chapter 27 & 28 prokaryotes & protists. ch. 27 ~ prokaryotes overview: they’re (almost)...
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Chapter 27 & 28
Prokaryotes & Protists
Ch. 27 ~ Prokaryotes Overview: They’re (Almost) Everywhere! Most prokaryotes are microscopic
But what they lack in size they more than make up for in numbers
The number of prokaryotes in a single handful of fertile soil Is greater than the number of people who have ever
lived
Prokaryotes thrive almost everywhere Including places too acidic, too salty, too cold, or too
hot for most other organisms
Figure 27.1
27.1 ~ Structural, functional, and genetic adaptations contribute to prokaryotic success
Most prokaryotes are unicellular Although some species form colonies
Prokaryotic cells have a variety of shapes The three most common of which are spheres
(cocci), rods (bacilli), and spirals
1 m 2 m 5 m(a) Spherical (cocci) (b) Rod-shaped (bacilli) (c) Spiral
Cell-Surface Structures One of the most important features of nearly all
prokaryotic cells Is their cell wall, which maintains cell shape,
provides physical protection, and prevents the cell from bursting in a hypotonic environment
Using a technique called the Gram stain Scientists can classify many bacterial species
into two groups based on cell wall composition, Gram-positive and Gram-negative
(a) Gram-positive. Gram-positive bacteria have a cell wall with a large amount of peptidoglycan that traps the violet dye in the cytoplasm. The alcohol rinse does not remove the violet dye,which masks the added red dye.
(b) Gram-negative. Gram-negative bacteria have less peptidoglycan, and it is located in a layer between theplasma membrane and an outer membrane. The violet dye is easily rinsed from the cytoplasm, and the cell appears pink or red after the red dye is added.
Figure 27.3a, b
PeptidoglycanlayerCell wall
Plasma membrane
Protein
Gram-positivebacteria
20 m
Outermembrane
Peptidoglycanlayer
Plasma membrane
Cell wall
Lipopolysaccharide
Protein
Gram-negativebacteria
The cell wall of many prokaryotes Is covered by a capsule, a sticky layer of
polysaccharide or protein
200 nm
Capsule
Figure 27.4
Some prokaryotes have fimbriae and pili Which allow them to stick to their substrate or other
individuals in a colony
200 nm
Fimbriae
Figure 27.5
Motility Most motile bacteria propel themselves by
flagella Which are structurally and functionally different from
eukaryotic flagellaFlagellum
Filament
HookCell wall
Plasmamembrane
Basal apparatus
50 nm
Figure 27.6
Internal and Genomic Organization Prokaryotic cells
Usually lack complex compartmentalization Some prokaryotes
Do have specialized membranes that perform metabolic functions
(a) Aerobic prokaryote (b) Photosynthetic prokaryote
0.2 m 1 m
Respiratorymembrane
Thylakoidmembranes
Figure 27.7a, b
The typical prokaryotic genome Is a ring of DNA that is not surrounded by a
membrane and that is located in a nucleoid region
Figure 27.81 m
Chromosome
Some species of bacteria Also have smaller rings of DNA called plasmids Draw a prokaryotic cell and label the DNA and plasmids
Prokaryotes reproduce quickly by binary fission And can divide every 1–3 hours Many prokaryotes form endospores
Which can remain viable in harsh conditions for centuries
Endospore
0.3 mFigure
27.9
27.2 A great diversity of nutritional and metabolic
adaptations have evolved in prokaryotes Examples of all four models of nutrition are
found among prokaryotes: List Energy source & Carbon source:
Photoautotrophy Chemoautotrophy Photoheterotrophy Chemoheterotrophy
Major nutritional modes in prokaryotes
Table 27.1
27.3 Molecular systematics is illuminating
prokaryotic phylogeny Until the late 20th century
Systematists based prokaryotic taxonomy on phenotypic criteria
Applying molecular systematics to the investigation of prokaryotic phylogeny Has produced dramatic results
A tentative phylogeny of some of the major taxa of prokaryotes based on molecular systematics
Figure 27.12
Domain BacteriaDomainArchaea
DomainEukarya
Alp
ha
Be t
a
Ga m
ma
Ep s
il on
Del
ta
Proteobacteria
Chl
am
y dia
s
Sp i
roch
ete
s
Cya
no
bac
t er i
a
Gra
m-p
osi
t ive
ba
c te
r ia
Ko r
arc
hae
ote
s
Eu r
y arc
hae
ote
s
Cre
na
rcha
eo
t es
Nan
oa
rch a
eo
t es
Eu k
ary
ot e
s
Universal ancestor
Bacteria
Diverse nutritional types Are scattered among the major groups of bacteria
The two largest groups are The proteobacteria and the Gram-positive bacteria
Chlamydias, spirochetes, Gram-positive bacteria, and cyanobacteria
Chlamydia (arrows) inside an animal cell (colorized TEM)
Leptospira, a spirochete (colorized TEM)
Streptomyces, the source of many antibiotics (colorized SEM)
Two species of Oscillatoria, filamentous cyanobacteria (LM)
Hundreds of mycoplasmas covering a human fibroblast cell (colorized SEM)
2.5
m
5
m5
m
50
m
1
m
Figure 27.13
Archaea
Archaea share certain traits with bacteria And other traits
with eukaryotes
Table 27.2
Some archaea live in extreme environments Extreme thermophiles thrive in very hot
environments Extreme halophiles live in high saline
environmentsColorful “salt-loving” archae live in these ponds near San Fransisco. Used for commercial salt production.
