chapter 24: structure and function of local government · and duties of local governments. a state...

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Local Government Serves YouLocal governments provide citizenswith basic services such as education,fire and police protection, water, andsewage and sanitation. They are thegovernments closest and most acces-sible to you.

To learn more about howlocal governments affect

you, view the Democracy in ActionChapter 24 video lesson:

Local Government

Chapter Overview Visit the United StatesGovernment: Democracy in Action Web siteat gov.glencoe.com and click on Chapter24–Overview to preview chapter information.

GOVERNMENT

★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★

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http://www.gov.glencoe.com

CHAPTER 24: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT 663

Many people are served by smaller unitsof local government than that of DesMoines. Approximately 86,000 unitsof local government serve the people

of the United States. Local government assumesmany forms. Counties, townships, municipalities,and special districts are the most common. Todaythree of every four people in the United States livein an urban area, either in a central city or a sur-rounding suburb. More than half of the popula-tion lives in metropolitan areas of a million ormore people. The rest of the people are served bysmaller units of local government.

Created by the StateAlthough the United States has a strong tra-dition of local self-government, local gov-

ernments have no legal independence. Establishedby the state, they are entirely dependent on thestate governments under which they exist. Thestate may assume control over or even abolishthem. For example, a state may assume controlover a local school district that is in financialtrouble.

State constitutions usually set forth the powersand duties of local governments. A state constitu-tion may also describe the form of government a locality may adopt, depending on its size andpopulation. State laws may regulate even the kindsof taxes that local communities may levy.

Types of Local GovernmentThe United States has four basic types oflocal government—the county, the

township, the municipality, and the special dis-trict. All four do not exist in every state, andtheir powers vary from state to state.

The County The county is normally thelargest territorial and political subdivision of astate. The county form of government is found

Structure of Local GovernmentS e c t i o n 1S e c t i o n 1

Governor Now Mayor DES MOINES, IOWA 1997

Fifteen years after leav-

ing public service, for-

mer governor Robert Ray

has agreed to fill in as

mayor of Des Moines.

Mayor Arthur Davis will

not be able to complete his

four-year term because of

illness. The decision puts

an end to a month of bick-

ering among city council

members, who could not

decide whether to hold a special election or appoint

an interim mayor. Ray says he will return to private

life when the term ends. “I’ve never heard of anyone

doing this,” he jokes. While it may be unusual for a

former governor to run city hall, Des Moines may

benefit from his years at the state capitol. He asks,

however, that people not call him “governor.”

Governor Ray

Reader’s Guide

Key Termscounty, county board, township, municipality, special district, incorporation, referendum

Find Out■ What are the four basic types of local govern-

ment according to the areas they serve?■ What are the similarities and differences

among the three major structural forms ofmunicipal government?

Understanding ConceptsFederalism What is the relationship between astate government and local governments?

Milwaukee, Wisconsin parade▲

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in every state except Connecticut and Rhode Island. In Louisiana counties are called parishes,and in Alaska they are called boroughs.

Counties of the United States display tremen-dous variety. The number of counties within a state varies from state to state, and counties differ in size and population. County governmentsalso vary considerably in power and influence.In rural areas and in the South, early settlementswere spread out over large areas, with few townsand villages. One town in each county became theseat of county government.

On the other hand, county government hasnever been very important in New England. In thisregion people settled in towns, and each township,rather than the county, became the significant unitof local government.

Recently in some metropolitan areas, countygovernments have grown in importance as they as-sumed some of the functions that municipalitiesonce handled. For example, the government ofDade County, Florida, now administers trans-portation, water supply, and other services for theMiami area. In many other places, however, coun-ty governments have declined in importance butcontinue to exist in spite of attempts to change oreven abolish them.

Structure of County Governments Statesprovide county governments with a variety of or-ganizational structures. A county board has theauthority to govern most counties. The name ofthis board varies from state to state. It may becalled the county board of supervisors, the boardof county commissioners, or the board of free-holders. Board members are almost always popu-larly elected officials. State law strictly limits thelegislative powers of county boards. For the mostpart, county boards decide on the county budget,taxes, and zoning codes.

In many counties the county board has bothexecutive and legislative powers. Board membersoften divide executive power, with each memberresponsible for a different county department. Inmany counties the county board shares executivepower with other officers who are usually elected.These officials may include the county sheriff, at-torney, clerk, coroner, recorder of deeds, treasurer,auditor, assessor, surveyor, and superintendent ofschools. County governments supervise elections,

issue certain licenses, keep records of vital statistics,and administer many services, including hospitals,sports facilities, and public welfare programs.

The Township Townships exist as units oflocal government in 20 states—mostly in NewEngland and the Midwest. In the 1600s the earlysettlers in New England established the first town-ships in America. In New England the township isanother name for the town, a fairly small commu-nity with a population usually fewer than 5,000.In many states, counties are subdivided into town-ships. The size and jurisdiction of townships varygreatly from one state to another. In New Jersey thetownship covers a large area that may include sev-eral municipalities.

The activities that township governments un-dertake vary from state to state as well. In Nebras-ka and Missouri, the primary function of townshipgovernment is road building and road mainte-nance. In Pennsylvania, townships provide a widearray of government services, including police andfire protection.

In many rural areas townships have lost popu-lation and power in the last few decades. For ex-ample, many townships in Kansas have lost powerto county governments. In some other areas of theMidwest, such as Indiana, control over educationhas passed from the township to either the countyor the local school district.

In some urban areas, however, township gov-ernment has taken on increased importance. Inareas of rapid metropolitan growth, townships haveassumed some functions of city government such as providing water, sewage disposal, and police pro-tection. Urban townships in states such as Michiganand New Jersey have also become increasingly important.

The New England Town Thomas Jeffersononce described politics in the typical New Englandtown as “the perfect exercise of self-government.”With the strong community spirit fostered by theirfounders, these towns became models of citizenparticipation in local government.

The town meeting served as the centerpiece oftown government in New England. In the past,town meetings were open to all voters. Those whoattended could express their opinions or just min-gle and socialize with their neighbors. At the town

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meeting citizens participated in the lawmakingprocess, decided on taxes, and appropriatedmoney for any public projects they thought neces-sary. They elected town officials, called selectmen.Selectmen were responsible for administering thelocal government between town meetings.

Over the years, as New England towns grewand their governments became more complex, thetown meeting form of direct democracy becameimpractical. Today, in some very small towns, thetown meeting still operates much as it used to. Inlarger towns and cities, however, the voters electrepresentatives to attend the town meetings intheir stead. In addition, selectmen now have thepower to make some of the decisions that citizensonce made. Finally, some towns have hired townmanagers to perform duties similar to those ofcounty administrators.

The Municipality A municipality is an urbanunit of government—a town, borough, city, orurban district that has legal rights granted by thestate through its charter. The first charters weremuch like charters for private corporations, exceptthat towns and cities were much more narrowlycontrolled. Each municipality had its own charteruntil state legislatures began to pass general lawsafter 1850. These early charters and statutes con-tained powers that today seem curious. For example,

Ohio gave its cities power to regulate the trans-portation of gunpowder; to prevent the immod-erate riding of horses; to provide for measuring hay, wood, coal, or other articles for sale; and tosuppress riots, gambling, bowling, and billiards.

By the twentieth century, most states dividedmunicipalities into classes depending on their pop-ulation. In this way they could provide each class amore standard type of charter.

The Special District The special district is aunit of local government that deals with a specificfunction, such as education, water supply, or trans-portation. Special districts are the most commontype of local government, and they deal with awide variety of special services. The local schooldistrict is the most common example of a specialdistrict.

Tribal Government Some states have a sepa-rate level of government that serves the NativeAmerican population. In New Mexico, for example,the Pueblo Native American culture is divided into22 governing units operating on New Mexico’s 19pueblo land formations. Each tribal office has agovernor and a lieutenant governor. The state ofNew Mexico established the Indian Affairs Depart-ment in 1953 to serve as a liaison between the trib-al governments and the state government.

