chapter 3: human development. chapter outline 1. understanding how we develop 2. how is...

Chapter 3: Human Development

Chapter Outline

1. Understanding how we develop2. How is developmental psychology

investigated?3. Before we are born4. Infancy5. Childhood 6. Adolescence7. Adulthood8. Developmental Psychopathology

© John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd.

Understanding How We Develop:Questions that Guide Developmental

Research

1. Nature vs. nurture

2. Qualitative (stages) vs. quantitative (continuous change)

• Critical and sensitive periods


1. Cross-Sectional Research—Compares groups of different-aged people to one another at a single point in time.

2. Longitudinal Research—Studies the same group of individuals over multiple time points.

How Is Developmental Psychology Investigated?


Advantages and Disadvantages of Each Design

Cross-sectional designAdvantage: Quicker and convenientDisadvantage: Cannot control for outside

variables

Longitudinal designAdvantage: Eliminates outside variables Disadvantage: Takes a very long time, $$$


Cohort-Sequential Design

Combines cross-sectional and longitudinal designs Designed to look at both how individuals

from different age groups compare to one another and also follow them over time.


Before We Are Born:The Prenatal Period

Genes: basic building blocks of our biological inheritance

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA): molecules in which genetic information is enclosed

Chromosomes: strands of DNA; each human being has 46 chromosomes, distributed in pairs

Allele: variation of a gene Homozygous: both parents contribute the

same genetic material for a particular traitHeterozygous: parents contribute two

different alleles to offspring


Genotype and Phenotype

Genotype—the sum total of all the genes that a person inherits

Phenotype—the way in which the genes are actually expressed, or observed characteristics of the genes


Patterns of Genetic Inheritance

We have two genes for everything (one from mom and one from dad)

Homozygous genes are alike Show inherited trait

Heterozygous genes are not alike Genes duke it out to see which trait will

appear.


Genotype versus Phenotype


Ways Genes Interactin Heterozygous Relationships

1. Dominant Recessive Dominant gene effects characteristic; the

recessive gene has no effect (tongue rolling)2. Codominant

Both of the parents’ genes are expressed (blood type)

3. Mixture A mixture of the genetic coding is expressed

(blended skin colour, eye shape, etc.)


To Make Things Even More Complicated

Only a few of our traits are discrete traits the product of a single gene pair

Most human traits are polygenic traits involve the combined impact of multiple

genes most behaviours are polygenetic


3 Stages of Prenatal Development

Germinal Period 0-2 weeks Starts with egg being fertilized to form a

zygote Ends when blastocyst implants in the

uterus


3 Stages of Prenatal Development

Period of the Embryo 3-8 weeks All the major

organs develop during this time

Period of the Fetus 9-40 weeks Rapid growth


What Is a Teratogen?

A teratogen is any substance that causes damage during the prenatal period, including some diseases.

The harm done by teratogens depends on: Dose Heredity Age of fetus

Critical Period: if teratogens are taken during this time it is particularly bad


Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) or Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder (FASD)


Infant DevelopmentOverview

Physical Development Growth trends Development of the senses Motor development (reflexes) Brain development

Cognitive Development How babies learn

Piaget’s sensorimotor stage Information-processing and conditioning

Social and Emotional Development Temperament Attachment Parenting styles


Two Growth Trends of Infants

Cephalocaudal: growth from the top down (head grows faster than the torso and feet)

Proximodistal: growth from the inside out (torso grows faster than the arms and fingers)


Sensory Capabilities at Birth

Vision is the least developed sense at birth Can clearly see objects 7 or 10 inches away Good colour vision develops at about 3 months

Hearing is poorly developed for first few days after birth Fluid in the ears Can recognize mother’s voice shortly after birth

Taste, smell, and touch are highly developed at birth Prefers sweet taste (breast milk is sweet)


Infant Motor Development

Reflexes: programmed physical reactions to certain cues that do not require any conscious thought to perform. Rooting reflex: brush cheek and baby turns

head toward breast and sucks; this reflex helps newborns to eat

Other reflexes include grasping, Moro, and Babinski


Two Parts of Infant Brain Development

Rapid development of synaptic connections.