MethanogensLive in swamps and marshes and produce methane as a waste product
27.4 Prokaryotes play crucial roles in the biosphere Chemical Recycling Prokaryotes play a major role in the continual
recycling of chemical elements between the living and nonliving components of the environment in ecosystems
Chemoheterotrophic prokaryotes function as decomposers Breaking down corpses, dead vegetation, and waste products
Nitrogen-fixing prokaryotes Add usable nitrogen to the environment
Symbiotic Relationships Many prokaryotes -
Live with other organisms in symbiotic relationships such as mutualism and commensalism
Figure 27.15
27.5 Prokaryotes have both harmful and beneficial
impacts on humans Some prokaryotes are human pathogens
But many others have positive interactions with humans Prokaryotes cause about half of all human diseases
Lyme disease is an example
5 µm
Figure 27.16
Prokaryotes in Research and Technology Experiments using prokaryotes have led to important
advances in DNA technology Prokaryotes are the principal agents in bioremediation
The use of organisms to remove pollutants from the environment
Prokaryotes are also major tools in Mining, the synthesis of vitamins, production of
antibiotics, hormones, and other products
Ch. 28 ~ Protists 28.1: Protists are an extremely diverse
assortment of eukaryotes Protists are more diverse than all other
eukaryotes And are no longer classified in a single kingdom
Most protists are unicellular, colonial or multicellular
Protists, the most nutritionally diverse of all eukaryotes, include Photoautotrophs, which contain chloroplasts Heterotrophs, which absorb organic molecules or
ingest larger food particles Mixotrophs, which combine photosynthesis and
heterotrophic nutrition
There is now considerable evidence that much of protist diversity has its origins in endosymbiosis
Cladogram of Protists:
28.3: Euglenozoans have flagella with a unique internal structure
Euglenozoa is a diverse clade that includes Predatory heterotrophs, photosynthetic autotrophs,
and pathogenic parasites
Dinoflagellates Are a diverse group of aquatic photoautotrophs and heterotrophs Are abundant components of both marine and freshwater phytoplankton
Ciliates, a large varied group of protists Are named for their use of cilia to move and feed Have large macronuclei and small micronuclei
Conjugation – Two cells exchange haploid micronuclei (similar to prokaryotic conjugation).
**Produces genetic variation
28.5 Hairy and smooth flagella1. Diatom – Surrounded by a two part glass like wall and are a major component of phytoplankton.
Phytoplankton account for half of the photosynthetic activity on earth – responsible for much of the oxygen
in our atmosphere.
2. Golden Algae – Have two flagella and their color results from carotenoids.
3. Brown Algae – multicellular mostly marine protists, commercially used; seaweeds
28.6 Threadlike pseudopodia Pseudopodia extend and help to injest
microorganisms.
28.7 ~ Amoebozoans
Lobed shaped pseudopodia*Entamoebas – parasites of vertebrates and cause amebic dysentry in humans.
*Slime molds – extend their pseudopodia through decomposing material, engulfing food by phagocytosis.
28.8 ~ Red & Green Algae are the closest relatives of land plants.