Chapter 28

Revolutions and National

States in the Atlantic World

1

Popular Sovereignty

Ancient and medieval notions of kingship: “mandate of heaven,” “divine right of kings”

Challenged by Enlightenment ideas about “natural rights” of the individual

Kings to be made responsible to subject populations John Locke (1632-1704)

Second Treatise of Civil Government (1690) Argues that government derives power from consent

of ruled Individuals retain personal rights, give political rights

to government that Locke calls a “Common-wealth” (which is not necessarily a democracy)

2

Individual Freedoms

Voltaire (pen name of François-Marie Arouet, 1694-1778) Championed religious freedom and

freedom of expression Écrasez l’infame: His slogan, “Let us

crush the infamous thing!” referred to the Catholic authorities; he was a deist

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) Argued for equality of all individuals,

regardless of class, before the law The Social Contract (1762), argues that

society is collectively the sovereign

3

Revolution in America

Little indication of forthcoming revolution in mid-eighteenth century

Thirteen colonies regarded themselves as British subjects

Long cultural and personal connections with England Mutually profitable economic relationship between

colonies and England with little governmental oversight: historians often refer to the first half of the 1700s as a period “benign neglect”

4

French and Indian War, 1754-1763

Expensive, extensive Overlapped with

Seven Years’ War (1756-1763) Conflict in Europe,

India & Caribbean British victory ensured

global dominance, North Americanprosperity

5

Increased Taxation in 1760s

Bills come due from the Seven Years’ War Tax burden falls to the colonies

Sugar Act (1764): Actually lowered the tax on molasses, but created an enforcement mechanism to crack down on rampant smuggling: tried not before a jury of peers, but naval officers.

Stamp Act (1765): First times the colonies try to coordinate their protests against British authorities with the Stamp Act Congress.

Quartering Act (1765): Housing of British troops Tea Act (1773): British East India Company can sell tea

directly to colonies at a lower rate; infuriates colonial merchants.

6

The Declaration of Independence British products boycotted, officials attacked Protests

Boston Tea Party (1773), tea dumped into Boston harbor in protest against Tea Act

“Sons of Liberty” initiate protests, often dressed as Indians Continental Congress formed (1774), coordinates colonists’

resistance to British policies April 19, 1775: Battle of Lexington and Concord June 14, 1775: Congress creates Continental Army; appoints

Washington as its commander the following day July 4, 1776, adopts Declaration of Independence “Articles of Confederation” adopted; creates weak national

government Influence of Locke: retention of individual rights, sovereignty

based on consent of the ruled

7

Divided Loyalties

Patriots Those who supported revolution, in majority

Loyalists (Tories) Estimated 20 percent of white population that remained loyal to

British monarchy; many in New York City, which was occupied by the British for most of the war.

Neutrals Quakers: Their pacifism did not allow them to fight; patriots

came to revile them because of this. Divided

Native Americans, African-Americans: British offer emancipation to slaves if they fight for their side

8

Revolutionary War

Colonies: Logistical advantage;

fighting on home turf Popular support Support of British rivals George Washington

(1732-1799) proves a charismatic leader, if not a militarily gifted one.

Britain: Strong central

government Most powerful navy in

the world, highly trained army

Loyalist population tended to be wealthy and influential

9

The American Revolution

10

Building an Independent State

War-weariness sets in by 1780 British forces surrounded at Yorktown, Virginia

French Navy prevents British Navy from intervening Cornwallis surrenders on October 19, 1781

Treaty at Peace of Paris concluded in 1783 Recognition of American independence Tremendously favorable to the U.S.

1787 Constitution of the United States drafted Political and legal equality for men of property

11

Building an Independent State 1787 Constitution of the United States drafted in

Philadelphia Ratified in 1788, leading to first presidential election held from

Dec. 15, 1788 to Jan. 10, 1789; Washington unopposed Replaces the weak Articles of Confederation government, which

had no executive branch or means to collect taxes. Emphasizes political and legal equality for men of property For the purpose of determining political representation in the

House of Representatives, it counts slaves as “three-fifths” of a human being.

