GeoJournalAs you read this chapter, use your journal to record similarities and differences in the ways people live in each of these threeareas: Australia, Oceania, and Antarctica. Useclear and concise language to note interest-ing details about the region.

Chapter Overview Visit the Glencoe WorldGeography Web site at tx.geography.glencoe.comand click on Chapter Overviews—Chapter 33 to preview information about the cultural geography of the region.

PopulationPatterns

A Geographic ViewDream JourneyLying back and looking at the night sky, I felt pulled upward into that shimmering immensity. . . .Laserlike, a shooting star cuts the sky . . . and you suddenlyunderstand how the Aborigines,who slept out here beneath these same stars for 50,000 years before the [Europeans]came, could devise their won-derful mythologies of the SkyHeroes who came down fromthe stars in that mystic Dream-time and shaped the landscape.

—Harvey Arden, “Journey Into Dreamtime,” National Geographic, January 1991

The Aborigines, Australia’s earliest people, feel adirect relationship to the landscape that has shaped their movementsthroughout the island continent. Physical geography also has influ-enced migration and settlement patterns of other peoples in Australiaand Oceania. In this section you will learn why Australia and Ocea-nia have diverse cultures and what geographic factors influencewhere their populations live. You will also visit Antarctica, the cold,icy continent at the bottom of the world.

Human CharacteristicsAustralia and Oceania have populations with diverse ancestries—

indigenous, European, and Asian. Both physical geography and themigration patterns of peoples have shaped the region’s cultures.

Guide to ReadingConsider What You KnowWhat images have you seen in thenews or in films of the various peo-ples living in Australia, Oceania, andAntarctica? What geographic factorsmight account for the ways peoplelive in each of these areas?

Read to Find Out• What peoples settled in Australia

and Oceania?

• How does the region’s geographyaffect population density, distribu-tion, and growth?

• What factors account for settle-ment in urban and rural areas?

Terms to Know• Strine

• pidgin English

Places to Locate• Kiribati

• Sydney

• Melbourne

C h a p t e r 3 3 811

Coastal scene,Papua New Guinea

Rock formations near Lake Argyle, Australia

812 U n i t 1 1

Rock Art The artistic tradition forwhich Australia’s Aborigines are bestknown is rock art. Rock paintings androck engravings, or petroglyphs, havediverse patterns and subject matterand may date from over 40,000 yearsago. In addition to stylized shapesand symbols, petroglyphs showedhuman faces and bodies. Huntingscenes and animals also oftenappeared in rock art. The meaningsof most of these paintings and petro-glyphs, however, remain unknown.

the arts of AUSTRALIA

Aborigines and MaoriAustralia’s Aborigines may have the oldest sur-

viving culture in the world. The name given to themby European settlers is from the Latin ab origine,meaning “from the beginning.” The first Aboriginesprobably arrived in Australia 40,000 to 60,000 yearsago from Southeast Asia. They lived as nomadichunters and gatherers in small kinship groups alongthe temperate coasts, in the northern rain forests,and across the vast interior deserts. Over the cen-turies, the Aborigines successfully learned to dealwith the challenges posed by these environments.Today, Aborigines number about 315,000, makingup about 2 percent of Australia’s population.

New Zealand’s indigenous peoples, known as theMaori (MOWR•ee), came from the Pacific islands ofPolynesia. In New Zealand they hunted, fished,established villages, and raised crops. Many ancientMaori traditions still remain a part of Maori life. Forexample, Maori communities hold festive gather-ings called hui in which important local events such

as weddings, funerals, and the dedication of newbuildings are celebrated. As a result of intermarriagewith European settlers over the years, most Maoripeople today have at least some European ancestry.

Pacific IslandersThe islands of Oceania were probably first set-

tled by peoples from Asia more than 30,000 yearsago. Waves of migrants from Asia continued toarrive over many centuries, while groups alreadyliving in the Pacific area moved from island toisland. Today many different peoples speakinghundreds of languages live on Oceania’s scatteredislands. However, there are three major indige-nous groups—Melanesians, Micronesians, andPolynesians—based on the island cluster on whicheach group lives. People on all three island clustersgenerally support themselves by fishing or farming.

The first cluster is Melanesia, located in thesouthwestern Pacific Ocean. It includes indepen-dent island countries, such as Papua New Guinea,Fiji, and the Solomon Islands, as well as French-ruled New Caledonia. Melanesian cultures differgreatly, even among groups living in differentparts of the same island.

Next is Micronesia, situated in the westernPacific east of the Philippines. Among theindependent countries of Micronesia are the Federated States of Micronesia, Nauru, and Kiribati (KIHR•uh•BAH•tee). The area alsoincludes the United States island territories ofGuam and the Marianas. Micronesians also haveseveral different languages and cultures.

The last cluster is Polynesia, located in the central Pacific area. Three independent countries—Samoa, Tonga, and Tuvalu—are found in Polynesia.Other island groups, known as French Polynesia,are under French rule and include Tahiti, Polynesia’slargest island. Most Polynesians share similar lan-guages and cultures.

EuropeansFrom the 1500s to the late 1700s, Europeans sailed

the waters around Australia, New Zealand, andOceania. They set up trading settlements and even-tually colonized the region. Europeans, mainly ofBritish descent, still make up most of the populationsof both Australia and New Zealand. Smaller num-bers of European groups live on various Pacific

C h a p t e r 3 3 813

percentage of the region’s land is unsuited forhuman habitation. As a result, the region has onlyone-half of one percent of the world’s population.

Population Distribution Because of uninhabitable land and vast differ-

ences in physical features and climates, populationin Australia and Oceania is unevenly distributed.Australia is the region’s most heavily populatedcountry. About two-thirds of the South Pacificarea’s 31 million people live in Australia, whichhas almost 90 percent of the region’s habitableland. Very few people, however, live in Australia’sdry central plateaus and deserts. Most live alongthe southeastern, eastern, and southwesterncoasts, which have a mild climate, fertile soil, and access to sea transportation. Most of NewZealand’s people also live in coastal areas.

Asian4%

Aboriginal andOther2%

Caucasian (White)

94%

Source: World Almanac, 2001

GRAPHSTUDY

Ethnic Groups of Australia

1. Interpreting Graphs What percentage ofAustralians trace their ancestry to Asia?

2. Applying Geography Skills Why has thenumber of Asian immigrants in Australiaincreased since the 1970s?

islands. For example, the French-ruled islands ofTahiti and New Caledonia are home to many peo-ple of European descent.