Teen Courts

A uthorities have long sought ways to reduceteen crime. One approach that many communities have adopted is to establish

teen courts. In teen courts, teenagers serve as jurors, defense attorneys, and prosecutors. The courts hear the cases of teens who have committed a minor, first-time offense. These offenders get a chance to avoid the record thatwould result from a juvenile court proceeding. They also learn a valuable lesson in how the law works.

Teen courts got their start in Texas in the1970s and have since spread to more than 30 states. They often are supported by funds

from school districts and traditional courts, or by civicgroups that hope to reachyoung offenders before theybecome hardened criminals.Statistics show that teencrime is generally down incommunities where such programs exist.

Research Call or write municipal governments inyour area to find out whether they have teencourts and how they work.

A C T I V I T YA C T I V I T Yarticipating

I N G O V E R N M E N T articipating

I N G O V E R N M E N T

Teens conducta trial.

665

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Forms of Municipal Government

A municipal government may be formedwhen a group of people asks the state legis-

lature to permit their community to incorporate,or set up a legal community. This process, called incorporation, is different from state to state.Generally a community must meet certain re-quirements for incorporation. These requirementsusually include having a population of a certainminimum size and petitions signed by a specifiednumber of residents requesting incorporation. Attimes a referendum, or special election, may be held to determine whether the people want incorporation.

Once a community is incorporated, the state is-sues it a charter. The charter allows the communityto have its own government and gives the munici-pal corporation legal status. The municipality nowhas the right to enter into contracts, to sue and besued in court, and to purchase, own, and sell prop-erty. The state legislature can change the powersgranted to a municipal government at any time.

Every municipal charter provides for the typeof government the community will have. Todayurban areas in the United States use one of threebasic forms of municipal government: the mayor-council form, the commission form, or the council-manager form.

The Mayor-Council Form The most widelyused form of municipal government is the mayor-council form. It is also the oldest type of munici-pal government in the United States. Until the1900s it was used in most American cities, regard-less of their size. Today about half the cities in theUnited States use this form. It is the form of gov-ernment preferred by the largest cities.

The mayor-council form follows the traditionalconcept of separation of powers. Executive powerbelongs to an elected mayor, and legislative powerto an elected council. All cities except one haveunicameral, or one-house, councils.

Most city councils have fewer than 10 mem-bers, who usually serve 4-year terms. Some largercities, however, have larger councils. For example,Chicago has a 50-member council, the largest inthe nation. In most cities, council members areelected from the city at large. In some cities, how-ever, citizens of individual wards or districts of thecity elect council members.

Two main types of mayor-council governmentexist, depending upon the power given the mayor.These two types are the strong-mayor system andweak-mayor system. In the strong-mayor system,the municipal charter grants the mayor strong ex-ecutive powers. A strong mayor usually has thepower to veto measures the city council passes, andmany of his or her actions may not require councilapproval. The mayor can appoint and fire depart-ment heads and high-ranking members of the mu-nicipal bureaucracy. In addition, a strong mayorcan prepare the municipal budget, subject to coun-cil approval, and propose legislation to the citycouncil. The mayor usually serves a four-yearterm. The strong-mayor system is most oftenfound in large cities.

Many small cities, especially in New England,use the weak-mayor system of municipal govern-ment. In this form the mayor has only limitedpowers. The mayor has little control over the bud-get or the hiring and firing of municipal person-nel. The city council makes most policy decisions,and the mayor’s veto power is limited. The mayorusually serves only a two-year term. In some smallmunicipalities, the office of the mayor is only apart-time position.

The success of the mayor-council form of gov-ernment depends to a large extent on the individ-ual who serves as mayor. In the strong-mayor


Conventional Wisdom Baltimorehosted the first national presidentialconvention, held by the Anti-Mason party, in1831. In 1832, it also held the firstconventions of the Democratic Party (knownas Republican Delegates from Several States)and the National Republicans. The all-timetop convention city, however, is Chicago. Since1860 it has hosted 25 national conventions.

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system, a politically skillful mayor can provide ef-fective leadership. Under the weak-mayor plan, be-cause official responsibility is in many hands,success depends upon the cooperation of themayor and the council.

The Commission Form The commissionform of municipal government combines execu-tive and legislative power in an elected commis-sion, usually composed of five to seven members.Each commissioner heads a specific departmentand performs executive duties related to that de-partment. The most common departments are po-lice, fire, public works, finance, and parks. Thecommissioners also meet as a legislative body topass laws and make policy decisions. One of thecommissioners usually has the title of mayor. Themayor has no additional powers, however, andusually carries out only such ceremonial functionsas greeting important visitors and officiating at thededication or opening of hospitals and other pub-lic institutions.

The commission form of municipal govern-ment developed after a devastating tidal wavestruck Galveston, Texas, in 1900. As the citizens ofGalveston tried to rebuild their city, they foundtheir mayor-council government unable to handlethe many urgent problems stemming from the dis-aster. Consequently, the Texas state legislature per-mitted Galveston to elect five leading citizens tooversee the city’s reconstruction. The commissionform proved so successful in Galveston that othermunicipal leaders adopted the commission formin their communities. By 1920 more than 500 citieshad the commission form of government.

Despite its early success, today only a fewAmerican cities use the commission form. Overthe years municipal leaders discovered that thisform of government had serious defects. First, inthe absence of a powerful leader, the commissionform can lead to a lack of cooperation and plan-ning in government. This form of government hasno strong executive to persuade or force the com-missioners to act as an effective group. When com-missioners disagree, it may be very difficult tomake decisions or establish policies. Second, whencommissioners do agree, it may be simply to sup-port one another’s budget requests. As a result, themunicipal budget may be far more generous thanit should be.


The separation of legislative and executive powers is present, to some extent, in each form of municipal government. In which form of municipal government do the voters have the most impact on the executive branch?

Critical Thinking

Heads of CityDepartments

MAYOR

Heads of City Departments

appoints

MAYOR CITY COUNCIL

Municipal GovernmentsMunicipal Governments

Source: The World Book Encyclopedia (Chicago: World Book, Inc., 1995).

CARRY OUT POLICY

CITY MANAGER(Chief Administrator)

VOTERS

CITY COUNCIL(Makes Policy)

Council-Manager Form

PASS ORDINANCES;CONTROL FUNDS CARRY OUT POLICY

Commission Form

VOTERS

elect

elect

elect

appoints

hires

actions approved by

CARRY OUT POLICY

Mayor-Council Form

VOTERS

elect

BOARD OF COMMISSIONERS

Public Works Commissioner

Finance Commissioner

Parks Commissioner

Fire Commissioner

Police Commissioner

662-668 CH24S1-860053 12/4/04 12:24 AM 67

United States. More than 40 percent of cities,mostly in the West and the South, use this form.

The office of city manager is the key feature ofthe council-manager plan. Appointed by the coun-cil, the city manager is the chief executive. He orshe appoints and fires municipal workers, preparesthe budget, and runs the day-to-day affairs of thecity. The city manager may also make policy rec-ommendations to the council. Most city managersare professionals trained in public administration.They must answer to the council and are subject todismissal by the council.

The council-manager form usually includes amayor with limited powers. In most cases themayor is a council member whom the councilelects for a two-year term.

Political experts believe the council-managerform brings better management and businesstechniques into government. Executive and legisla-tive powers are clearly separated, and it is easy forthe voters to assign praise or blame for what thegovernment has done.

Some critics, however, point out disadvantagesassociated with council-manager government. Cit-izens do not elect the city manager. Many man-agers are not even residents of the city at the timeof their appointment. Also, the council-managerplan may not provide the strong political leader-ship that is necessary, especially in large cities withethnically and economically diverse populations.

