Chapter 31: Societies at Crossroads

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The Ottoman Empire in DeclineHeight of Ottoman military expansion in late seventeenth century

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The Ottoman Empire in Decline

At its height in the 1600s, the Ottoman Empire had 29 provinces and several tributary states.

More Independent Provinces: By the 1700s, semi-independent local warlords use mercenaries and slave armies to support sultan in exchange for imperial favor.

Central Government Receives Less Revenue: By the 1700s, many local administrators carry out massive corruption, misusing tax revenues. Central government becomes less effective.

Defeats in War: In the 1700s and 1800s, territorial holdings are gradually diminished through defeats in unproductive and costly wars.

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The Ottoman Empire in Decline

The Austrians, Russians, and British, among others, beat the Ottomans in many different wars largely due to European advances in technology and strategy.

Russo-Turkish Wars (1735-1739; 1768-1774; 1787-1792; 1806–1812; 1828–1829; 1877–1878)

Austro-Turkish Wars (1716–1718; 1787–1791) Crimean War (1853-1856): Conflict between Russian Empire

against the French, British, and Ottomans.

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The Ottoman Empire in Decline

The elite Janissary corps, the best Ottoman soldiers, become corrupt and less fearsome warriors. They become more interested in palace intrigue than fighting wars.

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British painting of a Janissary in the early 19th century

The Ottoman Empire in Decline

Napoleon’s unsuccessful invasion of Egypt (1798-1801) triggers local revolt against Mamluks/Ottomans under Muhammad Ali (r. 1805-1848) Muhammad Ali fights two wars

against the Ottomans (1831-1833 and 1839-1841)

Nominally subordinate to Sultan, butthreatened the capture of Istanbul in 1839

British support Ottomans only to avoid possible Russian expansion

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Portrait of Muhammad Ali in 1840

The Ottoman Empire in Decline

Nationalist uprisings drive Ottomans out of Balkans

Greek War of Independence (1821-1832) Serbia revolts from 1804-1817 and gains some autonomy Russo-Turkish War of 1877-1878 Kingdom of Romania gains full independence Bulgaria gains full independence Serbia gains full independence

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Territorial Losses of the Ottoman Empire, 1800-1923

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Ottoman Economy Imports of cheap manufactured goods from

industrializing Western Europe place stress on local artisans; urban riots result.

Export-dependent Ottoman economy increasingly relies on foreign loans Exports: raw cotton, grains, tobacco, wool, hides Slave-produced commodities from New World are

cheaper, undercutting prices for raw goods exported from the Ottoman empire

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Ottoman Economy By 1882 the Ottomans unable to pay even interest

on loans, forcing them to accept foreign administration of debts (took out their first foreign loans in 1854, just as the Crimean War was starting).

Capitulations: agreements that exempted Europeans from Ottoman law Extraterritoriality gives tax-free status to foreign

banks and businesses Foreign merchants begin to dominate overseas

trade

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Early Reforms

1800s: Attempts to reform taxation, increase agricultural output, and reduce corruption Sultan Selim III (r. 1789-1807) remodeled army on

European lines Janissaries revolt in 1807 and kill the new troops, imprison

Selim III Sultan Mahmud II (r. 1808-1839)

Massacres and disbands Janissaries in 1826, and creates fully modern army

Creates imperial postal service in 1834 Rebuilt Ottoman navy

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Tanzimat (“Reorganization”) Era, 1839-1876 Abdülmecid I (r. 1839-1861),

promotes a new, western-oriented reform program called “Tanzimat.”

Drafted new law codes that strengthened civil rights for minorities to appease rebellious nationalist groups (Albanian, Bulgarian, Romanian, Serbian, Armenian, etc.)