AsiansAsian communities also exist in the South

Pacific area. Chinese traders and South Asianworkers settled parts of Oceania during the1800s, and today their descendants are includedin the populations of places such as French Poly-nesia and Fiji. From the early 1900s to 1945,Japan ruled a number of Pacific islands, althoughfew people of Japanese descent live there today.Australia and New Zealand once blocked non-European immigration, but the need for moreworkers finally led to more open immigrationpolicies after the 1970s. Since then, increasingnumbers of East Asians and Southeast Asianshave migrated to Australia and New Zealand insearch of economic opportunity.

LanguagesBefore the era of modern transportation and

advanced communications, mountains, deserts,and ocean separated the peoples of the SouthPacific area. As a result, isolated groups developedmany different languages. Of the world’s 3,000languages, 1,200 are spoken today in Oceaniaalone, some by only a few hundred people.

European colonization brought European lan-guages to the region. Today French is widely spo-ken in areas of Oceania that remain under Frenchcontrol. English is the major language of Australiaand New Zealand. Australian English, calledStrine, has a unique vocabulary made up of Abo-riginal words, terms used by early settlers, andslang created by modern Australians. For exam-ple, Australians today call a barbecue a “barbie,”and greet each other with the phrase “G’day.”In many areas of Oceania, varieties of pidginEnglish, a blend of English and an indigenous lan-guage, developed to allow better communicationamong different groups.

Where People LiveAustralia, Oceania, and Antarctica span a vast

area; Australia and Oceania together cover about5.7 percent of the earth’s surface. However, a high

814 U n i t 1 1

DiversePeoples The South Pacific region is home bothto this indigenous man from Papua New Guinea(inset) and these children of European descent fromAustralia.

Place Where are the South Pacific’s most urban-ized areas located?

In Oceania, the population is divided unequallyamong the island countries. Papua New Guinealeads with about 5 million people, whereasNauru—the world’s smallest republic—has a pop-ulation of only 11,000. Many more Pacific islanderslive on their countries’ coasts than in the oftenrugged interiors.

Antarctica’s forbidding, icy terrain and mercilesspolar climate have never supported permanenthuman settlement. Conditions are difficult for allbut short-term stays by research scientists andadventurous tourists. Although Antarctica measuresabout 5.5 million square miles (14.2 million sq. km),most research stations cluster along the AntarcticPeninsula, where summer temperatures may rise toa relatively mild 32ºF (0ºC). During this season thepopulation of research stations reaches about 10,000,but only about 1,000 people remain during winter.

Population DensityLike population distribution, population den-

sity varies throughout the region. In Australia, forexample, the population density averages only6 people per square mile (2 per sq. km). In someinterior rural areas, a person can travel 100 miles(161 km) without seeing another human being. Incoastal urban areas, however, population densityis much higher. Australia’s urban areas are hometo 85 percent of the country’s total population.Like many developed countries, Australia has anaging population and a declining birthrate. YetAustralia’s population probably will continue toincrease because of immigration.

Oceania’s population is growing at an aver-age rate of 2.3 percent per year because it has arelatively young population. The land area ofOceania’s 25,000 islands totals only 551,059square miles (1,427,246 sq. km), and the popula-tion density varies greatly. Because Papua NewGuinea has a large area, its population density

is only 28 people per square mile (11 per sq. km).Tiny Nauru, measuring just 8 square miles (21 sq.km), has the highest population density in Oceania—about 1,412 people per square mile (545 per sq. km).In spite of its small area, mining of the island’s richphosphate deposits provides jobs and funding foreconomic development.

UrbanizationMost people in Australia and New Zealand live

in cities or towns along the temperate coasts. The largest Australian cities are Sydney and Melbourne—each with more than 3 million resi-dents. Sydney, located on the eastern coast, and Melbourne, on the southern coast, are port cities andcommercial centers. Other coastal urban areas inAustralia are Brisbane, Adelaide, and Perth. Fewpeople, on the other hand, live in the hot, dry climateof Australia’s interior.

New Zealand’s ports of Auckland, Christchurch,and Wellington are Oceania’s largest cities. Theseand other cities in the region offer newcomers oppor-tunities for a high standard of living, quality healthcare, and excellent education.

Urban areas in Australia and Oceania draw peo-ple from within their own countries as well as fromother countries. In Australia internal migration has

Checking for Understanding1. Define Strine, pidgin English.

2. Main Ideas On a chart like theone below, fill in three mainideas from the section and thenlist important supporting detailsfor each idea.

Critical Thinking3. Categorizing Information From

what areas have peoples migratedto Australia and Oceania?

4. Identifying Cause and EffectWhat geographic factors causemost of Australia’s population tocluster in coastal urban areas?

5. Predicting Consequences Whatare possible positive and negativeeffects as modern technology andtransportation attract more peo-ple to the South Pacific region?

Analyzing Maps6. Region Study the population

density map on page 786. What are the most sparsely populated areas of the SouthPacific region?

7. Movement and PopulationCreate two maps, one ofmigration patterns during thelast 100 years, and the othershowing population distribu-tion in the region today.

Applying Geography

Publicly funded programs provide travel assis-tance to immigrants and help them adjust to Australian society. Most immigrant workers settlein major industrialized cities because of high-paying jobs. Today about 26 percent of Australia’spopulation is foreign born. One worker fromLebanon describes his experience to a journalist:

“ In this one factory you had people frommaybe ten, twelve different countries,all speaking different languages. That’swhat Sydney was like. . . . It’s a beauti-ful . . . country—beautiful. Greatweather. Lovely lifestyle. Plenty of oppor-tunity if you want to work hard.”Bill Bryson, “Sydney,”

National Geographic, August 2000

Throughout Australia and Oceania, meeting theneeds of a growing multiethnic population is amajor concern. Diversity enriches the region’s lan-guages, arts, music, and lifestyles. At times, how-ever, this same diversity may cause disagreementsover issues such as immigration, health benefits,employment, and the effects of colonial rule. Thenext section highlights the legacy of the past andhow it shapes life in Australia and Oceania today.Antarctica, with no permanent population, has ahistory that is unique to that icy continent.