Professional Administrator Hearne, Texas, citycouncil member Charles Bowman (left), MayorRuben Gomez (center) and City Manager KennethPryor (right) discuss municipal issues. Under thecouncil-manager form of government, the city man-ager runs the city. Who establishes the policiesthat the city manager administers?

The Council-Manager Form Under a coun-cil-manager form of government, legislative andexecutive powers are separated. The council of be-tween five and nine members acts as a legislativebody and makes policy for the municipality. Amanager carries out the council’s policies andserves as chief administrator. First used in 1912,the council-manager form is now one of the mostcommon forms of municipal government in the

Sect ion 1 AssessmentSect ion 1 Assessment

Federalism The four basic types of local government that exist in the United States arethe county, the township, the municipality, andthe special district. Choose one type of localgovernment that exists where you live. Createa diagram that shows how it is organized. Thediagram should indicate the officials that makeup the government and their functions.

Checking for Understanding1. Main Idea Use a graphic organizer like the one

below to compare the separation of powers inthe mayor-council form of municipal governmentto that of the federal government.

2. Define county, county board, township, munici-pality, special district, incorporation, referendum.

3. Identify mayor-council form, commission form,council-manager form.

4. Analyze the structure of county government.5. Compare the methods of selection of the heads

of departments in the three forms of citygovernment.

Critical Thinking6. Drawing Conclusions Why do many large cities

prefer the council-manager form of municipalgovernment?


municipal federal

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Firefighting is just one of many services oflocal government. Today most of these ser-vices are provided by taxes levied on every-one, rather than by fees from individuals.

Local Government ServicesLocal governments provide education, fireand police protection, water, sewage and

sanitation services, trash collection, libraries, andrecreation.

Education Providing education is one of themost important functions of government. In manystates a large share of local tax revenues goes to payfor public schools. Some states pay a large percent-age of local public school costs, but local school dis-tricts generally provide most of the money andmake the key decisions regarding the operation ofthe public schools. Local funding and local controlof schools go hand in hand. However, local fundingalso contributes to inequality of education acrossthe many districts of a state. Wealthier districts canprovide much better educational opportunities. Asa result, some states and the state courts have re-cently begun to address this issue, raising questionsabout the way education is financed.

Zoning Local governments use zoning to regu-late the way land and buildings may be used.Through zoning, a local government can shapethe way in which a community develops. Zoningboards can plan for regulated growth, preservethe character of neighborhoods, and prevent thedecline of land values. A zoning board may rulethat certain districts (zones) can be used only forhomes, others only for businesses, and othersonly for parks.

Some people criticize zoning. They claimthat zoning is an excessive use of governmentpower because it limits how people can use theirproperty. Some criticize zoning laws that makeit difficult for certain people, often minorities

Serving LocalitiesS e c t i o n 2S e c t i o n 2

Fights Fire for a FeeROME, ITALY, 79 B.C.

Marcus Licinius

Crassus has

found a way to pro-

fit while providing a

public service. Rec-

ognizing the city’s

need for fire protec-

tion, Crassus estab-

lished a first-rate

firefighting company

that boasts its own horse-drawn water tank. Crassus

accompanies his workers to the fires and negotiates

his fee with the building’s owner before they battle

the blaze. A hard bargainer, Crassus usually de-

mands the property as the price for saving it, and

also that the owner agree to pay him rent for life. His

success as both firefighter and businessman has

made Crassus one of Rome’s biggest landlords.

Protected by Crassus


Reader’s Guide

Key Termszoning, mass transit, metropolitan area, suburbs,real property, personal property, assessment, market value

Find Out■ What are the major issues surrounding the

services local governments provide?■ How do special districts and regional arrange-

ments help local governments serve the needsof communities?

Understanding ConceptsPolitical Processes What are some examples ofchanges in local government structure or functionthat helped address issues of concern to citizens?

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or families with children, to move into particularneighborhoods. Critics call this restrictive zoning.Advocates of zoning claim that without zoning, acommunity might develop in ways that wouldlower property values and make it an unpleasantplace to live.

Police and Fire Protection Police and fireservices are expensive and make up a large part ofthe local budget. Police protection, for example, isthe second-largest expense of many Americancities, after public utilities.

Fire protection is a local function that varieswith the size of the community. In small townsvolunteers usually staff the fire department. Inlarge cities professional, full-time fire departmentsprovide the necessary protection. Professional firedepartments also serve some small towns that havemany factories and businesses.

Water Supply Local governments make thevital decisions regarding water service. In smallercommunities they may contract with privatelyowned companies to supply water. The threat ofwater pollution and water shortages has promptedsome local governments to create special water dis-trict arrangements. In case of a water shortage,such districts or local governments may attempt tolimit the amount of water consumed.

Sewage and Sanitation Local government isresponsible for sewage disposal. Untreated sewage,if allowed to return to the natural water supply, canendanger life and property. Many local govern-ments maintain sewage treatment plants to dealwith this problem.

Sewage and sanitation disposal are very expen-sive local services. For cities with populations ofless than 50,000, sewage and sanitation combinedcomprise the second-highest local governmentalexpenditure after police and fire protection. Thesecosts have forced some smaller communities tocontract with private companies to provide theirsewage and sanitation services.

Because of environmental concerns, landfillsare no longer the simple solution to sanitation thatthey once were. Some local governments usegarbage-processing plants to dispose of the com-munity’s solid wastes.

Sewage and sanitation issues also often requirethat officials make difficult political decisions. Forexample, where should sewage treatment plants belocated? Although such plants are necessary, peo-ple often oppose having them near their homes.Another difficult decision involves how to pay forthese services. Although people want a clean andhealthy community, they often object to payingtaxes that are used for improved sewage and sani-tation services.

670

Municipal ServicesHow would you encour-age city dwellers tomake use of existingmass transit systems?

Past William Louis Sontag, Jr.’s, The Bowery at Night displays the New York City train system in 1895.

Present Today many city dwellers, likethose in Washington, D.C., depend on subways to get around the city. During rushhour, subway trains are jammed with peopletraveling to and from their jobs.

▲

▲

Trekking Through the City

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Transportation As more people choose to livein suburban areas but continue to work in cities,transportation becomes a real concern of city gov-ernment. In addition, shopping centers are locatedbeyond walking distance from people’s homes. Toget to work and to shop, millions of Americans relyon either the automobile or mass transit facilitiessuch as subways, trains, and buses.

Local governments spend millions of dollarseach year to maintain more than 3 million miles ofstreets. In recent years local governments havetried to encourage people to use mass transitrather than their own automobiles for three im-portant reasons. First, mass transit is usually moreefficient than the automobile. A high-speed railsystem, for example, can transport about twice asmany people each hour as a modern expressway.Second, mass transit causes less pollution than au-tomobiles. Third, mass transit uses less energy perperson than automobiles. Still, many people preferthe independence of driving their own vehicles.

Social Services Many local governments offerimportant services to citizens who cannot affordthem. Normally, local governments provide ser-vices to people who have special needs that may re-sult from unemployment, low income, ill health,or from permanent handicaps.

One type of social service provides aid to peo-ple who are temporarily unemployed. This aid con-sists of cash payments and help in finding new jobs.A second program is hospital care for people whoneed medical attention and cannot afford the ex-pense. The third is direct assistance to needy peoplein the form of cash payments. This third type of so-cial service is often referred to as “welfare.”

Local governments, especially cities, have ahuge fiscal responsibility for social services. Payingfor these programs is one of the biggest single expenditures for many large cities in the UnitedStates today. Although the federal and state gov-ernments pay part of the cost, the share that localgovernments pay toward these programs continuesto rise.

Recreation and Cultural Activities As theleisure time of Americans has increased, local gov-ernments have responded with recreation and cul-tural programs. Many local communities offerprograms in swimming, dancing, puppetry, and

arts and crafts. In addition, many localities provideprograms in baseball, football, and other sports.The maintenance of parks, zoos, and museums isalso a function of local government. Many citiesand counties have helped build stadiums, arenas,and convention centers that are used for sports andentertainment.

