is disorganized in the

physical environment, the organism will impose order on

what it sees or experiences. Based on this basic premise,

many principles were proposed to explain how we

perceive the physical environment and became known as

"the gestalt principles of perceptual organization”. Gestalt psychologist many

different laws and principle, but we will discuss only three of these principles.

THE WHOLE IS DIFFERENT THAN THE SUM OF ITS PARTS

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a. b. c.

Principle of closure Principle of proximity Principle of foreground &

background

Figure 3.1 Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organisation

You may have seen the figures shown in Figure 3.1. How do you think people would

respond when presented with these figures?

How do you think people will perceive Figure 3.1(a)? The majority of people

seeing Figure 3.1(a) will conclude that it is an ‘E’, But the figure is not an ‘E’

because it is not omplete. This called the Principle of Closure which states that

we have a tendency to complete incomplete experiences. Humans have the

habit of filling in the gaps perceptually and responding to the figure as if it

were the complete letter ‘E’.

How do you think people would perceive Figure 3.1(b)? It is most likely that

most people would perceive three pairs of lines rather than six separate lines.

Items that are close together are grouped together. This is called the Principle

of Proximity which states that we tend to organise elements close together as

separate units or groups.

How do you think people will perceive Figure 3.1(c)? When you look at

something you never see just the thing you look at; rather, you see it in

relation to its surroundings. When you read this page, you distinguish the

words from the background white paper. In this case, you have distinguished

between the figure or shape of words (foreground) and the white space

surrounding it (called the background). The Danish psychologist Edgar Rubin

was the first to systematically investigate this phenomenon in 1921. He found

that it was possible to see any well-marked area of the visual field as the

figure, leaving the rest as the background. If you consider the ‘faces’ (dark

part) as the foreground and the ‘vase’ (light part) as the background, you see

the two faces. If vice versa, you see the ‘vase’ as the foreground and the two

‘faces’ as the background. In some instances, the figure and the background

may fluctuate.

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3.3 PROBLEM SOLVING BY INSIGHT

Gestalt psychologists looked upon the brain as active and not a passive

receiver and storer of information from the environment. The brain acts on the

information coming from the environment by making it more meaningful and

organised. An enormous amount of information comes into our brain through our

senses. The major problem facing the perceptual system is that it must, with only

limited resources, process this great load of information in such a way that the

environment makes sense which is the Law of Pragananz [we discussed earlier].

Based on this guiding principle, Wolfgang Kohler (1890 – 1940) studied problem-

solving ability among chimpanzees. He summarised his findings in his classic book,

The Mentality of Apes (1913). He argued that behaviour could not be explained by the

principles of association alone. There was an inner process that enabled the apes to

grasp the structure of a situation and recognised the interconnection based on the

properties of things themselves.

According to him, problem solving is a cognitive phenomenon (involves

mental processes). The organism ‘comes to see’ the solution after pondering on the

problem. When an organism is confronted with a problem, a state of cognitive

disequilibrium is set up and continues until the problem is solved. The organism

thinks about aspects necessary to solve the problem and tries different ways until the

problem is solved. When the solution comes, it comes suddenly. In other words, the

organism gains an insight into the solution of the problem. So, a problem can exist in

only two states:

Unsolved Solved

ACTIVITY

a) Describe the phi phenomenon.

b) What do gestalt psychologists mean when they say

The whole is different from the sum of its parts?

c) Identify which Gestalt Laws explain how we perceive these logos. Give

reasons.

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Figure 3.3 Sultan putting two

sticks together [from The

Mentality of Apes, 1925. W.

Kohler. London: Routledge &

Kegan. p. 128]

The Gestalts believed that either a solution is reached or it is not. To test his

notions about learning, Kohler worked with different chimpanzees and observed them

creating and using tools in captivity. Kohler's basic experiment was to place a chimp

in an enclosed play area. Somewhere out of reach he placed a prize, such as a bunch

of bananas. To get to the bananas, the chimp would have to use an object as a tool.

The objects in the play area included sticks of different lengths and wooden boxes.