C h a p t e r 3 3 815

led to shifts in population distribution. During the1990s the population in rural areas declined whilethat of large cities and their suburbs grew rapidly.A similar pattern can be seen in Oceania, where 70percent of the population lives in urban areas.

Government

ImmigrationRapid expansion of industry after World War II

drew many immigrants to Australia. At first mostimmigrants came from European countries, suchas the United Kingdom, Greece, Yugoslavia, andthe Netherlands. In the 1980s Australia’s indus-tries still needed more workers, so the Australiangovernment created programs to attract peo-ple from other regions. Today immigrants comefrom South Africa and various parts of Asia andLatin America. A number of them also come fromOceania. Population growth and uneven eco-nomic development in the various Pacific islandscause many young people and skilled workers toseek work elsewhere.

Student Web Activity Visit the Glencoe World GeographyWeb site at tx.geography.glencoe.com and click on Student WebActivities—Chapter 33 for an activity about immigration and cultural diversity in Australia.

Main Ideas Supporting Details

Guide to ReadingConsider What You KnowVarious indigenous peoples lived in Australia and Oceania before the Europeans established coloniesthere. What indigenous groups invarious parts of the world have youread about or seen in movies or ontelevision?

Read to Find Out• What were the lifestyles of the

region’s indigenous peoplesbefore colonization?

• How did colonial rule affect social,economic, and political structures?

• How do today’s governmentsreflect the region’s history?

Terms to Know• clan

• boomerang

• trust territory

• dominion

Places to Locate• Vanuatu

• Tonga

816 U n i t 1 1

History andGovernment

A Geographic ViewPacific OriginsSamoa itself is said to mean “sacred center”. . . . [T]his is where the worldbegan as the creator, Tagaloalagi, firstcalled forth earth, sea, and sky fromrock. . . . Language links and arti-facts suggest that the first distinctlyPolynesian culture may have devel-oped here some 3,000 years ago. Over the centuries that followed,seafarers in double-hulled sailingvessels stocked with pigs, dogs,and fruits spread that cultureacross much of the Pacific.

—Douglas Chadwick, “The Samoan Way,” National Geographic, July 2000

European and American influences in the pastthree centuries have profoundly changed the indigenous peoples andcultures of the South Pacific area. In this section you will learn aboutthe early inhabitants of Australia and Oceania, the effects of Westernsettlement and rule in these areas, and the emergence of independentcountries and new governments during the past 100 years.

Indigenous PeoplesHistorians, anthropologists, archaeologists, and other scientists are

continually uncovering new information about the history of earlySouth Pacific peoples. At the same time, after years of Western dom-inance, indigenous peoples throughout the region are rediscoveringtheir historical roots and are renewing their traditional cultures. Allof these developments have heightened global interest in and appre-ciation of the South Pacific’s pre-European past.

Samoan diver in Pacific waters

C h a p t e r 3 3 817

Early MigrationsVarious peoples from Asia settled the region of

Australia and Oceania more than 40,000 years ago.Some may have migrated to Australia over landbridges during the Ice Age, when ocean levels weremuch lower than they are today. Others probablyused canoes and rafts to reach the South Pacificregion. The reason they came to these areas is a mys-tery. Because of their connection to the sea, some ofthese peoples, especially those who came to theSouth Pacific region, may have regarded explora-tion as a natural part of daily life. Author PeterCrawford, impressed with the daring of these earlyexplorers, described the early Polynesians:

“ A tenacious, seafaring people had aban-doned the shores of [S]outheast Asia andsailed into the Pacific. As their culturedeveloped, they acquired new skills of sur-vival, and new knowledge of the oceanworld which became their home. . . . The

vibrant Polynesian culture that grew andflourished . . . is testament to the inven-tion and adaptability of its people.”Peter Crawford, Nomads

of the Wind: A Natural History of Polynesia, 1993

Economics

Indigenous LifestylesIn the hot, dry Australian interior, the early

Aborigines led a nomadic life. They used well-traveled routes to reach water and seasonal foodsources. These same routes made trading andsocial exchanges possible. Clans, or familygroups, traveled together within their ancestralterritories, carrying only baskets, bowls, spears,and sticks for digging. To hunt animals, Aborigi-nal men used a heavy throwing stick, called aboomerang, that soars or curves in flight, and thewomen and children gathered plants and seeds.

In Oceania people settled in family groups alongisland coasts. For food they relied on fish, turtles,

The oldest music in Australia is that of the Aborigines. Music has always played a central role in both social and sacred life. Much of the traditional music inthis region is based on vocals, though windand percussion instruments arealso very important.

Instrument SpotlightIn its traditional form, the didgeridoo (DIH•juh•ree•DOO)was made by nature when a eucalyptus branch fell to theground and was hollowed out by termites. The Aboriginesconsidered it sacred and continue to make it an importantpart of their spiritual ceremonies. Didgeridoos have becomepopular outside Australia and are manufactured and playedall over the world. Through a combination of lip, tongue,and mouth movements, a wide variety of interestingsounds can be produced from this simple instrument.

music of AUSTRALIA

World Music: A Cultural Legacy Hear music of this region on Disc 2, Tracks 25–29.

818 U n i t 1 1

and shrimp as well as breadfruit and coconuts.Pacific islanders also cultivated root crops, such astaro and yams, and raised smaller animals, such aschickens and pigs. Well-built canoes made lengthyvoyages possible, and trade gradually developedamong the islands. To make trading easier, peopleon some islands used long strings of shell pieces asmoney. Today in New Britain, an island off thenortheast coast of Papua New Guinea, shellmoney still is exchanged for canned goods or veg-etables at markets.

Increased trade was accompanied by migrationsamong the islands. Between the A.D. 900s and 1300s,the Maori people left eastern Polynesia and settled

N

P a c i f i c

O c e a n

HawaiianIslands

Guam

CookIslands

SocietyIslandsTahiti

PitcairnIsland

NewHebrides

NewCaledonia

MarianaIslands

Caroline Islands

TokelauIslands

TuamotuArchipelago

MarquesasIslands

ElliceIslands

FriendlyIslands

NorfolkIsland

Tasmania

OceanIsland

WakeIsland

ChristmasIsland

LordHoweIsland

Papua

GermanNew Guinea

MarshallIslands

GilbertIslands

PalmyraIslands

MidwayIslands

PhoenixIslands

Nauru

Samoa

Fiji Is.