Metropolitan CommunitiesCities, towns, and villages are metropolitancommunities. These urban communities

differ greatly in size, ranging from a few thousandto millions of people.

The Census Bureau classifies any communitywith 2,500 people or more as an urban communi-ty. Whether an urban community is called a city, atown, or a village depends on local preference orsometimes on state charter classifications. What iscalled a city in one state may be called a town or avillage in another. The Office of Management andBudget has classified large urban areas as Metro-politan Statistical Areas. A metropolitan area ormetropolis is a large city and its surrounding sub-urbs. This area may also include small towns thatlie beyond the suburbs.

Cities Cities are densely populated areas withcommercial, industrial, and residential sections.They are chartered by the state as municipal cor-porations.

Most cities in the United States became majorurban centers during the Industrial Revolution ofthe 1800s. They attracted African Americans,Americans from rural areas, and immigrants whosought jobs and better living conditions. AfterWorld War I, many more African American fami-lies migrated to large cities throughout the countryin search of better opportunities. Since 1945 new-comers from Puerto Rico, Mexico, Cuba, and otherSpanish-speaking regions, as well as immigrantsfrom many countries in Asia, have contributed torapid urban growth.

Beginning in the 1970s, cities in the South andWest became the growth leaders. Census statisticsrevealed a shift in urban population away from theNortheast and Midwest to cities in the regionknown as the Sunbelt. New industries attractedpeople to Sunbelt cities such as Jacksonville, Flori-da; Houston, Texas; and San Diego, California.


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or rural areas. A suburb may becalled a village, a town, or a city,and it usually has its own form ofgovernment.

Many people began to moveto the suburbs after World War II.Between 1950 and 1990, middle-class families seeking to buyhomes flocked to new residentialsuburbs. By 1970 an importantpopulation shift had occurred—most people living in urban areasresided in the suburbs. Even in theSouth, cities lost population tosuburban areas. Atlanta, Georgia,experienced a 20.7 percent de-cline, while the surrounding met-ropolitan area increased 173.1percent.

The first rapid suburbangrowth took place close to the edgeof cities in the 1950s and 1960s.

Federal money for highways and home loans in-duced families to move to the suburbs, as the feder-al Urban Renewal Program demolished hundredsof thousands of low- and middle-income urbanhousing units in the cities. Federal Housing Admin-istration and Veterans Administration programssubsidized homes for nearly 14 million families,with the majority being built in the suburbs.

By the 1980s older suburbs close to cities’edges began to take on the character of the city.Once again people moved, this time to an outersuburban ring. These new suburban communities,15 to 50 miles from the city center, attracted mid-dle-class workers and professional people.

The growth of suburbia signaled politicalchange. In an article titled “The Empowering ofthe Suburbs,” Rob Gurwitt predicted:

“Politics in the outer reaches of suburbia—the land of mega-malls and endless com-muting—will soon attract the attention ofa lot of people who never really had tothink about it before. . . . In several legisla-tures, the suburbs as a whole will be thenew heavyweights, outnumbering theurban or rural delegations that once heldunquestioned sovereignty.”—Rob Gurwitt, February 1991


Expansion in the Sunbelt San Diego, California, is located in the Sunbelt and enjoys great growth in industry and population.What types of city services would be stressed by fast population growth?

Meanwhile, the 10 largest cities in the North-east and Midwest all lost population. In many ofthese older cities, job opportunities and financialresources dried up. Detroit’s population was 1.67million in the 1960 census; by 2000 it was less thanone million. Chicago lost 7.4 percent of its popula-tion in the 1980s alone. While the population ofsome Northeastern and Midwestern cities stabi-lized in the 1990s, 5 of the 10 largest cities contin-ued to lose population. Major Sunbelt citiescontinued to grow.

Towns Early in the United States’s history, mostAmericans lived in small towns and villages. Afterthe 1860s large cities grew faster than towns andvillages. Between 1970 and 1990, as cities facedproblems, several factors made rural areas and small towns once again attractive to Americans.Many towns and villages experienced growth, butthe fastest-expanding areas were the suburbs.

Suburbs After the 2000 census the Census Bu-reau classified 280 areas of the United States asmetropolitan areas. The largest was New York City;the smallest was Enid, Oklahoma. These areas aremade up of one or more central cities plus theadjacent densely settled territory—the suburbs.Today more Americans live in suburbs than in cities

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Special DistrictsLocal governments often face such problemsas providing a safe water supply and

adequate transportation. From time to time, tosolve these problems, local governments establishspecial districts that are better able to respond tosolving specific problems than other units of localgovernment.

The second reason for special districts derivesfrom the financial limitations states impose onother units of local government. Most state gov-ernments limit the taxing and borrowing powersof local municipal governments. Some states alsohave laws that limit how much these local govern-ments may spend. Creating a new special districtnot subject to such limitations becomes a practicalsolution for local leaders whose budgets arestrained to meet local needs. Most special districtsmay make their own policies, levy taxes, and bor-row needed money.

The water commission and the port authorityare two common types of special districts in theUnited States. The local school district is anothersuch special unit. Other special districts are re-sponsible for administration of airports, sewagedisposal, and roads. As the most common unit oflocal government, the special district is found inevery state. Counting school districts, more than47,000 special districts exist, comprising morethan half of all the local governmental units in thecountry.

The School District The school district is usu-ally governed by an elected local body, the schoolboard. The school board is responsible for settingschool policies, hiring a superintendent of schools,and overseeing the day-to-day workings of schools.It also makes up the school budget, decides on newschool programs and facilities, and often has thefinal decision about hiring teachers and superviso-ry staff. In some places the school board may alsodecide on the amount of school taxes to be levied.

Citizens often have strong feelings about howtheir schools should be run. In many communi-ties, however, less than one-third of the eligiblevoters actually vote in school board elections.Turnout is usually higher when citizens vote on is-sues dealing with money, such as school bond ref-erendums and school tax levies.

Regional ArrangementsIn the 1990s local governments joined todevelop creative approaches to regional is-

sues. Cooperative efforts addressed everythingfrom waste management to law enforcement.

Five rural counties in Alabama formed a wastemanagement authority. Officials realized that theywould have more bargaining power with the com-pany that operates the landfills local governmentsuse if they joined together. City police departmentsand county sheriffs’ offices in some areas sharecrime laboratories, keep joint records, operatejoint radio bands, and share the cost of trainingpersonnel. Fire departments have made agree-ments that require the fire station closest to answerthe first alarm, ignoring political boundaries. Per-haps the most venturesome regional arrangementis Portland, Oregon’s, Metropolitan Service Dis-trict (Metro). As the nation’s only regional author-ity with multiple responsibilities run by electedofficials, Metro covers three counties. Its main taskis controlling growth under Oregon’s land-uselaws. Metro also does all the transportation andwater-quality planning for the area, runs the zoo,manages the convention center and coliseum, anddeals with solid waste disposal and recycling.

Financing Local GovernmentLocal governments are the governments thatare charged with providing costly services

such as mass transit, airports, parks, water, sewagetreatment, education, welfare, and correctional fa-cilities. The costs for these services are enormous.Taxes provide the revenues necessary to do all this.

The Property Tax One of the oldest taxes,property taxes once provided revenue for all levelsof government. Today property taxes are the mostimportant source of revenue for local govern-ments, accounting for more than two-thirds of alltheir tax revenues.

Property taxes are collected on real propertyand personal property. Real property includesland and buildings. Personal property consists ofsuch things as stocks and bonds, jewelry, furniture,automobiles, and works of art. Most local govern-ments now tax only real property. If personalproperty is taxed at all, the rate is usually very low.