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Tanzimat (“Reorganization”) Era, 1839-1876 Abdülmecid introduces paper bank notes (1840) Proclaims a national anthem and flag (1844) Replaces turban with fez as official male headgear Establishes first modern universities and academies

(1848) Abolishes higher taxes on non-Muslims (1856) Undermines power of traditional religious elite Tries to rein in corruption in government

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Tanzimat (“Reorganization”) Era, 1839-1876 The reforms were fiercely resisted by the religious

conservative establishment and entrenched bureaucracy

Also drew opposition from radical Young Ottomans, secret group of intellectuals founded in 1865, who were influenced by Enlightenment ideas and wanted a constitutional monarchy, not an absolute one

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The Young Ottoman Takeover of 1876

Young Ottomans stage a coup in 1876 and install Abdül Hamid II as Sultan (r. 1876-1909) Constitution adopted Representative government:

Parliament with members of Senate elected by the Sultan and members of Chamber of Deputies elected by the people

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The Young Ottoman Takeover of 1876

Abdul Hamid II suspends the constitution by 1878 under emergency conditions (Russo-Turkish War of 1877-78) Convinces supporters he is a reformer, but then shows

his true colors in a time of war Takes back power through brutal repression Imprisons and executes many radicals Many reformers go into exile in Europe

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The Young Turks

Ottoman Society for Union and Progress Founded by medical students in exile in Paris in 1889, with

many non-Turkish members; wanted to reinstitute 1876 constitution and called for a pan-national empire

Called for rapid reforms that are secular in character “Congress of Ottoman Opposition in Paris in 1902: Started to

be called “Young Turks” instead of “Young Ottomans”: Turkish nationalism supersedes old pan-national Ottoman ideal

Young Turks force Abdül Hamid II to restore parliament in 1908, and then dethrone him in favor of Mehmed V Rashid (r. 1909-1918).

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Young Turk Rule

Replaced “Ottomanism”—legal encouragement of many nations living together—with a Turkish nationalism that favored Turks over other groups

Attempted to establish Turkish hegemony over far-flung empire Turkish made official language, despite large numbers

of Arabic and Slavic language speakers Turkish nationalism could not contain forces of

decline

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The Russian Empire Under Pressure

Russia a massive, multi-cultural empire Only approximately half speak Russian and observe

Russian Orthodox Christianity Romanov tsars rule in a highly autocratic fashion Powerful class of nobles exempt from taxation

and military duty Nobility benefit from an exploitative serfdom;

serfdom had declined in Western Europe by the 1500s, but persists in Russia and Eastern Europe

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The Russian Empire, 1801-1914

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The Crimean War, 1853-1856 Russians expand into Caucasus in

larger attempt to establish control over weakening Ottoman Empire

Threatens to upset balance of power; British and French Empires intervene to help Ottomans

Russia driven back from Crimea in humiliating defeat

Demonstration of Russian weakness in the face of modern western technology and strategy

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Reform: Emancipation of the Serfs Serfdom source of rural instability and

peasant revolt in the wake of the Crimean War loss

Tsar Alexander II emancipates serfs in 1861, granting legal freedom without alleviating poverty and land hunger Freed serfs were forced gradually to pay

compensation to nobles through a “mortgage” for the lands serfs had farmed for generations

Limited attempts to reform administration, small-scale representative government Network of elected district assemblies called

zemstvos that had little influence

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Industrialization in Russia

Witte System Count Sergei Witte (1849-1915), serves

as minister of finance, 1892-1903 Oversaw construction of Trans-Siberian railroad

(started in 1891; completed in 1916) Oversaw State-Sponsored Industrialization Peasants uprooted from rural lifestyle and pushed into

factories to work for low wages, long hours Led to massive discontent among those pushed into factory

life

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Repression

Intelligentsia class spreads radical ideas for social change Socialists, anarchists Terror tactics, assassinations Attempt to connect with the mistrustful peasantry

in 1870s, who often denounce them Many of the intelligentsia sent into Siberian exile

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Repression

Tsarist authorities turn to censorship, secret police Nationalist sentiment seething in Baltic provinces,

Poland, Ukraine, Georgia, and central Asia Period of upheaval contributes to great literature

Fyodor Dostoyevsky (1821-1881) Leo Tolstoy (1828-1910) Anton Chekhov (1860-1904) Ivan Turgenev (1818-1883)

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Radicalization

Radical anarchist group, the People’s Will movement (“Narodnaya Volya”), assassinates Tsar Alexander II in 1881 Previous attempts on his life: one in 1866 and two in 1879,

and one in 1880; People’s Will tried to blow up his train and set off a charge in the Winter Palace

Bullet-proof carriage protects emperor from first blast, but gets out and a second bomb is thrown at him, killing him

Prompted widespread pogroms against Jews Assassination leads to repression under the grim Alexander

III (r. 1881-1894), who relied heavily on the Okhrana (secret police) to crack down on radicals.