SolomonIslands

PalauIslands

NewZealand

A u s t r a l i a

INT

ERN

AT

ION

AL

DA

TE

LIN

E

180° 160°W 140°W

20°N

20°S

40°S

0°

160°E140°E120°E

EQUATOR

TROPIC OF CANCER

TROPIC OF CAPRICORN

Miller Cylindrical projection1,500

1,5000

0 km

mi.

MAP STUDY

Australia and Oceania: Colonies, 1900

2. Applying Geography Skills Why do you thinkthe United States took over Guam?

Find NGS online map resources @ www.nationalgeographic.com/maps

BritishFrenchU.S.German

Colonies, 1900

1. Interpreting Maps What two countries ruledthe area of Samoa?

the islands of New Zealand. On New Zealand’sNorth Island and South Island, Maori groupshunted, fished, established villages, and farmed theland. Maori farmers, like the Pacific islanders, grewroot crops, such as taro and yams, which they hadbrought from their Polynesian homeland.

European ColonizationFrom the 1500s to the 1700s, Europeans of various

nationalities explored vast stretches of the SouthPacific region. Perhaps the most well-known explorerwas the British sailor James Cook, who under-took three voyages to the region between 1768 and

C h a p t e r 3 3 819

1779. Cook claimed eastern Australia for GreatBritain, visited various South Pacific islands, circledAntarctica, and produced remarkably accuraterecords and maps of these places.

European Settlement Great Britain at first used Australia as a colony

for convicts sent out from overcrowded Britishprisons. The first shipload of prisoners arrived atBotany Bay, in what is today Sydney, in 1788. Bythe early 1850s, the imprisonment of British con-victs in Australia had ended, and growing numbersof free British settlers were establishing coastalfarms and settlements. Livestock, especially sheep,were introduced to the continent. As British textile manufacturers increased their demand for wool,Australian settlers profited greatly from export-ing wool to the parent country. Another source ofwealth for Australia was gold, which was discov-ered there in the early 1850s. The resulting goldrush nearly tripled Australia’s population in 10years and also promoted the mining of other min-eral resources in the continent’s interior.

Meanwhile, the British and other Europeans werealso establishing settlements in Oceania. Attractedby excellent fishing waters and rich soil, British set-tlers arrived in New Zealand in the early 1800s.They brought with them sheep, cattle, and horses.By the end of the century, raising livestock hadbecome a major part of New Zealand’s economy. Onsome South Pacific islands, European business-people set up commercial plantations for growingsugarcane, pineapples, and other tropical products.

Indigenous PeoplesThe arrival of Europeans in Australia and

Oceania had a disastrous impact on indigenouspeoples. As British migrants spread acrossAustralia, they forcibly removed the Aboriginesfrom the land and denied them basic rights.Many Aborigines resisted the European advance,but European diseases and weapons steadilyreduced the Aboriginal population. In the mid-1800s, British-Australian authorities placed manyAborigines in reserves, or separate areas.

British settlement in New Zealand brought hard-ships to the Maori, who died from diseases carriedby the newcomers. The Maori social structure alsowas weakened when the British colonists intro-duced new ways of farming and other aspects of

European culture. As the number of European set-tlers increased, the British and some Maori chiefssigned a treaty in 1840 that guaranteed the Maorifull rights under the British monarchy. Disagree-ments about the treaty, however, led to armed Maoriresistance to British rule over the next 15 years. Dur-ing these conflicts, many Maori were killed, and theMaori gradually lost most of their land to the British.

The Europeans also brought far-reaching changesto the other peoples of Oceania. Because Europeandiseases had reduced indigenous island populations,the Europeans brought in workers from other Pacificislands and from more distant areas, such as SouthAsia. The resulting mix of cultures weakened indige-nous societies and eventually led to ethnic conflicts.Meanwhile, Europeans sought to replace traditionalways of life with European beliefs and practices.

Struggle for PowerDuring the late 1800s and early 1900s, Britain,

France, Germany, Spain, and the United States strug-gled for control of various Pacific islands. Many ofthese countries already had commercial interests inthe area. The Europeans hoped to expand their influ-ence and gain new sources of raw materials.

The two World Wars changed the course ofOceania’s history. After World War I, many of Germany’s Pacific colonies came under Japaneserule. Then in December 1941, Japanese airplanesbombed the United States Naval Base at PearlHarbor in Hawaii. This attack brought the UnitedStates into World War II. During the conflict theUnited States and Japan fought a number of fiercebattles on Pacific islands such as Guadalcanal andIwo Jima.

Following Japan’s defeat in World War II, Japan’sSouth Pacific possessions, such as the islands ofMicronesia, were turned over to the United Statesas trust territories. Trust territories were depen-dent areas that the United Nations placed underthe temporary control of a foreign country. Sincethe 1970s most of these islands, including Palau,the Marshall Islands, and the Federated States ofMicronesia, have become independent countries.

Independent GovernmentsIndependence came to most of the South Pacific

region during the 1900s. Australia and New Zealand

recognize women’s right to vote. New Zealandalso was among the first countries to provide gov-ernment assistance to the elderly, the sick, and theunemployed.

Until World War II, New Zealand and Australiamaintained close economic, military, and politicalties to Great Britain, now known as the UnitedKingdom. After 1945 British global influencedeclined, and the two Pacific countries lookedincreasingly to the United States for trade andmilitary protection. In addition, Australia andNew Zealand developed their own national char-acters based on increasingly diverse populations.The Aborigines and the Maori won greater recog-nition of their unique cultural identities, andmany non-British immigrants settled in bothcountries. In the 1990s, Australians and NewZealanders took the first steps toward cuttingties to the British monarchy as a result of thesechanges. Many Australians today want theircountry to become a republic, with an Australian-born president as head of state.

South Pacific IslandsBeginning in the 1960s, a

number of the small islands inOceania moved toward inde-pendence. Samoa—formerlyWestern Samoa—had beenruled by Germany until NewZealand assumed control afterWorld War I. In 1962 Samoabecame the first Pacific islandterritory to win its freedom.Today most of the SouthPacific islands enjoy someform of independent govern-ment. For example, Vanuatu,once jointly governed by theUnited Kingdom and France,is a republic, and Tonga, for-merly under British protection,is a constitutional monarchy.Some island countries, such as

Fiji and the Solomon Islands, have been torn by eth-nic conflict since independence. Many conflictshave roots in colonial times, when European rulersbrought in foreign workers from other cultures,ignoring traditional ethnic and cultural patterns.