Experiment 1:

In this experiment, the chimpanzee named Grande was placed in an enclosure

surrounded by wooden boxes. Initially, the animal jumped to reach the banana but

was unsuccessful. Later, Grande dragged the boxes under the bananas and stacked the

boxes on top of one another (see Figure 3.2). Using the boxes as a step ladder, the

animal got to the bananas.

Experiment 2:

Kohler's chimps were not only able to use

tools, but actually build tools. For example, he

observed chimps breaking off branches from a

tree to make a "rake." One of the smartest

chimps, Sultan, was given a very difficult

problem. Kohler placed a bunch of bananas

outside Sultan's cage and two bamboo sticks

inside the cage. However, neither of the sticks

was long enough to reach the bananas. Sultan

pushed the thinner stick into the hollow of the

thicker one, and created a stick long enough to

pull in the bananas (see Figure 3.3). Kohler

believed that these chimps showed insight –

acting as if they "saw" the solution before

Figure 3.2 Grande using the

boxes to reach the banana [from

The Mentality of Apes, 1925. W.

Kohler. London: Routledge &

Kegan. P. 152]

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carrying out the actions. The essence of successful problem-solving behavior is being

able to see the overall structure of the problem. Two directions are involved: getting a

whole consistent picture, and seeing what the structure of the whole requires for the

parts. Insightful learning is usually regarded as having 4 characteristics:

1. the transition from pre-solution to solution is sudden and complete,

2. performance bases on a solution gained by insight is usually smooth and free

of errors,

3. a solution to a problem gained by insight is retained for a considerable length

of time,

4. a principle gained by insight is easily applied to other problems.

The most systematic attempt to base teaching techniques on Gestalt principles

has been made by Bigge (1982). Bigge argues that instruction should be arranged so

that student participate actively in developing insight by attacking a problem posed by

the teacher, just as the apes achieved insight in the situation arranged by Kohler.

Instead of presenting students with information discovered by others, Bigge urges

teachers to arrange learning situations so that students will make their own discoveries

as they engage in class discussions. He suggests three general techniques for

producing especially effective discussions:

Switch the subject matter

Introduce disturbing data

Permit students to make mistakes

3.4 PIAGET’S THEORY OF LEARNING

Jean Piaget, a Swiss began as a biologist and got

his PhD at the age of 21. His theories of learning were

based on observation and description of his three young

children. However, his approach was not received by

other psychologists arguing that it was not scientific.

Piaget was most interested in the way mollusks adapted

themselves with the surrounding environment. Using

ideas from biology, Piaget introduced two main

processes namely, Organisation and Adaptation.

Organisation is the internal characteristic of organism

enabling it to take action to arrange the environment

Jean Piaget

1896-1980

ACTIVITY

a) How is the Law of Pragananz related to problem solving?

b) Explain the role of ‘insight’ in problem solving?

c) Most of us have experienced ‘insight’ which has enabled

problem solving. Elaborate.

d) The chimpanzee “saw” the solution. Discuss.

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while adaptation is the ability to fit with the physical environment. In other words,

organisation is an internal process and adaptation is an external process. From the

biological point of view organisation is inseparable from adaptation as they are two

complementary processes of a single mechanism. Piaget (1985) suggested that

learning process is iterative, in which new information is shaped to fit with the

learner's existing knowledge, and existing knowledge is itself modified to

accommodate the new information. His learning theory is based on four basic

concepts: schema, assimilation, accommodation and equilibrium.

1. SCHEMA

Piaget believed that the mind is made up of schema just like the body has a

stomach that is responsible for digestions or the kidney that is responsible for

removing waste from the blood. Schemas are mental or cognitive structures which

enables a person to adapt and to organise the environment. They are like a cabinet

with many files and each file representing a schema. When a child is born, it has few

general schemas and as the child grows, he or she has gains more schemas and the

schemas become more refined.

For example, at birth the schema of a baby is reflexive in nature such as

sucking and grasping. The sucking reflex is a schema and the infant will suck on

whatever is put in its mouth such as a nipple or a finger. The infant is unable to

differentiate because it has only a single sucking schema. Slowly, the infant learns to

differentiate where milk-producing objects are accepted while non-milk objects are

rejected. At this point, the infant has two sucking schemas, one for milk-producing

objects and one for non-milk producing objects.