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Critical Thinking The state and federal governments, as well as taxes, are sources of income for local governments, which use state and federal money to fund local programs. In which areas were there decreases in spending from 1962 to 1999? Increases?

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States, 2002 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Bureau of Commerce, 2002).

*Intergovernmental revenue as percentage of total

**May not total 100% due to rounding

1962

1999

1972

34.6% 31.5%

14.7%7.2%6.1%

4.6%1.3%

38.1% 29.7%

5.7%

13.2%7.3%

4.6%

1.4%

31.7% 34.6%

10%11.1%6.9%

4.6%1.2%

Education Highways

Public WelfareHealth andHospitals

Fire and PoliceProtection

Parks andRecreation

Other

State and Local GovernmentExpenditures by Function**Fiscal Dependency Among Levels

of Government*

1962

1972

1982

1992

1996

2000

18.9%

23.8%

20.0%

21.4%

20.8%

20.6%

1.8%

4.0%

6.7%

3.1%

3.4%

3.2%

25.2%

30.6%

30.2%

30.3%

30.5%

31.3%

Year

Statefrom

Federal

Localfrom

Federal

LocalfromState

State and Local Government Income and ExpendituresState and Local Government Income and Expenditures

How do local governments determine whatthe property tax will be? The process of calculatingthe value of the property is called assessment. Itbegins when the tax assessor appraises the marketvalue of the homes and other real property in thecommunity. The market value of a house or a fac-tory is the amount of money the owner may expectto receive if the property is sold.

Most local governments do not tax propertyon its market value but on its assessed value, whichis usually only a percentage of its market value. Forexample, a house that has an appraised worth of$120,000 may have an assessed value of 30 percentof that figure, or $36,000.

Public opinion surveys indicate that mostAmericans view the property tax as unfair. Themajor charge against the property tax is that it isregressive—placing a heavier burden on peoplewith lower incomes than on those with higher incomes. The property tax also weighs heavily onretired home owners with fixed incomes who can-not afford constantly rising taxes.

The second criticism of the property tax is thatit is often very difficult to determine property val-ues on a fair and equal basis. Standards may varywith each tax assessor. Tax assessors are elected of-ficials, often underpaid and inadequately trained.

A third criticism is that reliance on the proper-ty tax results in unequal public services. A wealthycommunity with a large tax base can afford betterpublic services than a less wealthy communitywith a small tax base. Based on this criticism, somestate supreme courts have ruled against using theproperty tax to pay for local schools. They haveheld that using property taxes to support schools isa violation of the Fourteenth Amendment’s guar-antee of equal protection of the law.

Finally, property used for educational, reli-gious, or charitable purposes and governmentproperty is exempt from the property tax. Somecommunities give tax exemptions to new business-es and industries to encourage them to relocatethere. As a result, the nonexempt property ownersmust bear a heavier share of the tax burden.


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Other Local Revenue Sources Local gov-ernments must have other revenue sources. Theseinclude local income taxes, sales taxes, fines andfees, and government-owned businesses.

The local income tax is a tax on personal in-come. If the state and the local community bothhave an income tax, the taxpayer pays three in-come taxes: federal, state, and local.

The sales tax is a tax on most items sold instores. Many states allow their local governmentsto use this tax. In some places it is a selective salestax, one that is applied to only a few items.

Fines paid for traffic, sanitary, and other viola-tions, and fees for special services provide part ofthe income for local governments. Special assess-ments are fees that property owners must pay forlocal services that benefit them. For example, a citymay impose a special assessment when it improvesa sidewalk that benefits home owners or shop-keepers. Some cities also earn revenue throughhousing projects, markets, and parking garages.

States permit local governments to borrowmoney in the form of bonds—certificates thatpromise to repay the borrowed money with inter-est by a certain date. Some investors consider localgovernment bonds to be good investments becausetheir earned interest is not subject to federal in-come taxes. Municipal bonds raise money forlarge, expensive projects such as a sports stadium,school buildings, or government office buildings.

Intergovernmental Revenue In addition tolocal sources of revenue, most local governmentsreceive economic aid from state and federal govern-ments. This aid often comes in the form of grants.

When local governments carry out state lawsor administer state programs such as constructinghighways or matching welfare payments, they re-ceive state aid. State governments also grant fundsfor specific purposes such as recreation and educa-tion. Today states provide more than one-third ofthe general revenue of local governments. Moststate aid consists of categorical-formula grants—support for specific programs—used for education,highways, public welfare, and health and hospitals.

Federal financial aid has come in two forms:categorical grants and block grants. Usually Con-gress includes guidelines with categorical grants,for example, to help pay for a new highway, for po-lice training programs, or to aid in sewage control.Local officials prefer block grants, or unrestrictedaid to community development or social services.

Sect ion 2 AssessmentSect ion 2 Assessment

Political Processes Obtain a copy of the mostrecent budget of your local government. Writean article identifying the services that accountfor most of the budget. Also, identify the mainsources of your local government’s revenue. Include your suggestions for change, either inspending priorities or in sources of revenue.


below to compare the advantages of using masstransit with those of driving personal automobiles.

2. Define zoning, mass transit, metropolitan area,suburbs, real property, personal property, assessment, market value.

3. Identify Metropolitan Statistical Areas. 4. Analyze three goals of zoning.5. Why is the property tax considered by some

people to be an unfair tax?

Critical Thinking6. Analyzing Information Why do local govern-

ments, with state and federal assistance, provide social services to residents?


Student Web Activity Visit the United StatesGovernment: Democracy in Action Web site atgov.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 24–Student Web Activities for an activity about serving localities.

GOVERNMENT

Mass Transit Personal Auto

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676

Most of the illegal activity is centered in threeneighborhoods that also have high unemploy-ment rates. Read the lettered proposals below fordealing with the problem. Answer the questionsthat follow.

1. Write a sentence explaining how each propos-al might help to alleviate the problem.

2. On a scale of 1 (low) to 10 (high), indicatehow effective you consider each proposal.

3. Write a paragraph explaining how proposalsyou support would work together.

Application ActivityApplication Activity

Demonstrating Reasoned Judgment

A. Civic education programs should be createdfor grades 1–12.

B. Police should walk rather than drive aroundthe areas they patrol.

C. Job training programs for unemployed young people should be started in theseneighborhoods.

D. Neighborhood crime watch programs should be organized.

E. The city should enlist the help of churchesand community groups to provide recreational activities and counseling services for teenagers.

Guarding the neighbor-hood against crime

Application ActivityApplication Activity

The Glencoe SkillbuilderInteractive Workbook, Level 2provides instruction and practicein key social studies skills.

Read a newspaper article about a localissue or problem. Use the facts in the articleto analyze the effectiveness of proposedsolutions to the problem. Write a paragraphexplaining your opinion.

Judgments involve using criteria to assess theworth of something such as an election candi-date or a public policy. Criteria are standards

for making judgments. Criteria may be derivedfrom experience, history, ethics, or other sources.For instance, honesty is one criteria for judging apolitical candidate.

Learning the Skill

To make a reasoned judgment you need to follow these three steps:1. Review the facts to understand the problem.

Examine all the proposed solutions.2. Use your knowledge to decide whether each

proposed solution is likely to be effective.3. Examine information that both supports and

contradicts your conclusion.

Practicing the Skill

Suppose that you are the mayor of acity in which vandalism is a

major problem.

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Concentrating many people in limitedspace creates problems. Today manyurban areas in the United States confronthousing shortages, inadequate trans-

portation, pollution, poverty, and crime. Althoughthese problems are most acutely experienced in bigcities, they also exist in the surrounding suburbsand small towns.

Population and HousingRecall the kinds of population shifts thathave taken place in recent years. Cities in the

Northeast and Midwest lost population as those inthe South and West grew rapidly. The population ofsmall towns and rural areas increased, and manypeople moved from cities to nearby suburban areas.