Promoting Culture An indigenous group inPapua New Guinea perform traditional ceremonialdances.

Place When did most countries in Oceania gaintheir independence?

became the region’s first independent countries inthe early 1900s. By the century’s end, most of thePacific islands had gained independence.

Australia and New ZealandAustralia and New Zealand both peacefully won

their independence from British rule. In 1901Britain’s Australian colonies became states, united to form the Commonwealth of Australia. The newAustralian country was a dominion, a largely self-governing country within the British Empire. Australia’s form of government blended a UnitedStates-style federal system with a British-style parliamentary democracy. The British monarch—represented by a governor general—served asAustralia’s head of state, but a prime ministeractually headed the national government.

In 1907 New Zealand became a self-governingdominion with a British parliamentary system.New Zealanders, however, contributed some polit-ical “firsts” of their own. In 1893 New Zealandbecame the first country in the world to legally

Checking for Understanding1. Define clan, boomerang, trust

territory, dominion.

2. Main Ideas Use a chart like theone below to organize factorsthat contributed to the region’scultural diversity and forms ofgovernment.

Critical Thinking3. Identifying Cause and Effect

What effects, both positive andnegative, resulted from Europeancolonization in this region?

4. Comparing and ContrastingCompare and contrast the viewsof South Pacific indigenous peo-ples and European settlers aboutthe land—its value, ownership,and use.

5. Making Generalizations How hasAntarctica benefited from inter-national cooperation?

Analyzing Maps6. Place Study the map on page 785.

Identify an island or a group ofislands that is today under therule of the United States.

7. Physical Geography andMigration Think about whyand how people and goodsmoved throughout Oceania.Write a paragraph describ-ing the reasons for thismigration and how signifi-cant physical features influ-enced it.

Applying Geography

AntarcticaEuropeans first sighted Antarctica during the

early 1800s, but they believed that the icy conti-nent had little, if any, commercial value. As aresult, expeditions did not venture into Antarcticauntil much later. In the early 1900s, Norwegianexplorer Roald Amundsen and British explorerRobert Scott, each with a team of four people,engaged in a dramatic race to be the first to reachthe South Pole. Amundsen’s team reached it onDecember 14, 1911; Scott’s team arrived about amonth later. Unfortunately, Scott and his teamdied on the return trip.

The race for the South Pole opened the rest ofAntarctica for exploration. On their quests, Antarcticexplorers looked for economic resources as well asadventure in the frozen landscape. The countriesthey represented hoped for new trading routesand seal-hunting areas as well as Antarctic mineralresources. Nonetheless, much of Antarctica re-mained unexplored until advances in radio com-munication and air travel made exploration easierand safer.

By the 1960s, scientists from 12 countries hadestablished research centers in Antarctica. To pre-serve Antarctica as a peaceful scientific researchsite, the 12 countries signed the Antarctic Treaty in1959. Since then, a number of other countries have

C h a p t e r 3 3 821

Cold as Ice The Amundsen-Scott Station, managed by the United States, lies close to theSouth Pole on ice nearly 2 miles (3.2 km) deep.

Place What is the purpose of the Antarctic Treaty?

agreed to abide by the treaty. In 1991 the treatycountries made an additional agreement to pro-hibit mining and to protect the environment of thisunique continent.

Indigenous European PowerPeoples Colonization Struggles

AN EXPEDITION CARRYING TONS OFCANDY, 500 cases of eggs, and 60,000sheets of writing paper? Where mightsuch an expedition be headed? Whatconditions would warrant such provi-

sions? These were a small portion of the supplieson a ship that left New York City in 1928, headedfor Antarctica. Also aboard were United StatesNavy officer Richard E. Byrd and a crew of 53scientists and other professionals.

Lure of the Unknown

The Byrd Antarctic Expedition set out to estab-lish a foothold in one of the most ferocious cli-mates on Earth. Antarctica is the world’s coldestplace, where winter temperatures can drop to–129°F (–89°C). Thick ice buries most of thecontinent.Violent winds lash the Polar Plateau,where the South Pole lies. Glaciers spill outbetween mountain peaks that rim the coast, cre-ating vast ice shelves that limit access by sea.

In 1928 little was known about Antarctica.Whalers and sealers had hunted its coastalwaters in the 1800s. In 1911 Antarctica was thesite of the tragic race to the South Pole—RoaldAmundsen of Norway made it back, whileBritish explorer Robert Falcon Scott and histeam perished. Other than these brave souls,few people had ventured inland. Admiral Byrdwas determined to change that.

Ice front1956

Little America I & II: 1929-30and 1934-35

Little America V:1956

Little America III:1940-41

Little America IV:1947

A N TA R C T I C A

ROSSICE

SHELF

Polar Plateau

SouthPole

Admiral Byrd (at left) and companions visitLittle America. An American stamp commemo-rates one of Byrd’s expeditions to Antarctica.

▲

JOURNEY TO THE BOTTOM OF THE WORLDJOURNEY TO THE BOTTOM OF THE WORLD

AND

GEOGRAPHYHISTORY

822 U n i t 1 1

Little America

Before leaving New York, Byrd spent three years preparing for theinhuman conditions in Antarctica. He worked with numerous expertsto determine vital supplies. Clothing was especially important. Rein-deer fur proved the warmest and was used for parkas, pants, andboots. Other animal skins, such as sealskin, also were used.

Stopping in New Zealand, the last outpost of civilization, the ex-pedition still had to negotiate iceberg-filled waters to reach the RossIce Shelf, the thick expanse of Antarctic ice that would be home for14 months. Arriving in late 1928, the crew and 80 sled dogs movedmore than 650 tons (590 t) of material from ship to shore. The crewbuilt the first scientific station on the frozen continent. A villagecomplete with multiple weather-tight buildings, bunkhouses, andstorerooms, the station was named Little America.

Once Little America was established, Byrd launched his assault onAntarctica. Using an airplane he had brought by ship, Byrd and hiscrew made numerous flights over vast areas never seen by humans.Byrd’s expedition accomplished many firsts: a flight over the SouthPole, the mapping of 150,000 square miles (388,000 sq. km) of newterritory, the invention of specialized instruments, and more.