Bill of Rights proposed by James Madison in First Congress in 1789 and were ratified as the first ten amendments to the Constitution by 1791

12

Building an Independent State

Bill of Rights (adopted 1791)• First - Free Speech• Second - State militias and right to bear arms• Third - Protection from quartering troops• Fourth - Protection from unreasonable search and seizure• Fifth - Requiring due process, disallows double jeopardy or self-incrimination, and

requires compensation for eminent domain.• Sixth - Pertains criminal trials: right to trial by jury, rights of the accused, and right to

counsel• Seventh - Civil trial procedure• Eighth - Prohibits excessive bail or cruel and unusual punishment• Nine - Protection of rights not enumerated in the Constitution: if there not there, it doesn’t

mean they don’t exist.• Tenth - Rights not given to the U.S. government in the Constitution are given over the

states.

13

The French Revolution

Serious fiscal problems in France War debts crush French economy in 1780s

Fifty percent of tax revenues to war debts Twenty-five percent of tax revenues to military

Greater degree of social inequality in France than in the thirteen colonies that became the U.S.

Leads to revolution more radical than the American one Repudiation of many aspects of the ancien régime Execution of the king and anti-Church violence

14

The Estates General

Estates General founded 1303, but had not met since 1614 Louis XVI calls it into session on May 5, 1789, to address

massive financial problems and unwillingness of nobility to pay taxes.

Three Estates First estate: Roman Catholic clergy

100,000 Second estate: nobles

400,000 Third estate: everyone else

24,000,000 serfs, free peasants, urban residents One vote per estate

15

1789: The Revolution Underway

Third estate demands greater social change First and Second refuse to budge In June, third estate secedes from Estates General

Renamed “National Assembly” In July, mob attacks the

Bastille in Paris, a hated symbol of royal authority; bloody battle won by mob

16

Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen

Adopted by the National Assembly on August 26, 1789

American influence Equality of men

Women not included: Olympe de Gouges (Marie Gouze) unsuccessfully attempts to redress this in 1791 (eventually guillotined)

Sovereignty resides in the people Individual rights articulated and written down

17

Radicalization of Revolution “Liberty, equality, fraternity” becomes revolutionary

slogan New constitution created in 1791 that retains the

king, but subject to legislative authority and convenes a new Legislative Assembly: constitutional monarchy

June 1791: The King and Queen try to flee to Austria, but are captured; increasingly the left—the Jacobins—see them as traitors

New Legislative Assembly seizes church lands, redefines clergy as civilians

April 1792: Guillotine introduced a more humane and socially equalizing method of execution

18

Radicalization of Revolution Ending the Monarchy: In August 1792, a Parisian mob invades the

royal palace in Paris, the Tuileries, and demands the monarchy end Convention: In response, the Legislative Assembly calls for a

convention to create a new constitution without a king. This body is elected by universal male suffrage and becomes revolutionary France’s executive power, and is more radical than its previous legislative bodies

Country at War: In 1792, France declares war on Austria, and soon Prussia joins Austria; Prussian and Austrians invade France in August, but are turned back by the French in September at Valmy.

Levée en masse: Government encourages mass conscription for war; beginnings of a true French nationalism to defend la patrie

1793 Executions: King Louis is executed in January and Queen Marie Antoinette follows him October; these acts turn all of Europe against France. Britain and Netherlands join the fight against France.

19

Maximilien Robespierre (1758-1794)

“The Incorruptible,” leader of the Committee of Public Safety Leader of Jacobin party Dominated Convention, 1793-1794 Churches closed, priests forced to

marry Promoted “cult of reason” as secular

alternative to Christianity Calendar reorganized: Ten-day weeks, 1792 is proclaimed

Year I Executed 40,000; imprisoned 300,000

20

Execution and Terror

21

Execution of Louis XVI on Jan. 21, 1792 Anti-Robespierre political cartoon: Robespierre executing the executioner

Revolutionary Calendar

Names of Months: Autumn: Vendémiaire, Brumaire, Frimaire Winter: Nivôse, Pluviôse,Ventôse Spring: Germinal, Floréal, Prairial Summer: Messidor, Thermidor, Fructidor

British Parody: Autumn: Wheezy, Sneezy, Freezy Winter: Slippy, Drippy, Nippy Spring: Showery, Flowery, Bowery Summer: Hoppy, Croppy, Poppy

22

The Directory (1795-1799)

French population tire of Robespierre’s “Reign of Terror”; want more stability

1794 Robespierre arrested and beaten, then sent to guillotine

Men of property take power in the form of the Directory

Unable to solve economic and military problems of revolutionary France

23

Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821)

From minor Corsican noble family Army officer under King Louis XVI,

general at age 24 Brilliant military strategist Overthrew Directory in 1799 Established new government, the Consulate Crowned himself emperor in 1802