What are the causes and results of thesechanges? What challenges have these changinggrowth patterns presented for local communities?Studying the changes in housing is a key to under-standing many urban problems.

Managing Decline As the population in anarea increases, available land becomes morescarce and, hence, more costly. Local govern-ments often have to decide whether available landshould be used for new housing, industry, stores,or office buildings.

Municipal governments attempt to manageland use to provide an environment for orderlygrowth. What action should be taken when anarea begins to deteriorate?

In the 1950s some inner cities showed signsof decline. People who could afford new hous-ing left the inner cities and moved to the sub-urbs; poorer people remained. Jobs becamescarce as industries moved out—either to at-tractive suburban areas or to new locations inthe South and West. Inner-city housing deteri-orated, and slums multiplied. Residents had toendure inadequate heating, leaky pipes, poorsanitary conditions, and rising crime rates.

Challenges of Urban GrowthS e c t i o n 3S e c t i o n 3

New Yorkers Assess PoliceNEW YORK CITY, SEPTEMBER 15, 2000

According to a poll re-

leased today, 8 out of 10

New Yorkers believe their po-

lice are doing a good job of

fighting crime. Steven M.

Fishner, the mayor’s criminal

justice coordinator, explained

that the New Yorkers’ vote of

confidence is no accident.

Crime in the city has declined

55 percent since 1993, and homicides are down by 65

percent. The poll also reveals a downside to citizens’

perception of the police department. Many people

suspect that police use racial profiling when making

arrests and are lax in disciplining brutal and corrupt

officers. For example, 42 percent of the African Amer-

icans and 36 percent of the Hispanics who responded

indicated that they would be “fearful” or “somewhat

concerned” if an officer approached them.


Reader’s Guide

Key Termsurban renewal, infrastructure, revitalization, gentrification, metropolitan government

Find Out■ How have shifts in the population affected

cities and their governments in recent years?■ What large problems do metropolitan govern-

ments face today and in the future?

Understanding ConceptsFederalism What is the financial relationship between local governments and state and federalgovernments?

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Urban Renewal Mayors of large cities, awareof the growing inner-city problems, appealed tothe federal government for help. The federal gov-ernment offered an urban renewal program as asolution. Spending hundreds of millions of federaldollars for new construction in the 1950s and1960s, cities attempted to address their housingproblems. Generally the approach was to teardown existing housing and build giant apartmentcomplexes. Cities uprooted millions of people inan effort to renew blighted areas. In some casesurban renewal forced residents out of their oldneighborhoods and replaced older buildings withnew luxury apartment houses that the original res-idents could not afford.

After years of massive spending, the resultswere not encouraging. Fewer affordable new hous-ing units were created than were needed. Unem-ployment remained a problem. New Haven,Connecticut, was typical:

“The most important effect of the first corearea projects and then those in the nextring was to produce a continuous flow ofdisplaced persons; as much as one-fifth ofthe entire population of the city was up-rooted between 1956 and 1974. Commu-nity social networks were in part destroyedby the very officials who sought to stopdecay and make New Haven slumless.”—Susan F. Fainstein and

Norman L. Fainstein, 1986

Urban renewal added new low-rent publichousing, but slowed production of other types ofhousing. Low-rent units under construction in-creased from 14,000 in 1956 to 126,800 in 1970.However, low-rent or subsidized government hous-ing discouraged private investment in apartmentunits. The construction of new rental units declinedfrom about 750,000 in 1972 to 297,000 in 1980. Theconstruction of privately owned new housing unitspeaked at 2 million in 1978 and later leveled off toabout 1.5 million. Fewer total housing units avail-able meant higher costs overall for rent.

Housing Discrimination To make mattersworse, some Americans suffered the effects ofdiscrimination in housing, especially in the rentalmarket. For many years smaller communities andsuburban areas excluded African Americans andother minorities. Meanwhile, inner-city living developed a cycle of low pay, poor housing, in-adequate education, and unemployment.

Suburbs at times kept out the poor, the elder-ly, and people with children. Some apartmentowners were unwilling to rent to people with children. A 1981 study in Los Angeles found thatowners excluded families with children from 71percent of the apartments surveyed.

The courts have consistently ruled against dis-crimination in housing. Moreover, in 1968 Con-gress passed a federal Open Housing Act that barsdiscrimination in the sale and rental of housing.Nevertheless, housing discrimination is sometimesdifficult to prove, and the government has not al-ways enforced laws against it.

Coping with Housing Shortages Manymajor cities, including Atlanta, New Orleans, andPhiladelphia, responded to the housing shortage by

Local Issues Through this redevelopment projectin Englewood, New Jersey, local officials hope totransform older housing units into more functionaland affordable housing. Which local issue do youthink is the most urgent in your community?


Refurbishing Communities

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renovating older housing units. Renovation projectsrewired homes, installed new plumbing, and rebuiltfloors and walls. In cities such as Baltimore and DesMoines, funds from the city government along withfederal, state, and private funds made some highlysuccessful renovation programs possible.

The federal government also provided low-in-terest loans to local housing authorities throughpublic housing programs. These loans helped tobuild housing projects for low-income residents.Local housing authorities received federal aid tohelp maintain rents at affordable levels.

Social Problems Large cities face serious social problems. Theconcentration of poverty, homelessness,

crime, and drug and alcohol abuse is easily identi-fied in large cities. The local and national mediaoften report on these problems, raising the nation-al awareness of their seriousness. City govern-ments, however, must be more than aware of thesesocial conditions. They must try to alleviate them.

Homelessness Housing shortages are only oneside of the housing problem in major cities. Theother side is the human issue—homelessness. Hun-dreds of thousands of people spend their nights inshelters or on the streets. Unemployment and thehousing shortage contribute to this problem. In ad-dition, two-thirds of the homeless have a seriouspersonal problem that contributes to their plight—alcoholism, drug addiction, or a criminal record.About one-third are mentally ill. The averagehomeless adult has been out of work for four years.Housing alone will not solve this problem. Rehabil-itation programs are needed to address the person-al problems that caused people to be homeless.

Private and religious charitable organizationscontribute the most to relieve homelessness. Thefederal government provides a very small portionof assistance. In a recent year, the federal govern-ment provided about the same amount of assis-tance for the whole nation as the city of New York spent for its own homeless people.

Drug Abuse Closely associated with homeless-ness in many cities is drug abuse and addiction.Crack, a stronger form of cocaine, became thescourge of the cities in the 1980s. Street gangs built

a network for selling the drug in most of the na-tion’s cities before the federal Drug EnforcementAdministration realized the extent of the problem.

Inner-city teenagers, unable to find low-skilljobs, rationalized crack selling as a gateway toprosperity. Many worked long, hard hours in thedrug trade and hoped to escape the poverty cycle.The rewards, however, did not match the danger.Many crack dealers earned no more than the min-imum wage, and the earnings were often con-sumed in drug use.

The national media focused on drugs as amajor problem in the United States. Some called ita $25 billion drain on the national wealth and im-plicated drugs in the renewed rising crime rates inthe cities. One national magazine that made acommitment to cover drug abuse said:

“We plan accordingly to cover it as a crisis,reporting it as aggressively and returningto it as regularly as we did the struggle forcivil rights, the war in Vietnam, and thefall of the Nixon presidency.”—Newsweek, June 16, 1986

In November 1988, Congress responded toPresident Reagan’s request for new antidrug legis-lation. The new law created the office of federaldrug “czar” and increased spending for drug treat-ment and law enforcement. By 1991 the Justice De-partment’s budget reached $10 billion, much of ittargeted for fighting drug trafficking. There wassome evidence that federal intervention was hav-ing an effect. A survey released in January 1990 re-ported a decline in the number of high schoolseniors who said they had tried illegal drugs. Use ofcrack showed the sharpest decline—a 50 percentdrop from the 1985 figure.