Byrd returned to Antarctica four more times to supervise thecompletion of Little America II through V. His expeditions laid thegroundwork for future research and international cooperation. Todaythe United States and many other countries maintain scientific sta-tions in Antarctica. Scientists work on a variety of projects there,from studying animal behavior to monitoring ozone depletion andglobal warming.

1821 American seal huntersmake first known land-ing on Antarctica

1901 British explorer RobertF. Scott begins firstinland exploration

1911 Norwegian RoaldAmundsen is first toreach South Pole

1928 Admiral Byrd (onmedal, above) estab-lishes Little America I(background photo)

1929 Byrd makes first flightover South Pole

1933–1955Byrd establishes LittleAmerica II through V

1959 Twelve countries signAntarctic Treaty, pre-serving Antarctica forpeaceful endeavors

Crunching through ice,the U.S.S. Glacierbrings Admiral Byrdand crew back toAntarctica in 1955.

▲

Looking Ahead

How did the hardships and dangers Byrd and his comradesendured benefit humankind? How might Antarctic research beimportant to the future of life on Earth?

U n i t 1 1 823

Guide to ReadingConsider What You KnowWorld music, which includes musicalexpressions from many cultures, hasbecome very popular in the UnitedStates. What instruments or types of music have you heard that comefrom other parts of the world?

Read to Find Out• What role does religion play in the

region’s cultures?

• How have the peoples of Australiaand Oceania expressed their her-itages through the arts?

• How does everyday life in theregion reflect cultural diversity?

Terms to Know• subsistence farming

• fale

Places to Locate• Papua New Guinea

• Samoa

Cultures andLifestyles

A Geographic ViewLiving in AustraliaWe’re connected to Europe and NorthAmerica culturally, but we’re in an Asian time zone, which gives us anadvantage. We have a highly educatedworkforce, . . . a first-rate interna-tional airport, good communications,and a stable and sophisticated finan-cial system. We have a wonderfulclimate and attractive lifestyle—good restaurants, nice beaches, anoptimistic way of looking at theworld that I think outsiders findattractive. Once you develop acritical mass of those things, you find that more and more people want to come and be part of it.

—Sydney mayor Frank Sartor, quoted by Bill Bryson, “Sydney,” National Geographic, August 2000

Australia, like other South Pacific countries,blends both European and indigenous elements in its culture. Inrecent years Asian influences also have increased in the region. In thissection you will learn about the religions, arts, and lifestyles of thepeoples of Australia and Oceania.

A Blend of CulturesThe movement of different peoples into the South Pacific region

has contributed to the shaping of cultures there. Indigenous peoplesdeveloped lifestyles in harmony with their natural environment.Later, European immigrants brought their ways of life, using theenvironment to build Western-oriented societies.

824 U n i t 1 1

A girl visits Sydney, Australia

C h a p t e r 3 3 825

ReligionThe religious traditions of the region’s indige-

nous peoples focus on the relationship of humansto nature. Australia’s Aborigines, for example,believe in the idea of Dreamtime, the early timewhen they say wandering spirits created land fea-tures, plants, animals, and humans. They believethat all natural things—rocks, trees, plants, ani-mals, and humans—have a spirit and are interre-lated. Europeans later brought Christianity, whichattracted many followers among the indigenouspeoples. Christianity is the most widely practicedreligion in Australia and Oceania today.

The ArtsSouth Pacific peoples traditionally used art, music,

dance, and storytelling to pass on knowledge fromgeneration to generation. Australian Aborigines,for example, recorded their past in rock paintingsand developed songs to pass on information about

routes and landmarks. In New Zealand, Maoriartisans developed skills in canoe making, bas-ketry, tattooing, and woodcarving. Today Maorimeeting houses are decorated with elaboratewood carvings.

After a time of copying European themes andstyles, European artists in the region began lookingto the South Pacific environment for inspiration.

“ Strong emotional ties with the land … arenot the sole preserve of the Aborigines….Australian writers and poets, …composersand painters [have] come to realise that atangle of eucalyptus trees, red gums in adried-up steam bed, red rocks and drip-ping rain forest can have their own power-ful visual appeal.”Roger Fenby, “Walkabout Oz,”

BBC World Service (online), August 4, 2000

Protestant

Anglican

Eastern Orthodox

Hindu

7,279,000

5,386,000

691,000

Roman Catholic

349,000

Other religions 1,232,000

3,628,000Nonreligious

8,097,000

Religion Number of Followers

Sources: Britannica Book of the Year, 2000; World Almanac, 2001

RomanCatholic30%

Anglican

20%

Protestant27.9%

Nonreligious13.6%

Otherreligions4.6%

Eastern Orthodox 2.6%

Hindu 1.3%

GRAPH STUDY

Australia and Oceania: Religions

2. Applying Geography Skills Why do you thinkChristian religions are dominant in the region?

1. Interpreting Graphs Which two religions havethe largest number of followers in the region?

In recent decades the South Pacific region hasproduced a number of outstanding musicians,writers, and artists. Australia’s Joan Sutherlandand New Zealand’s Kiri Te Kanawa becamefamous opera performers. New Zealand authorSylvia Ashton Warner wrote of her experiences asa schoolteacher in Maori communities. Australianwriter Thomas Keneally wrote the novelSchindler’s List, which was later made into anaward-winning motion picture.

Australia and New Zealand also have con-tributed well-known movie stars such as Mel Gib-son, Nicole Kidman, and Russell Crowe.Filmmakers in both countries have made popularmotion pictures, such as Gallipoli, Crocodile Dundee,Muriel’s Wedding, and The Piano.

Everyday LifeIn many parts of Australia and Oceania, people

have urban lifestyles that reflect modern influ-ences. In other places in the region, people live ina more traditional way.

Economics

Traditional and Modern LifestylesSome Pacific island countries, such as Papua

New Guinea, produce cash crops, including sugar-cane, coffee, ginger, and copra––dried coconutmeat. Others, such as Kiribati, have soil that is toopoor for plantation agriculture. Many Pacificislanders work at subsistence farming, growingonly enough for their own needs. These farmersgrow bananas, coconuts, or sweet potatoes; raisechickens and pigs; or fish in ocean waters. Otherislanders work in government offices, in the touristtrade, or in other service industries.