24

Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821)

25Coronation of Napoleon (1805-1807) by Jacques Louis-David

Napoleonic France

Agreement with Pope: Concordat (1801) France retains church lands, but pay salaries to clergy Freedom of religion, also for Protestants, Jews

1804 promulgates Napoleonic Code Patriarchal authority: made father the ruler of the

household, also made property rights absolute Became model for many civil codes in conquered areas

across Europe Tight control on newspapers, use of secret police

26

Napoleon’s Empire

Conquered Iberian, Italian peninsulas, Netherlands Forced Austria and Prussia to enter into alliance Disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812 Burned Moscow, but defeated by Russian weather British, Austrian, Prussian, and Russian armies force

Napoleon to abdicate in 1814 Exiled to Mediterranean Island of Elba, escaped to take

power again for 100 days Defeated by British at Waterloo, exiled to remote South

Pacific island of St. Helena and dies there in 1821

27

Napoleon’s Empire in 1812

28

The Revolution in Haiti

Only successful slave revolt Island of Hispaniola

Spanish colony Santo Domingo in east (now Dominican Republic)

French colony of Saint-Domingue in west (now Haiti) Rich Caribbean colony

Sugar, coffee, cotton Almost one-third of France’s overseas trade

29

Society in Saint-Domingue

40,000 white French settlers Dominated social structure

28,000 gens de couleur (free people of color, i.e. mixed-race, freed slaves) Holders of small plots

500,000 slaves High mortality rate, many flee to mountains “Maroons,” escaped slaves

30

The Revolt Inspired by American and French revolutions

500 gens de couleur sent to fight British in American War of Independence

1789 white settlers demand self-rule, but with no equality for gens de couleur

1791 civil war breaks out Slaves revolt under Vodou priest named Boukman French, British, Spanish forces attempt to intervene French forces dealt major setback by Toussaint and Yellow

Fever in 1798

31

François-Dominique Toussaint (1744-1803) Renames himself Louverture (“the

opening”) in 1791 Descendant of slaves, freed in 1776 Helped his original owners escape,

then joined rebel forces Built army of 20,000, eventually dominated Saint-Domingue 1801 promulgated constitution of equality 1802 forced to surrender to Napoleon’s forces and was

captured, died in the dungeon of a remote fortress in France in 1803

French troops driven out, 1804 Haiti declares independence

32

Latin American Society

30,000 peninsulares, colonial officials from Iberian peninsula

3.5 million criollos (creoles), born in the Americas of Spanish or Portuguese descent Privileged class, but grievances with peninsulares 1810-1825 led movements for creole-dominated

republics 10 million others

African slaves, mixed-race populations

33

Mexican Independence

Napoleon’s invasion of Spain and Portugal (1807) weakens royal authority in colonies

Priest Miguel de Hidalgo (1753-1811) leads revolt Hidalgo captured and executed, but rebellion continues

Creole general Augustín de Iturbide (1783-1824) declares independence in 1821 Installs self as emperor, deposed in 1823, republic

established Southern regions form federation, then divide into Guatemala,

El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica

34

Simón Bolívar (1783-1830) Led independence movement

in South America Native of Caracas (Venezuela),

influenced by Enlightenment, George Washington Rebels against Spanish rule 1811, forced into hiding Forms alliances with many creole leaders

José de San Martín (Argentina, 1778-1850) Bernardo O’Higgins (Chile, 1778-1842)

Spanish rule destroyed in South America by 1825

35

Gran Colombia

Bolívar hoped to form a U.S.-style federation Venezuela, Columbia, Ecuador form Gran

Colombia Attempts to bring in Peru and Bolivia

Strong political differences force Gran Colombia to begin to disintegrate in 1826: “All who have served the Revolution have plowed the sea.”