However, the problem of drug abuse resur-faced in the media just a few years later. Teenageuse of marijuana doubled between 1993 and 1996.While the number of hard-core drug users re-mained steady at about 3 million, the addicts wereusing an increasing amount of drugs. PresidentClinton responded to the news by appointingBarry R. McCaffrey, a retired army general, as headof the Office of National Drug Control Policy. Atconfirmation hearings McCaffrey promised theSenate renewed efforts, especially in the treatmentof drug users:


677-685 CH24S3-860053 12/4/04 12:26 AM Page 679

“Specifically, let me underscore my convictionthat drug testing and then the treatment ofconvicted criminals prior to and followingrelease from prison is vital. We simply mustprovide treatment to these people if we expect to protect the American people fromviolence and property crimes.”—Barry R. McCaffrey, 1996

A federal survey released in August 2000 showed thatteenage drug use is again on the decline.

Meeting Future ChallengesIn the years ahead municipal governmentsface problems that demand imagination,

citizen involvement, and good leadership. In mostcases solving these problems will take large invest-ments of money. Municipalities continue to de-pend on help from state and federal governments.The level of aid may not satisfy big cities, however.

Large cities have special problems that add totheir financial burdens. They usually have higher

rates of poverty, crime, and unemployment thansmaller localities. In 1979, for example, about one-third of all people living below the federally de-fined level of poverty resided in large cities.

Infrastructure Paved streets and sidewalks,pipes that bring water to homes, and sewers thatdispose of liquid wastes make up what is known asthe infrastructure of a city. Also included in theinfrastructure are bridges, tunnels, and publicbuildings. In America’s older cities, the infrastruc-ture shows severe signs of wear. Much of it is indire need of repair or replacement. An economistwho is an expert on the subject has warned,“Muchof our infrastructure is on the verge of collapse.”

Repairing the infrastructure will mean hugeexpenditures for local governments. All levels ofgovernment together spent about $11 billion in1960 for airports, highways, railroads, and transit.By the 1990s government spending for these formsof transportation surpassed $100 billion a year.

Cities face mounting costs for cleanup of pol-luted water, sewer system replacement, and waste


Gillian Kilberg

Making a DifferenceMaking a Difference What would you do if youinherited $20,000? Sev-enteen-year-old Gillian

Kilberg decided to start a sum-mer camp to help underprivilegedchildren. Kilberg, from McLean,Virginia, received the inheritancewhen her grandmother died. “Iwanted to do something with themoney so people would remem-ber my grandmother,” she said.

Kilberg’s plan was to create a “special trips” camp for childrenages 5 to 12. The camp wouldgive children from the Washington,D.C., area an opportunity to visitplaces that they could probablynever visit on their own. Although$20,000 seemed a large sum ofmoney, Gillian soon realized shehad to raise more. She workedwith a local sheriff to create herprogram, and sent letters tofriends and relatives explaining

her project. “We ended up raisingabout $30,000, which was amaz-ing,” she said.

In 1996 Gillian’s summercamp, which she called GrandmaRita’s Children, sent 47 childrenon 15 different day trips to placeslike the National Air and SpaceMuseum and a Baltimore Oriolesbaseball game. They went back-stage at a Motown concert andeven paid a visit to Supreme Courtjustice Clarence Thomas.

Five years later the camp isthriving. Gillian has continued toraise money, totaling $160,000by 2001, and extended the campage limit to 13. Camp graduatescan also train to become campcounselors. At the end of summer2001, Gillian plans to use anyextra monies to create a collegescholarship fund for formercampers.

677-685 CH24S3-860053 12/4/04 12:26 AM Page 680

treatment plants. Infrastructure costs areso enormous that local governments can-not do the job alone. State and federal aid isavailable for road building, water andsewage systems, bridge construction, andmany other public works.

Mass Transit Maintaining a soundtransportation network is a serious chal-lenge for local governments. Chronic traf-fic jams and air pollution have resultedfrom the millions of Americans using theirautomobiles to commute to work. As notedearlier in this chapter, an alternative to au-tomobile use in urban areas is mass tran-sit—buses, subways, and rail lines. Masstransit moves large numbers of people,produces less pollution, and consumesmuch less fuel than automobiles. Despitethese advantages of mass transit, however,most Americans prefer to drive to workalone in their automobiles.

Many local leaders believe that more peoplewould use mass transit facilities if they were clean-er, faster, and more efficient. Elaborate mass tran-sit systems have been built in Washington, D.C.,Atlanta, and in the San Francisco–Oakland area.San Francisco’s Bay Area Rapid Transit system(BART) cost twice its original estimate to build.High costs discourage planners in other cities fromtaking on such projects.

The Need for Economic DevelopmentCities have struggled with different solutions totheir financial problems. These solutions have in-cluded state and federal aid, loans, budget cuts, andlayoffs of city workers. Many cities have also triedto deal with their financial woes by stimulatinggreater economic development. Economic devel-opment is especially critical for cities that have lostbusinesses over the past 30 years.

How can municipal governments stimulateeconomic development? One approach is revital-ization. Revitalization means that local govern-ments make large investments in new facilities inan effort to promote economic growth. In recentyears a number of major cities have attempted torevitalize their downtown areas. Baltimore built a$170-million office and residential complex. De-troit invested more than $200 million in a region-

al shopping mall and two giant office buildings.Funds usually come both from local governmentand private investors. State and federal aid mayalso be available for revitalization projects.

The second major approach to economic de-velopment is tax incentives to industries that relo-cate in a community. Tax incentives may take anumber of forms. Local governments, especially insuburban areas, often try to attract new business byoffering lower property tax rates. Some states, suchas Connecticut and Indiana, offer tax reductions tobusinesses that relocate in areas of high unemploy-ment. Similarly, the federal government also offerstax reductions, or credits, to businesses that moveinto areas of poverty and unemployment.

Gentrification One of the most debated issuesof the revitalization movement concerns gentrifi-cation. Also called “displacement,” gentrificationis the phenomenon of new people moving into aneighborhood, forcing out those who live thereand changing the area’s essential character.

Beginning in the 1980s some middle-incomesuburbanites and recent immigrants moved intothe cities, often into areas where they could restoreold houses and other buildings and take advantageof the lower housing costs while enjoying the benefits of city life.


Development Trinity College’s groundbreaking ceremonyopens The Learning Corridor in Hartford, Connecticut. TheLearning Corridor is a neighborhood revitalization program to create a central hub of educational and economic devel-opment. How do projects like The Learning Corridorhelp eradicate social and economic problems in cities?

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The positive side of gentrification is that it re-stores vitality to the city by reclaiming deterioratingproperty and bringing new business to decayedareas. It also has a negative effect, however. It accel-erates property sales, inflating property values andincreasing taxes. Property becomes too expensivefor poorer residents who live in these neighbor-hoods to stay. If the displaced residents are largelyfrom a minority group, the issue may become aheated one. Some cities have defused this issue bypassing legislation that slows or prevents displace-ment. For example, Savannah, Georgia, preservedmuch of its social diversity by providing its limited-income residents help in restoring their properties.

New Federal and State Priorities Thefederal government, acting to reduce budgetdeficits, eliminated programs such as Urban De-velopment Action Grants and the ComprehensiveEmployment Training Act. Why were federal andstate governments less responsive to city prob-lems? Perhaps these governments had changedtheir priorities. A federal commission, “UrbanAmerica in the Eighties,” suggested that social andeconomic migration to the suburbs was a natural,even an advantageous, development that shouldnot be discouraged. It added that federal aid to thecities should not try to stop this trend. The suburbswere becoming powerful economic and political

entities. After the census of 1990, new district linesgave suburbs additional seats in Congress and statelegislatures. The nation’s focus seemed to be shift-ing from city problems to suburban opportunities.To survive as healthy communities, perhaps citieswould have to solve their own problems.