Kinship ties are the basis of traditional lifethroughout the region, but these bonds have weak-ened as young people find better job opportunitieselsewhere. Even so, important events draw distantfamily members back home and help maintain theculture.

A typical traditional South Pacific home is verysimple in design. On Samoa, this type of simpledwelling is called a fale and has a thatched roof for

shelter and open sides that allow coolingocean breezes to circulate. Blinds of coconutpalm leaves can be lowered for privacy.

The simplicity of South Pacific island lifecontrasts greatly with the fast-paced, urban-ized lifestyle in parts of Australia and NewZealand, where people are linked to thecities by roads and modern communicationstechnology. A mild climate and nearness tothe sea enable many people in the SouthPacific region to enjoy outdoor activities.

Education and Health CareThe quality of education varies throughout

the region. Both Australia and New Zealandprovide free, compulsory education until age15. Literacy rates are high in these two coun-tries, and many students attend universities.Many students in Australia’s remote outbackreceive and turn in assignments by mailor communicate with teachers by two-wayradios.

Australians and New Zealanders, especiallythose in cities, generally have access to qualitymedical care and other social services. In some partsof Australia, rugged terrain and long distances

826 U n i t 1 1

Simple Living This local government build-ing in Papua New Guinea reflects the country’straditional architectural styles.

Place What are major features of a typical SouthPacific home?

Checking for Understanding1. Define subsistence farming, fale.

2. Main Ideas On a web like the onebelow, fill in important ideas andsupporting details from each section to describe the cultureand lifestyles of the region.

Critical Thinking3. Drawing Conclusions How does

the art of the South Pacific reflectthe artists’ physical environment?

4. Comparing and Contrasting Howdoes education in the South Pacificdiffer from education in yourcommunity?

5. Predicting Consequences Howmight the Internet and e-mailchange education in Oceania?

Analyzing Maps6. Location Examine the political

map on page 785. Which Pacificislands are administered by NewZealand?

7. Forms of Government Com-pare the political-physicalmaps on pages 117 and795. How might Australia,Canada, and the UnitedStates be similar in the waythey distribute governmen-tal powers?

Applying Geography

make access to health care difficult. Modern tech-nology, however, allows doctors to consult withpatients through the use of two-way radios andthrough mobile clinics of the Flying Doctor Service.

Indigenous peoples, however, often do notreceive these and other benefits. For example, manyAborigines suffer from poverty, malnutrition, andunemployment. In recent years the Australian gov-ernment and private organizations have been try-ing to make up for past injustices, and the courtshave recognized the claims of Aborigines to gov-ernment assistance, land, and natural resources.

Many Pacific islanders also lack an adequatestandard of living. On remote islands, fresh food,electricity, schools, and hospitals often are limited.Recently island countries, with international assis-tance, have begun to improve their quality of life.

Sports and LeisureSports and leisure activities reflect the region’s

diversity. Western-style resorts attract tourists tothe beaches, where they and the local peopleenjoy the traditional Pacific island sport of surf-ing. Traditional sports, such as outrigger canoeracing or spearfishing, are popular, as are West-ern sports. For example, British settlers broughtcricket and rugby to Australia and New Zealand.

In former American territories, islanders playbaseball. The French introduced cycling andarchery to islands they controlled. Even smallcommunities often have facilities for these and

other sports, such as soccer, volleyball, and tennis.In urban areas of Australia and New Zealand,where Western influence dominates, leisure activi-ties include boating, fishing, waterskiing, andother water sports along the metropolitan beaches.

In the next chapter, you will learn how peoplein Australia and Oceania are meeting the chal-lenges of their environment.

C h a p t e r 3 3 827

Culture Everyday Life

Cricket Cricket, first played in England during thelate 1500s, today is a popular sport in New Zealand.

Place What other sports are played in Australia and Oceania?

Religion Art

828 U n i t 1 1

Learning the SkillScientists use LANDSAT images

to receive a broad view of thesurface of the earth. LANDSATrefers to a series of observa-tion satellites that have beenlaunched by the United Statessince 1972. The most recent satel-lite, LANDSAT 7, was launched onApril 15, 1999. Orbiting at an alti-tude of 500 miles (805 km), LAND-SAT spacecraft have recordedmillions of images of the earth.

The main purpose of LANDSATis to map and monitor naturalresources and changes to theenvironment. Farmers, govern-ment officials, environmentalists,and the military use LANDSATdata, which can be helpful inmaking decisions that affect thehealth of the planet. For exam-ple, these satellites can identifythe locations of tropical forestsand provide information aboutthe rates and effects of defor-estation.

One of LANDSAT’s main ben-efits is its ability to captureimages of every place on Earth.LANDSAT 7 completes a fullorbit of the earth every 99 min-utes, allowing over 14 orbits aday. LANDSAT 7 is able to pro-vide photographic coverage ofthe entire earth in only 16 days.

Follow these steps to analyzea LANDSAT image:

• Read the title. This featureexplains the data being col-lected, the location, and thetime period.

• Study the image carefully. Inthe images on this page, redindicates healthy vegetation,light blue areas indicatedeforested land, and lightblue lines indicate roads.

• Compare different images ofthe same place. Noticechanges that occur over time.

• Think about what has causedthe changes and how theymay affect the area’s physicaland human geography.

Practicing the SkillThe LANDSAT images on this

page show an area of tropicalforest in Brazil as it appearedin 1975 and in 1992. Use theimages to answer the follow-ing questions.

1. Which image shows largeareas of undisturbed tropicalforest?

2. Compare the area in 1975 tothe area in 1992.

3. How is the pattern of defor-estation in the 1992 imageconnected to roadways?

4. How do you think theseareas have changed intoday’s LANDSAT images?Explain your reasoning.

Analyzing LANDSAT ImagesScientists and researchers who study the earth use satellites to

help them gather data. Photographs taken by these satellitesorbiting the earth provide a detailed record of conditions andchanges on the earth’s surface.

Deforestation in Rondônia, Brazil

1975 1992

Locate LANDSAT images of Australia, Oceania, or Antarcticaon the Internet. For each image,list its location and the kindsof data it includes. Choose oneimage, and write a paragraphdescribing two possible uses forthe data.

SUMMARY & STUDY GUIDE

Key Points• Many different peoples settled in the South

Pacific, resulting in diverse cultures andlifestyles.