Figure 3.4 A Young Child’s first Encounter with a Cow

Dog schema - Four legs

- Bigger than cat

- Two ears

- Fur

Hello Doggy!

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Figure 3.4 illustrates a child’s encounter with an experience for which the

child does not have a schema. The child looks at the cow and says ‘Hello Doggy’.

Why do you think this happened? The child seeing the object (cow), sifted through his

collection of schemas, until he found one that seemed appropriate. To the child, the

object (cow) has all the characteristics of a dog – it fits in his dog schema – so the

child concludes that the object is a dog. The child has integrated the object (cow) into

his dog schema. You would have seen this often happen among young children and

parents make a desperate attempt to correct the child.

It would be misleading to think that schemas do not change, or that the child is

destined to call cows as dogs for the rest of his life. Obviously, this does not happen.

As the child becomes better able to differentiate between objects, schemas become

more numerous (differentiated). As he becomes better able to generalise across

objects, schemas become more refined.

2. ASSIMILATION

Assimilation is the cognitive process by which a person integrates new

information or experience into existing or readily available schema (Piaget, 1973).

This is the process of fitting new information into existing cognitive structures.

Assimilation occurs all the time because humans are always processing various kinds

of information and experiences. The existing or readily available schema is like a

balloon that gets bigger and bigger with the addition or assimilation or new

information and experiences. There is a quantitative change but no qualitative change.

No new schemas are produced because old schemas are used.

Figure 3.5

Assimilation into the

‘round shape’ schema

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See Figure 3.5 which shows a person confronting three different round shapes.

Because the person has an existing schema of round shapes, the three round shapes,

even though different are assimilated or fitted into the ‘round shape’ schema which

already exists. There is a qualitative change as the single schema gets bigger and

bigger to absorb or assimilate the new information.

3. ACCOMMODATION

When confronted with new information or experience, the individual tries to

assimilate it into an existing schema as mention earlier. Sometimes it is not possible

because there is no ready made schema. In such a situation, the person has two

options. The person could create a new schema into which new information or

experience can be placed. Alternatively, the person could modify an existing schema

so that the new information or experience can fit into it. Both of these are forms of

accommodation. Thus, accommodation is the creation of new schema or the

modification of old schema. Both of these actions result in a change in or

development or creation of schema.

See Figure 3.6 which shows a person confronting three different round shapes.

Because the person does not have an existing schema of ‘round shapes’, three new

schemas are created because the three round shapes are different. There is a

quantitative change as more schemas are created.

4. EQUILIBRIUM

Imagine what would happen when a person only assimilates and never

assimilates or a person who only accommodates and does not assimilate? The result

would be disastrous. Hence, there needs to be a balance between the two processes.

Figure 3.6

Accommodation by the

creation of new schemas

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Equilibrium is a balance between assimilation and accommodation. Disequilibrium is

an imbalance between assimilation and accommodation. When disequilibrium occurs,

the learner seeks equilibrium; that is, to further assimilate or accommodate. For

example, a learner when encountering new information tries to assimilate the

information into an existing schema. If he or she is successful, equilibrium is

achieved. If the learner cannot assimilate the new information, he or she attempts to

accommodate by modifying a schema or creating a new one. If the new information

can be accommodated, equilibrium is reached. According to Piaget (1970), learning

proceeds in this way from birth through adulthood.

3.5 PIAGET’S THEORY: APPLICATIONS IN THE CLASSROOM

Intelligence is viewed by Piaget as having three components: content, function

and structure.

Content refers to observable behaviours that reflect intellectual activity (e.g.

solving physics problems, writing an essay). The content of intelligence,

because of its nature, varies considerably from age to age and from child to

child.

Function refers to those characteristics of intellectual activity; namely,

assimilation and accommodation.

Structure refers to the organisational properties of the brain or schema. In

other words, intelligence can be defined in terms of assimilation and

accommodation.