Synaptic pruning is the reduction of unused neural connections.


Myelination

Myelination: the covering of neurons with fatty deposits that speed up transmissions of neurons


Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory

How children learn Schemas: mental structures we use to

organize information Assimilation: putting new information into

existing schema Accommodation: creating new schemas for

new information or majorly altering schemas

Equilibrium: mental balance, or when all information is organized into schemas


How Do Infants Learn?

Sensorimotor Period (birth to 2 years of age): we learn through our senses and our motor actions This explains why infants put everything in

their mouths! They are learning about the object

During this period, infants develop object permanence—the understanding that objects exist even when they cannot be seen.


Information Processing Theory

Use operant conditioning and habituation to test for learning and remembering Operant conditioning is the use of rewards Habituation is when an infant stops

responding to the same stimulus if it is presented repeatedly

It has been found that cognitive development involves fewer qualitative changes and more quantitative changes than Piaget believed


Baby Math

At 5 months old, babies know that 1 + 1 = 2


Social and Emotional Development

Temperament: biologically based tendencies to respond to certain situations in similar ways throughout our lifetimes Easy: Babies with easy temperaments are

described as cheerful, regular in routines, such as eating and sleeping, and open to novelty.

Difficult: Babies with difficult temperaments tend to be irritable and likely to have intensely negative reactions to changes or new situations.


Social and Emotional Development

Temperament (cont): Slow-to-warm-up. Babies in this category

are less active and less responsive than babies in the other two categories. In general, they tend to withdraw in the face of change, but their withdrawal is not as sharply negative as those with difficult temperaments.

Unique: Babies in this category show unique blends of characteristics from the other categories. For example, a child might be cautious in new situations but have regular routines and be relatively cheerful.


Definition of Attachment

Emotional bond an infant feels toward his or her caregiver.


Measuring Attachment

Strange Situation Test Mother and baby play A stranger enters and the mother leaves

Observe baby’s reaction Mother returns

Observe baby’s reaction Repeat process


Types of Attachment

Secure attachment (60%): infant is moderately upset when mom leaves and happy when she returns.

Insecure attachment (40%) Anxious/avoidant (15%): shows little

distress at separation, little joy at reunion Anxious/ambivalent (10%): strong

reaction to mother’s absence, mixed emotions at reunion

Disorganized/disoriented (15%): mixture of avoidant and resistant behaviours


Attachment Styles


Parenting Styles

Classification of Parenting Styles

Authoritative

Authoritarian

Indulgent

Neglectful

Accepting, responsive

Rejecting, unresponsive

Demanding, controlling

Undemanding, uncontrolling


Parenting Styles

Authoritarian: Parents place a high value on conformity

Permissive: Nurturing and accepting, but avoids making demands or imposing controls of any kind

Uninvolved: Emotionally detached and depressed parent who has little time and energy to spare for children

Authoritative: Nurturing and accepting, but sets appropriate boundaries and expectations for the child Best parenting style!


Childhood DevelopmentOverview

Physical Development Motor skills Brain development

Cognitive Development Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory Vygotstky’s social cultural theory

Emotional Development Kohlberg’s moral development Gilligan’s theory of moral development


Physical Growth in Childhood

Physical Growth Gross and fine motor skills improve

dramatically Association areas of the brain continue to

develop: Myelination and synaptic pruning

continue


Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development in Childhood

Preoperational Period (ages 2-7): Children have mental images in their head that allow them to solve logical problems (however, they often get these problems wrong). Kids often get problems wrong because of:

Centration: they can only think about one thing at a time; usually they focus on the appearance of something

Irreversability: preschoolers think changes in relationships happen in one direction only


Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development in Childhood

Concrete Operational Period (ages 7-12): Children use logic to solve problems in their head. However, these problems are limited to concrete objects. Kids begin to get problems correct because

of: Decentration: they can think about more

than one aspect of a problem at the same time

Reversibility and conservation are mastered


Theory of Mind


Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

Social interaction is vital to children’s learning and development

Children learn best in zone of proximal development

Children learn best when a parent or teacher helps them (called scaffolding)

Scaffolding is teaching to the zone of proximal development


Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development


Three Stages of Moral Development


Adolescence

Physical Development Puberty: development of primary and

secondary sex characteristics Primary sex characteristics: ones that are

part of the reproductive system (ovaries, penis, and testes)

Secondary sex characteristics: ones that are non-reproductive but important to gender identification (deepening of voice, development of breasts)


Primary and Secondary Sex Characteristics


Adolescent Growth Spurt


Adolescence

Cognitive Development Formal operational period (Piaget): Can

think about ideas conceptually without needing concrete referents adolescent egocentrism, personal fable,

and imaginary audience Emotional Development

Identity and role confusion (Erikson): adolescents need to discover their own identity


First Nations Youth Suicide

Aboriginal youth identity development is less difficult if there are healthy images of personal and cultural ideals

First Nations youth suicide is related to band support of their own culture and heritage


Adulthood

Why do we age? Cellular clock theory: aging is built into our

cells Wear-and-tear theory: the more mileage we

put on our body, the quicker it wears out Free radical theory: we get more free

radicals in our system, causing more damage and aging to our bodies


Physical and Cognitive Changes in Adulthood

WrinklesGrey hairWeight changeSlower metabolismMore farsightedLess sensitive to high-

frequency soundsBecome shorter

• Immune system declines

• Vision and hearing continue to decline

• Learning new information and recovering memories can take longer


Erikson’s Adulthood Stages

Intimacy and isolation: to form intimate relationships and find love

Generativity vs. stagnation: our ability to give back to the world and provide for the future

Integrity and despair: our ability to face our mortality with a sense of a life well lived.


Developmental Psychopathology

Developmental psychopathology is the study of how problematic behaviours evolve as a function of a person’s genetics and early experiences

Risk factors: biological and environmental factors that contribute to problematic outcomes

Resilience: the ability to recover from or avoid the serious effects of negative circumstances Resilience is due to biological, psychological,

or environmental factors that help buffer against or negate the impact of risk factors


Conduct Disorder

Conduct disorder is characterized by a number of emotional and behavioural problems, including frequent rule-breaking, trouble following the limits imposed by authority figures, bullying and fighting, and cruelty Oppositional defiant disorder: less severe than

conduct disorder Externalizing behaviours: defying authority,

breaking rules, and fighting, blaming others Internalizing behaviours: fearful responses,

crying, or withdrawal


Risk Factors for Commission of Violent Crimes During Adolescence or Adulthood

Family violence Family

dysfunction/conflict Family distress Childhood exposure

to violence Childhood

maltreatment Childhood neglect Childhood adversity Substance abuse Hyperactivity

Multiple clinical disorders

Risky behaviourGun availability/risk Antisocial parentGang membership Peer violencePersonality disorderAcademic failureSocial incompetence


Many Roads—Many Outcomes

Equifinality: individuals may start out from different places but through their life experiences they wind up functioning in similar ways

OR the opposite theory

Multifinality: individuals can start from the same point yet wind up in many different psychological places


Copyright

Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. All rights reserved. Reproduction or translation of this work beyond that permitted by Access Copyright (The Canadian Copyright Licensing Agency) is unlawful. Requests for further information should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons Canada, Ltd. The purchaser may make back-up copies for his or her own use only and not for distribution or resale. The author and the publisher assume no responsibility for errors, omissions, or damages caused by the use of these programs or from the use of the information contained herein.

chapter 3: human development. chapter outline 1. understanding how we develop 2. how is...

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