• The population of the South Pacific is unevenlydistributed because both the physical geogra-phy and the climate differ dramatically fromplace to place and because many areas cannotsupport life.

• Migration between and within South Pacificcountries has influenced population patternsand caused a blending of cultures.

Organizing Your NotesUse a graphic organizer like theone below to help you organizeyour notes about the populationpatterns of the South Pacific.

Terms to Know• clan• boomerang• trust territory• dominion

Key Points• Many of the area’s earliest inhabitants came

from Southeast Asia and survived by hunting,gathering, and, in some cases, farming.

• European countries were attracted to the areaby its raw materials, rich fishing areas, and fertile coastal land.

• During the late 1800s and early 1900s, Euro-pean countries, Japan, and the United Statessought possessions in the region.

• Australia, New Zealand, and a number ofPacific islands are independent; a few islandgroups are still under foreign rule.

Organizing Your NotesCreate an outline using the for-mat below to help you organizeyour notes for this section.

Terms to Know• Strine• pidgin English

Terms to Know• subsistence

farming• fale

Organizing Your NotesUse a web like the one below tohelp you organize your notesfor this section.

SECTION 1 Population Patterns (pp. 811–815)

SECTION 2 History and Government (pp. 816–821)

SECTION 3 Cultures and Lifestyles (pp. 824–827)

C h a p t e r 3 3 829

Populations Migration

I. Indigenous PeoplesA. Early MigrationsB. Indigenous Lifestyles

II.

History and Government

Cultures and Lifestyles

ModernTraditional

Key Points• The culture of the South Pacific is a mixture

of Western and indigenous lifestyles.

• Some people in the area still live in traditionalvillages; others live in modern urban areas.

• Modern technology helps provide services topeople in some remote areas.

Critical Thinking1. Identifying Cause and Effect How did

the South Pacific’s physical geography con-tribute to its cultural diversity?

2. Comparing and Contrasting In whatways were European influences similar inAustralia and in New Zealand? Different?

3. Problem Solving Use a Venn diagramto compare the lifestyles and living standardsof indigenous and European peoples in theregion.

Reviewing Key TermsWrite the key term that best completes each ofthe following sentences. Refer to the Terms toKnow in the Summary & Study Guide on page 829.

1. The Micronesian islands became a(n) ________after World War II.

2. In some parts of Oceania, ________ is spoken.

3. Australians speak ________, a dialect of English.

4. A(n) ________ provides simple shelter on trop-ical islands.

5. In 1901 Australia became a(n)________ of Great Britain.

6. Some islanders still make theirlivings by ________.

7. The ________ was originally ahunting tool.

8. Each aboriginal family grouptraveled as a(n) ________.

Reviewing Facts

SECTION 11. Who were the original settlers

of Australia, New Zealand, andOceania?

2. How has geography influencedsettlement patterns in the region?

SECTION 23. What ways of life did Pacific

indigenous peoples practice?

4. In what ways did European set-tlement influence the region?

5. Why was the Antarctic treatyestablished in 1959?

SECTION 36. How have the arts enriched life in

the South Pacific region?

7. What are some characteristics ofmodern lifestyles in Australia, NewZealand, and Oceania?

Locating PlacesAustralia and Oceania:Political Geography

Match the letters on the map with the places in Australia and WesternOceania. Write your answers on a sheet of paper.

140°E 150°E120°E 130°E

0°

10°S

10°N

20°S

30°S

40°S

160°E 170°E 180° 170°W

TROPIC OF CAPRICORN

EQUATOR

INT

ERN

AT

ION

AL

DA

TE

LIN

E

A

D B

E

G

H

F

IC

N

Miller Cylindrical projection1,500

1,5000

0

mi.

km

ASSESSMENT & ACTIVITIES

830 U n i t 1 1

1. Papua New Guinea2. Sydney3. Auckland

4. Melbourne5. Canberra6. Perth

7. Brisbane8. Adelaide9. Wellington

EuropeanIndigenous

PeopleBoth

C h a p t e r 3 3 831

Self-Check Quiz Visit the Glencoe WorldGeography Web site at tx.geography.glencoe.comand click on Self-Check Quizzes—Chapter 33 toprepare for the Chapter Test.

Using the Regional AtlasRefer to the Regional Atlas on pages 784–787.

1. Region What part of Australia has mostof the country’s coal deposits?

2. Human-Environment Interaction Whichphysical features limit economic activity incentral Australia?

Thinking Like a GeographerAnalyze the effects of processes, such as migra-tion and colonization, on the traditional culturesof the South Pacific’s indigenous peoples.

Problem-Solving ActivityContemporary Issues Case Study The issueof land rights in Australia and New Zealandinvolves cultural divergence, or separation,between indigenous peoples and those currentlyusing the land. Use print resources and the Inter-net to research the opposing viewpoints on thisissue. Then, write a paragraph stating a possiblesolution.

GeoJournalExpository Writing Using the information youlogged in your GeoJournal as you read this chap-ter, write a paragraph comparing and contrastingtwo cultures in the region. Use your textbookand the Internet as resources to make your infor-mation as clear and accurate as possible. Providevisuals to illustrate your ideas.

Technology ActivityUsing the Internet for Research

Use the Internet to research a specific culturalgroup in the region. Identify at least three Websites you used in your research. After you havecompleted your research, create a poster to illus-trate one aspect of the group’s culture, such ashomes, clothing, or the arts.

Choose the best answer for each of the follow-ing multiple-choice questions. If you havetrouble answering the questions, use theprocess of elimination to narrow your choices.

1. Which of the following has NOT influ-enced population distribution in theSouth Pacific?

A European colonizationB Geographic featuresC Animal domesticationD Climate

2. When a group of people is described asindigenous, it means that they are

F highly dependent on the agriculture of a region.

G the governing party of a region.H the earliest inhabitants of a land.J a culturally isolated group.

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Read the question carefully to deter-mine what is being asked. For eachanswer choice, consider what factors

may have the capacity to influence population distri-bution. Eliminate answer choices in which a directcorrelation may be made. Do not forget to incorpo-rate your knowledge of the region and cultures intoyour decision.

Consider all of the times you mayhave heard this word used and inwhat context you heard it being used.

Try to find elements with the structure of the word,such as suffixes, prefixes, and roots, that may revealsomething about its meaning.