Piaget did not direct his research towards education and teaching, but his

theory of how children acquire knowledge and develop intellectually clearly provides

much that is relevant to teaching and learning. The learning environment (especially

in kindergarten and primary school) should support the child acquire knowledge

through ‘acting on the environment’ by their actions. In other words, the learning

environment should be action-based. For example, children should have physical

contact with concepts such as trees, grass, cats, chickens and so forth. Just showing

children pictures of trees and reading about trees is inadequate (see Figure 3.7).

3.3 ACTIVITY

a) What is a schema?

b) State the difference between assimilation and

accommodation.

c) c) What is equilibrium?

d) What do you think will happen if a person only assimilates

or only accommodates?

e) Explain why a child who sees a baby calls it a doll?

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The learning environment should be discovery-oriented where children are

encouraged to initiate and complete their own activities.

Use teaching strategies that make children aware of conflicts and

inconsistencies in their thinking: i.e. children must experience disequilibrium,

or an imbalance between their current schemas and new information to be

assimilated in order for them to towards equilibrium and new levels of

intellectual growth.

Figure 3.7 Children should have physical contact with objects and not

pictures of the objects

o Use problems to confront or challenge student's prior knowledge or

schemas. Sometimes children do not realise that they have the relevant

schema and quick to reply that they do not know.

o Use appropriate questioning techniques to help learners to bring out

their misconceptions and faulty reasoning.

o Diagnose what children already know and how they think. Content is

not introduced until the child is cognitively ready to understand it or

has the relevant schema to assimilate or accommodate the new

information.

Children's interactions with their peers are an important source of intellectual

development: peer interactions are essential in helping children develop

intellectually.

The learning environment should encourage active self-discovery: play

effectively represents all of the requisite characteristics of Piagetian-inspired

instruction.

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Albert Bandura

1925 -

3.6 SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

Albert Bandura was born in Mundare, Canada in

1925. He received his B.A. degree from the University of the

British Columbia in 1949 and obtained his Ph.D. in 1952

from the University of Iowa. In 1953, he accepted a position

as a psychology professor at the University of Stanford until

today. Albert Bandura has achieved many honors and awards

from fellow psychologists. In 1972, he received a

distinguished achievement award from the American

Psychological Association and a Scientist Award from the

California State Psychological Association. In 1974, Bandura

was elected president of the American Psychological

Association.

He was most interested in the theories proposed by Dollard

and Miller in their book Social Learning and Imitation

published in 1941. They suggested that children can learn when they are reinforced at

a time their behaviour matches that of another person. For example, a boy might be

praised by his mother when imitating some form of desirable behaviour he had seen

displayed by his older sister. Albert Bandura and Richard Walters agreed with Miller

and Dollard that learning was much more than trail and error and the significance of

imitation. In their book Social Learning Theory and Personality Development (1963),

Albert Bandura and Richard Walters argued that merely observing another person

might be sufficient to lead to a learned response. They pointed out that reinforcement

is not always necessary.

In his book Social Learning Theory (1977), Bandura laid the essential

principles of social learning which originated from a series of classic experiments

carried out in the 1960s. Bandura argued that children learn to act aggressively when

they model their behavior after violent acts of adults. He believed that aggression

must explain three aspects: First, how aggressive patterns of behavior are developed;

second, what provokes people to behave aggressively, and third, what determines

whether they are going to continue to resort to an aggressive behavior pattern on

future occasions.

3.4 ACTIVITY

a) What is meant by ‘acting on the environment’?

b) Explain the role of play according to Piaget.

c) Give examples how you would apply Piagetian ideas

in the primary classroom.

d) How would you apply Piaget’s ideas in secondary school?

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In a classic experiment, he had four groups of children watch a video showing

a model who reacted with a plastic clown called the Bobo doll (Bandura, 1962). Two

groups of children watched the model aggressively hit the doll with a mallet and

punch it (see Figure 3.7a). One group watched the model being rewarded while the

other group watched the aggressive model being punished. A third group of children

watched the model not doing anything to the bobo doll while a fourth group watched

the doll without a model. Then, the four groups of children were led to another room

with various attractive toys, including the bobo doll. The result of the experiments is

shown in Figure 3.9.