Metropolitan Government One way to ad-dress urban problems is by reorganization into ametropolitan government that serves a larger re-gion. Most problems do not affect just one localcommunity. Instead, they are problems of an en-tire region. Air pollution created in a city spreadsto nearby suburbs and rural towns. Suburban res-idents use city services, but they do not help to paytaxes for these services. Because a metropolitanarea is an interdependent region, those who favormetropolitan government feel that one govern-ment for an entire metropolitan area would be bet-ter equipped to handle regional problems.

Many people feel that a metropolitan govern-ment would reduce government waste and dupli-cation of services. For example, one metropolitansewage treatment plant might just as easily servemany communities. Others point out that manypeople reside in the suburbs because the schoolsystems and roads are better and crime is lower.They argue that creating metropolitan governmentswould simply bring urban problems to the suburbs.

Sect ion 3 AssessmentSection 3 Assessment

Federalism Mayors of large cities must pre-sent strong arguments to get federal funds toaddress city problems. What could a mayorsay to the president and Congress to supportthe cities’ cause? Research the types of projects that would benefit your community.Write a proposal explaining the need for federal money to support that project for your community.


below to compare challenges that municipal gov-ernments faced in the 1950s to those they facetoday.

2. Define urban renewal, infrastructure, revitaliza-tion, gentrification, metropolitan government.

3. Identify Drug Enforcement Administration, Officeof National Drug Control Policy.

4. What are the positive and negative outcomes of gentrification?

5. How would a metropolitan government addressurban problems?

Critical Thinking6. Predicting Consequences Analyze additional

problems cities will face if governments are un-able to fund replacement of urban infrastructures.


1950s Today

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CHAPTER 24: STRUC- CHAPTER 24: STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT 683

toto

SHOULD CITIES IMPROVEMASS TRANSIT TO SOLVETRAFFIC CONGESTION?

CARS RULE

Despite the flexibility that ISTEA gave to statesto use road money for alternative transportation, theUnited States remains a car-dominated country.States spent almost the entire $23.9 billion ISTEAprovided in its Surface Transportation Program forroads. Because of heavy spending from ISTEA funds,from states, and from local governments, pavementconditions have improved steadily. Meanwhile manysenior citizens, persons with disabilities, and peopleliving on limited incomes need mass transit services.

The Federal Transit Administration (FTA) workstogether with metropolitan areas to develop trans-portation plans. Assume you live in a city where theFTA has offered $30 million to the community fortransportation improvements. This would be enoughto build an elevated walkway and to extend thecity’s transit railway into its growing Central Market,a shopping complex. Truckers and people living in arapidly developing residential area, however, wantmost of the money to be used to widen a congest-ed two-lane road into a four-lane highway leadingdowntown.

KEY ISSUES✔ Will people use mass transit to avoid congest-ed highways?✔ Should the city spend funds to benefit the Cen-tral Market at the expense of other shopping areas?

Debate Select seven class members to representan urban commission to study this issue. Selectseveral people to testify on each side of the issue.

Vote Have the commission vote whether to use thefunds for a highway or to improve mass transit.

Debating the IssueDebating the Issue

SHOULD YOUR COMMUNITY USE FEDERAL FUNDS FOR MASS TRANSIT?

In 1991 Congress passed the Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act (ISTEA).ISTEA’s goal was to balance the growing needs of transportation with the quality-of-life issues,such as clean air. Yet, the nation’s transportation systemis under stress. Congestion continues to get worse. ISTEAmay be credited with declining pollution levels in several

major cities, but in truth, the gains have come from improved technology and cleaner-burning fuels.

BETTER ROADS OR MASS TRANSIT?Trucking and auto interests lobby for improved

highways. Alternative-transportation advocates, however, believe that a better environment and lesscongestion would result if money were channeled to projects aimed at reducing vehicular traffic andimproving air quality.

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Assessment and ActivitiesChapter 24Chapter 24

Self-Check Quiz Visit the United States Government:Democracy in Action Web site at gov.glencoe.com andclick on Chapter 24–Self-Check Quizzes to preparefor the chapter test.

GOVERNMENT

Local Government

ChallengesServicesStructure and Finances• Created by and entirely dependent

upon the state government• Types—county, township, munici-

pality, special district• Revenue—property taxes, local

income taxes, sales taxes, finesand fees, bonds, grants from stateand federal governments

• Education• Zoning• Police and fire protection• Water service• Sewage and sanitation service• Transportation—maintaining

roads and mass transit• Social services—unemployment aid,

hospital care, “welfare” payments• Recreation and cultural activities

• Population and housing—housingshortages, housing discrimination

• Social problems—homelessness,drug abuse, poverty, crime, unemployment

• Repairing and maintaining infrastructure (roads, bridges,water supply)

• Stimulating economic development

Reviewing Key TermsFrom the list below, write the term that best com-pletes each sentence.

county real propertymunicipality infrastructurespecial district revitalizationzoning gentrificationmarket value metropolitan government

1. Basic facilities such as streets, water lines,and public buildings make up what is knownas the _____ of a city.

2. The government does not tax property on the_____, or the amount of money the owner mayexpect to receive if the property is sold.

3. To promote economic growth, local govern-ments have tried _____ through large invest-ments in new facilities.

4. In the South and in rural areas _____ govern-ment is important.

5. Local governments may use _____ to controlgrowth.

6. Local governments rely on _____ taxes as amain source of revenue.

7. Some people feel that the best way to addressurban problems is reorganization using _____that serves a large region.

8. Originally, a charter for a _____ was much likeone that states granted to corporations.

9. A public school district is a _____ establishedby local government.

10. Sometimes called “displacement,” _____ hasoften changed the character of an urban area.

Recalling Facts1. What document specifies the powers and

duties of local government?2. What are the three main forms of municipal

government?3. What is the single largest public service pro-

vided by local tax revenues?4. What is the biggest government expenditure

for many large American cities?5. Describe four kinds of population shifts in met-

ropolitan areas since 1950.

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UnderstandingConcepts

1. Federalism What is the re-lationship between a stateand a municipality withinthat state?

2. Political Processes Why didsome state supremecourts rule against usingthe property tax to pay forlocal schools?

Critical Thinking1. Making Comparisons Use a

Venn diagram like the onebelow to compare a localgovernment’s charter to astate constitution.

2. Identifying Central Issues Inyour view, which of the fed-eral government’s goals indealing with the illegal drugproblem is the most important? Why?

Analyzing Primary SourcesIn 1908, Staunton, Virginia, became the first

city in the United States to adopt the council-man-ager form of local government. Read the excerptfrom the City of Staunton’s Comprehensive Plan,which is updated every five years, and then answerthe questions that follow.

“Many factors must be taken into consideration whenformulating a guide for the future development of a com-munity. These factors help to determine the optimum pat-tern of development by balancing pursuit of residential,commercial, and employment opportunities with preser-vation of the natural environment, history, and characterof the community. . . .

• a desire to conserve and/or protect the City’s natural resources, historic character, and scenic qualities;

• a desire to strengthen and broaden the City’seconomic base;

Interpreting Political Cartoons Activity

• a desire to insure adequate services and facilities; . . . and • a desire to encourage appropriate development and/or

redevelopment of properties.”

1. How does this city plan resemble a businessplan? What types of goals does this city havefor its future?

2. Do you think that a council-manager form ofgovernment is the best way to achieve a city ora region’s governmental goals? Explain.

Participating in Local GovernmentAttend a county, township, vil-lage, or special district meet-ing. Obtain copies of the agenda.Take notes on what you hear at themeeting and whether the agendawas followed, and report on what happened to the class.


Chapter 24Chapter 24

1. Whom do the two figures represent?2. What statement is the cartoonist making about the state

of cities?3. According to the cartoonist, what can the government do

to help cities?

Local Charter

State Constitutionboth

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chapter 24: structure and function of local government · and duties of local governments. a state...

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