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Radicalization

Nicholas II (r. 1894-1917): Weak and vacillating tsar enters into war with Japan (1904-1905)

Humiliating defeat exposes government weaknesses

Social discontent boils over in Revolution of 1905; revolt fails, but triggers massive discontent

Workers’ strikes force government to make political concessions, like the creation of a national representative body, the Duma

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Qing Empire: Chinese Restrictions on European Trade

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Since 1759, European commercial presence limited to port of Guangzhou (the British called it Canton)

Chinese Restrictions on European Trade Foreign merchants forced to deal solely with a

small group of licensed Chinese firms called cohongs who only accepted one currency of trade: silver bullion

Not much Chinese demand for European goods British East India Company heavily involved in

opium trade Opium grown in India, sold in China for silver, silver

used to buy other Chinese products

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The Opium Trade

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The Opium Plant British East Indiaman at port

The Opium Trade

Portuguese first bring opium to China in 1600s Practice of mixing it with tobacco begins in mid-1600s 1729: Emperor outlaws sale of opium, but the law is

poorly enforced Practice of smoking plain opium evolves by late 1700s British East India company’s expansion in India leads

in later 1700s leads to larger volume of opium sold into China

Increasing trade and social ills evident by late 1830s

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The Opium Trade

Chinese move to enforce ban in 1830s under Chinese official, Lin Zexu (1785-1850)

British agents engage in military retaliation in the First Opium War (1839-1842)

British naval forces easily defeat Chinese with superior technology

Hong Kong ceded to British in Treaty of Nanjing (1842) and five ports are opened to British traders

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The Opium Trade

33Steam-driven warship Nemesis destroys Chinese junks in 1841

Unequal Treaties

Second Opium War (1856-1860): British and French attack Chinese since China resists opening more ports and legalizing opium importation

China forced into a series of disadvantageous treaties known as “Unequal Treaties”

Extraterritorial legal status granted to British subjects

Later other European countries conclude similar treaties

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East Asia in the Nineteenth Century

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The Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864)

Large-scale rebellions in later nineteenth century reflect poverty, discontent of Chinese peasantry

Population rises 50 percent between 1800-1900, but land under cultivation remains static, leading to frequent famine and social unrest

Multiple Uprisings against the Qing: Nian Rebellion (1851-1868), Muslim Rebellion (1855-1873), Tungan Rebellion (1862-1878)

Biggest One: The Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864)

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The Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864)

The Taiping Rebellion was led by Hong Xiuquan (1814-1864), a schoolteacher who called for destruction of Qing dynasty

Hong declared himself the brother of Jesus Christ

By 1850, he had between 10,000 to 30,000 followers, alarming the authorities

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Taiping Platform

Abolition of private property Creation of communal wealth Prohibition of foot binding, concubines Free public education, simplification of written

Chinese, mass literacy Prohibition of sexual relations among followers

(including married couples) Yet leaders maintained harems

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Taiping Defeat

Taipings captured Nanjing in 1858 and make it their capital

Attack Beijing with force of 1 million, but Qing forces turn them back

Imperial army unable to contain Taipings, so regional armies are created with Manchu soldiers and outfitted with European weaponry

Nanjing is surrounded in 1864 and Hong commits suicide; Qing forces recapture the Taiping capital 100,000 Taipings massacred

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The Self-Strengthening Movement (1860-1895) High point is in 1860s-1870s Slogan “Chinese learning at the base, Western learning for

use” Blend of Chinese cultural traditions with European industrial

technology Building of shipyards, railroads, academies

Ultimately changes to Chinese economy and society were superficial

Empress Dowager Cixi (1835-1908) nominally supports technological development of the movement, but is suspicious of Western ideologies

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Empress Dowager Cixi

Cixi (1835-1908) unofficially rules China from 1861 to 1908; two emperors are essentially her puppets (her son, then nephew)

Supposedly diverted governmentfunds for her own aesthetic purposes, according to rumors

Was in general xenophobic and conservative; foremost concern was protecting the dynasty

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Spheres of Influence

Qing dynasty loses influence in Southeast Asia, losing tributary states to Europeans and Japanese Vietnam: Lost to France in 1886 Burma: Lost to Great Britain in 1885 Korea, Taiwan, Liaodong Peninsula: Lost to Japan as a

result of the Sino-Japanese War of 1895 China itself divided into spheres of influence by

European powers in 1895

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Spheres of Influence

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Empress Dowager Cix

1898 French political cartoon

Hundred Days Reforms (1898)

Kang Youwei (1858-1927) and Liang Qichao (1873-1929): Two popular scholars and journalists who start a reform movement.