Figure 3.8 The Bobo Doll Experiment

a) The child observes an adult

beating the bobo doll with a

mallet.

b) When presented with an identical

bobo doll, the child picks up the

mallet and proceeds to beat the

doll.

mallet.

b) The child is presented with an

identical bobo doll. The child

picks up the mallet and proceeds

to beat the doll.

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Children who observed the aggressive model engaged in considerably more

aggressive behaviour toward the bobo doll (see Figure 3.8b). Children who saw the

model rewarded were more aggressive than children who observed the model

punished (see Figure 3.8b). Children who observed a non-aggressive model and those

who did not observe a model displayed little imitative aggression. Eight months later,

40% of children who observed the aggressive model reproduced the violent behaviour

observed in the Bobo doll experiment. Bandura conducted similar experiments and

the results showed that children exposed to aggressive model exhibited aggressive

behaviour. Based on these studies, Bandura proposed several principles of social

learning (or observational learning as it also came to be called). He suggested that the

degree to which individuals observe and imitate a model’s behaviour can be explained

in terms of FOUR component processes: Attention, Retention, Reproduction and

Reinforcement (Bandura, 1977).

Figure 3.9 Results of Bobo Doll Experiment

3.5 ACTIVITY

a) Do you agree with the finding by Bandura that children

who see positive rewards for aggressive behaviour will

imitate and show aggressive behaviour?

b) Give examples to show the occurrence of such behaviour

among children.

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PROCESSES OF SOCIAL LEARNING

1. Attention

Attention is the first component of observational learning. Individuals cannot

learn much by observation unless they perceive and attend to the significant

features of the modelled behaviour. For example, children must attend to what

the aggressor is doing and saying in order to reproduce the model’s behaviour

In the Bobo doll experiment, the children witnessed the Bobo doll being

verbally and/or physically abused by live models and filmed models.

2. Retention

Retention is the next component. In order to reproduce the modelled

behaviour, individuals must encode the information into long-term memory.

Therefore, the information will be retrieval. For example, the actions and

words of the model performed would have to be retained and later retrieved. In

the Bobo doll experiment, the children imitated the aggression they witnessed.

They aggressively hit the Bobo doll because it was encoded and stored in their

memory. The process of retention had occurred.

3. Reproduction

Reproduction is another process in observational learning. The observer must

be able to reproduce the model’s behavior. If it is a physical behaviour, the

observer must learn and posses the physical capabilities of the modeled

behavior. For example, a person who observes a monkey swinging from tree

to tree may wish to do the same; but does not have the motor capabilities to do

so. Once a behaviour is learned through attention and retention, the observer

must decides to reproduce the act. The children in the experiment have seleted

to hit and smack the doll. You could have the case of a teenager getting a

haircut similar to that of a famous sportsman or pop star.

4. Motivation or Reinforcement

The final process in observational learning is motivation or reinforcement. In

this process, the observer expects to receive positive reinforcements for the

modelled behavior. In the Bobo doll experiment, the children witnessed the

adults being rewarded for their aggression. Therefore, they performed the

same act expecting the same rewards. What would be the consequences if

young children witnessed violence on television being rewarded?

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3.7 MODELLING, IMITATION AND REINFORCEMENT

The term model may refer to an actual person whose behavior serves as a

stimulus for an observer’s response. Or it may, as is more often the case in our

society, refer to a symbolic mode (Bandura, 1975). Symbolic modes include such

things as books, verbal or written instructions, pictures, mental images, cartoon or

movie characters, religious figures, and, not the least important, television. These are

probably more prevalent than real-life models for children of modern society. This is

not to deny that peers, siblings and parents serve as models, or that teachers and other

Prevalence of Imitation in Early Cultures

In early cultures such as that of the Cantalense, a young girls is given

miniature working replicas of all the tools her mother uses: broom, corn-grinding

stone, cooking utensils and so on. From the moment she can walk she follows her

mother and imitates her actions. There is little or no direct teaching. Most of the

significant social learning accomplished by girls in that culture results from direct

imitation.