Bolívar goes was about to go into exile in Europe, but dies of tuberculosis in 1830 at age 47

36

Brazilian Independence

Napoleon’s invasion sends Portuguese royal court to exile in Rio de Janeiro

1821, king returns to Portugal, his son Pedro left behind as regent

Pedro negotiates with creoles, declares independence of Brazil—no violent revolution Becomes Emperor Pedro I (r. 1822-1834)

Social structure remains largely intact

37

Latin America in 1830

38

Emergence of Ideologies

Reactions and responses to French Revolution largely create our modern thinking about political ideology

Conservatism Edmund Burke (England, 1729-1797) Disavowed rapid revolutionary change; horrified by French Revolution

but in favor of the American one Favored slow evolution of society

Liberalism Sees conservatives as defenders of an illegitimate status quo Advocates managing, not stifling, social change John Stuart Mill (England, 1806-1873): formulated a theory of liberty,

advocated human rights, women’s rights, and stood against slavery

39

The End of the Slave Trade Campaign to end slavery begins in eighteenth century

Olaudah Equiano (1745-1797) Gains momentum after American, French and Haitian

revolutions William Wilberforce (England, 1759-1833),

philanthropist, succeeds in having Parliament outlaw slave trade, 1807

Other states follow suit, but illegal trade continues until 1867

40

End of the Institution of Slavery

Haiti: slavery ends with revolution Mexican slavery abolished 1829

Partially to stop U.S. development of slave-based cotton industry in Mexico

1833 Britain abolishes slavery, offers compensation to former owners

Other states follow, but offer freedom without equality Property requirements, literacy tests, etc. block voting

41

Enlightenment Ideals and Women

Enlightenment thinkers remained conservative regarding women’s rights Rousseau argues women should receive education to

prepare for lives as wives and mothers Mary Astell (England, 1666-1731) argues that women

essentially born into slavery; uses Lockean argument Mary Wollstonecraft (England, 1759-1797)

A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792): Women could contribute as much to society as women if they were given the same access to education

42

Women and Revolution

Women active in all phases of French revolution Women storm Versailles in 1789, demands for food Republican Revolutionary Women patrol streets of Paris with

firearms Yet hold few official positions of authority Revolution grants equality in education, property, legalized

divorce Yet women not allowed to vote, major task of nineteenth century

Elizabeth Cady Stanton (U.S., 1815-1902): Was first an abolitionist, but then became a crusader for women’s rights when she was denied entrance to a abolitionist conference in London

43

Nations and Nationalism

“Nation” a type of community, especially prominent in nineteenth century

Distinct from clan, religious, regional identities Usually based on shared language, customs,

values, historical experience Sometimes common religion

Idea of nation has immediate relationship with political boundaries

44

Types of Nationalism

Cultural nationalism Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744-1803) praises the

Volk (“people”) Literature, folklore, music as expressions of Volksgeist:

“spirit of the people” Political nationalism

Movement for political independence of nation from other authorities

Unification of national lands Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872), “Young Italy”

45

Nationalism and Anti-Semitism

Nationalist ideologies distrustful of indigenous minorities Pogroms, violent attacks on Jewish communities in

Russian empire beginning 1881: Jews excluded from the “nation”

Anti-Semitism rallying cry of many European nationalists French military Captain Alfred Dreyfus framed for selling

military secrets to Germany, convicted in 1894

Eventually exonerated, but great debate on loyalty of Jews in European societies

46

Zionism

Theodor Herzl (Austria, 1860-1904) journalist at Dreyfus trial

Observed intense anti-Semitism of mobs in Paris, concluded that the Enlightenment and revolution could not solve this human ill

Worked to create refuge for Jews by re-establishing Jewish state in Palestine Zion synonymous with Jerusalem

1897 convened first World Zionist Organization

47

The Congress of Vienna (1814-1815)

Meeting after defeat of Napoleon Prince Klemens von Metternich (Austria, 1773-

1859) supervises dismantling of Napoleon’s empire

Established balance of power Worked to suppress development of nationalism

among multi-national empires like the Austrian

48

Nationalist Rebellions

Greeks in Balkan peninsula seek independence from Ottoman Turks in 1821 With European help, Greece achieves independence in

1830 Rebellions all over Europe, especially in 1848

Rebels take Vienna, Metternich resigns and flees But rebellions put down by 1849 France: Napoleon III stages a coup d’état by 1851.

49

Unifications of Italy and Germany

Italy and Germany formerly disunited groups of regional kingdoms, city-states, ecclesiastical states Germany: over three hundred semiautonomous

jurisdictions Nationalist sentiment develops idea of unification Count Camillo di Cavour (1810-1861) and

Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882) unify Italy under King Vittore Emmanuele II

50

Unifications of Italy and Germany

Idealized image of Giuseppe Garibaldi

51

The Unification of Italy and Germany

52

Unifications of Italy and Germany

Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898) advances Realpolitik (“the politics of reality”), and uses wars with neighbors to unify Germany

Second Reich proclaimed in 1871 (Holy Roman Empire the first), King Wilhelm I named emperor

53