Interpreted Confucianism to allow for Western-style changes to system: wanted to make China a constitutional monarchy

Favored rapid industrialization through capitalists means Emperor Guangxu (r. 1875-1908) attempts to implement

reforms Empress Dowager Cixi nullifies reforms and imprisons the

emperor, her nephew

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The Boxer Rebellion (1898-1901)

Cixi supports Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists (“Boxers”), an anti-foreign and anti-Christian militia

In 1899, the Boxers launch a campaign to rid China of “foreign devils”

Misled to believe European weapons would not harm them, 140,000 Boxers besiege European embassies in 1900

Crushed by coalition of European forces: Russia, Britain, France, U.S., Japan, Germany, Austro-Hungary & Italy

Brutal repression of Boxers by Western forces After the Boxer Rebellion is put down, the Qing are forced

to accept stationing of foreign troops on Chinese soil

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Death of the Dowager Empress Emperor Guangxu dies a mysterious, sudden death on

November 14, 1908 at age 33; forensic tests conducted in 2008 revealed that he died of arsenic poisoning

Cixi dies one day after her nephew; knowing that she was dying, she may have had him poisoned so he would not continue his reforms

She places two-year-old Puyi on the throne before dying Revolution in 1911: Main goal was to replace Manchu

government with a Han one. First president of new republic is Dr. Sun Yat-sen (1866-1925);

Puyi abdicates in 1912; film The Last Emperor tells of his life. He dies on 1967.

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Transformation of Japan

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Emperor Meiji(r. 1867-1912)

Transformation of Japan

Japanese society is in turmoil in early nineteenth century Poor agricultural output, famines, high taxes Daimyo and samurai classes decline, peasants starving

Tokugawa government attempts reforms, 1841-1843 Led by chief councilor to the shogun, Mizuno Tadakuni (1794-1851) Cancelled daimyo and samurai debts Abolished merchant guilds Compelled peasants to return to cultivating rice These reforms were ultimately ineffective

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Foreign Pressure

Europeans and Americans attempt to establish relations in 1840s; country is closed

Japan only allowed Dutch presence in Nagasaki U.S. in particular was looking for a Far East Pacific ports

for whalers and merchants In 1853 Commodore Matthew Perry sails gunships into

Edo harbor (Tokyo) and forces Japanese to open port Perry’s black-hulled steam warship makes an impression Sparks conservative Japanese reaction against shogun,

rally around emperor in Kyoto

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Foreign Pressure

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Images of Perry and his ship

The Meiji Restoration (1868) Mutsuhito takes throne in 1867 as a figurehead Brief civil war between imperial and Tokugawa forces in

1867-68; shogun’s forces are defeated 1868: With the shogun gone, Emperor Mutsuhito (Meiji,

1852-1912) takes full power; changes name of Edo to Tokyo Puts down one last rebellion of samurai in 1877 Goals of prosperity and strength to avoid China’s fate: “rich

country, strong army” Meiji government encourages learning of western

technology

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Meiji Reforms Travelers Fukuzawa Yukichi (1835-1901) and Ito

Hirobumi (1841-1909) travel to U.S., Europe Argue for adoption of western legal proceedings, educational

systems, constitutional government, technology

Meiji government removes privileges for daimyo and samurai Conscript army replaces samurai mercenaries 1877 Satsuma Rebellion: Disaffected samurai rebel and are

crushed by the national army; this was the last and most serious uprising against the new Meiji government

Tax reform: payment in cash, not kind (grain)

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Constitutional Government

1889 constitution promulgated as a gift from the emperor to his people

Conservative: Only 5 percent of male population allowed to vote in 1890 election – high property restrictions

Economic reforms to promote rapid industrialization Dramatic improvement in literacy rates Government holdings sold to private investors: zaibatsu

financial cliques develop, like Mitsubishi and Mitsui

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