In Ojibwa tribes, young boys follow their fathers hunting as soon as they are

physically able. For the first few years they simply observed – again there is no

direct teaching. When the boy is old enough he would fashion his own weapons and

set traps as he had seen his father do. If he had a sister, she would learn how to

prepare hides, meat; how to make clothing and how to do the many things she had

seen her do.

3.6 ACTIVITY

a) Explain the FOUR processes that facilitate social

learning.

b) ”Fortunately the human being does not necessarily

‘reproduce’ everything he or she attends to and retains”

Discuss.

Violence on TV

There have been many debates over whether or not violence on television causes aggressive behavior in children. Some studies have indicated that television leads to aggressive behavior while others suggest that it does not. For instance, psychologists have found that some cartoons are very violent and cause children to imitate aggressive behavior. However, the general public believes that children view cartoons funny and humorous. It is the parents’ responsibility to inform their children that the cartoons are not real.

What do you think?

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well-behaved people are held as exemplary models. For example, “Why don’t you

behave like your brother? See how quietly he sits at the dining table”.

Why do people imitate? People imitate because to imitate is reinforcing and to

do so is pleasurable. What are the sources of reinforcement in imitation? Imitation

may be reinforced in two ways:

Direct Reinforcement – it involves the direct reinforcement of the learner by

the model. The person imitates or models the behaviour he observes and is

directly reinforced. For example, a child is praised for imitating the behaviour

of his sister.

Vicarious Reinforcement – it involves deriving a secondhand type of

satisfaction from imitating. It is as though the individual observing a model

assumes that if the model does something she must do it because she derives

some reinforcement or pleasure from her behaviour. For example, in the Bobo

doll experiment, the child who saw the adult being rewarded for being

aggressive imitated the behaviour even though she did not experience

reinforcement directly. Therefore, in the observer’s logic, anyone else who

engaged in the same behaviour would receive the same reinforcement.

3.8 APPLICATIONS OF SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

The Bobo doll experiment helped Bandura theorise on the effects of violence

on TV. He believed that television was a source of behaviour modelling. Films

and television show violence graphically. Violence is often expressed as an

acceptable behaviour, especially when violent heroes are never be punished.

Since aggression is a prominent feature of many shows, children who have a

high degree of exposure to the media may exhibit a relatively high incidence

of hostility themselves in imitation of the aggression they have witnessed

(Berkowitz, 1962). There have been a number of deaths linked to violence on

television. For example, John Hinckley attempted to assassinate President

Ronald Reagan after he watched the movie "Taxi Driver" fifteen times.

Ronald Zamora brutally killed an elderly woman and pleaded insanity. His

attorney argued that Zamora’s was addicted to violence on television. As a

result, he could not differentiate between reality and fantasy. However,

Zamora was found guilty because the jury did not believe his defence (Siegel,

1992: p.172).

When a pupil is punished for breaking a school rule, other children are

watching the event and because of the principle of modelling, every kid is

being influenced. Each of them has learned about breaking school rules,

simply through observation. They have learned that if they break school rules

they will get into trouble.

Modelling theory is designed primarily to explain behavioral influence. It is

less useful in creating or understanding changes in thinking or feeling.

Therefore, whenever you want to influence behaviors, consider modeling. For

other types of changes, use other persuasion tools.

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3.9 THEORY OF MEANINGFUL LEARNING

You can approach a task in two different ways. For example, if you attempt to

memorise a series of numbers without relating the numbers to anything more than a

random series, that is rote learning. On the other hand, if you attempt to create some

connection to something that you already know, that is meaningful learning. Material

learned that is related to experiences or memories that are firmly stored in the

person’s memory is more likely to be retained. Rote learned materials are discrete and

isolated entities which have not been related to established concepts and may soon be

forgotten (Ausubel, 1962).

The experiences or memories that are firmly stored termed as ‘cognitive

structure consists of more or less organised and stable concepts (or ideas) in a

learner’s brain or cortex. The nature of the organisation is assumed to be hierarchical,

with the most inclusive (general) concept at the apex, and the increasingly specific

concepts toward the base.

David Ausubel, a medical practitioner introduced the notion of subsumption

(1962). Subsumption is the process by which new information enters the

consciousness and is directed or organised to fit within existing cognitive structure. In

other words, for information to become meaningful knowledge to a learner, it is

usually, according to Ausubel, subsumed under a broader, more inclusive piece of

meaningful knowledge closely related to it. For example, understanding of the

concept "pantun" is enhanced when we learn that it is a kind of poem (assuming we

understand what a poem is). The more distinct or different the new knowledge is from

the relevant subsumer, the harder it is to understand. The key to understanding, it

appears, is relating it to appropriate prior knowledge. Subsumption may take one of

two forms:

Derivative Subsumption

This is a situation in which a new concept (new information) that is learned is an

instance or example of a concept that has already been learned. For example, a

student has acquired the broad or general concept of “fish”, where it has scales,

fins, gills and lives in the water. Next, she learns about the “barracuda”, a big fish

she has never seen before. However, she is able to attach her knowledge about the

“barracuda” within the broad concept of “fish” without substantially altering the

concept. So, the learner has learned about “barracuda” through the process of

derivative subsumption.

3.7 ACTIVITY

a) “People imitate because they are reinforced”

Discuss.

b) Besides the examples given, give other examples to show

the application of social learning theory in the primary

and secondary school and higher education.

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Correlative Subsumption Now, what if the learner encounters a new kind of fish that does not have fins like

an “eel”? In order to attach this new information, the learner has to alter or

extend her broad concept of fish to include the possibility of fish having no

fins. The learner has learned about the new kind of fish through the process of

correlative subsumption.

3.10 APPLICATIONS OF THE THEORY OF MEANINGFUL

LEARNING

The ability to remember is a function of whether new material can be

associated with existing structure. After learning (subsumption), the newly

subsumed material becomes increasingly like the structure to which it was

incorporated

Instruction should proceed from the most general and inclusive towards

details of specific instances. The most general ideas of a subject should be

presented first and then progressively differentiated in terms of detail and

specificity.

Instructional materials should attempt to integrate new material with

previously presented information through comparisons and cross-

referencing of new and old ideas.

Teachers should not fall into the trap of asking students to learn material that

is inherently meaningless for them because they do not have the required

background information.

Advance organisers are concepts and ideas that are given to the learner prior

to material actually to be learned.

o They should be introduced in advance of learning and presented at a

higher level of abstraction, generality and inclusiveness.

o They should be selected on the basis of its suitability for explaining,

integrating and interrelating the new material.

o They aim to enhance the cognitive structure of the learner.

Advance organisers can take various forms:

o Chapter titles and section headings in a text to indicate to the reader

what the succeeding content is

o Introductory paragraphs serve to remind the learner of certain ideas

that are important in terms of their relationship to the new material.

o Cognitive maps and graphic organisers

o Diagrams, pictures and cartoons

ACTIVITY

a) What did Ausubel mean by ‘meaningful learning’?

b) Do you agree that prior knowledge plays an important

role in learning new knowledge?

c) Explain how your have used the notion of subsumption

In your teaching.

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REFERENCES:

Ausubel, D.P. (1962). A subsumption theory of meaningful verbal learning

and retention. The Journal of General Psychology, 66, 213-244.

Ausubel, D.P. and Fitzgerald, D. (1962). Organizer, general background, and

antecedent learning variables in sequential verbal learning. Journal of

Educational Psychology, 53(6), 243-249.

Piaget, J. (1970). Genetic epistemology. (E. Duckworth, Trans.). New York:

Columbia University Press.

Piaget, J. (1973). To Understand is to Invent. New York: Grossman, 1973.

Piaget, J. (1985). The equilibration of cognitive structures. Chicago, IL:

University of Chicago Press.

Bandura, A. (1962). Social learning through imitation. In M. Jones (Ed.),

Nebraska symposium on motivation (pp. 211-269). Lincoln, NE: University of

Nebraska Press.

Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-

Hall.

Bandura, A. (1975). Social Learning & Personality Development. Holt,

Rinehart & Winston, INC: NJ.

Kohler, W. (1925). The Mentality of Apes, 1925. London: Routledge & Kegan.

Kohler, W. (1959). Gestalt Psychology Today.

http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Kohler/today.htm