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TRANSCRIPT
Chapter 15
© 2015 Thompson Educational Publishing, Inc. 1
TRAINING PRINCIPLES
The F.I.T.T. Principle
© 2015 Thompson Educational Publishing, Inc. 2
The F.I.T.T. Principle describes the four basic elements of
any good training plan.
The initials F.I.T.T. stand for:
• Frequency
• Intensity
• Type
• Time (or duration)
Frequency
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The frequency of training sessions refers tohow often you participate in training, usuallyover a weekly basis.
• Training frequency depends on anumber of factors, including age,conditioning, and competitiveaspirations.
• The Canadian Society for ExercisePhysiology (CSEP) recommends atleast three sessionsa week of vigorous activities as thebasis for aerobic fitness, along withthree sessions of strength activitiesper week.
• However, this is not nearly enoughactivity for top- level athletes, who mayengage in as many as 15 trainingsessions per week.
Intensity
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Cardiorespiratory Training Intensity
• The most common way to determine the intensity range for
aerobic exercise is first to calculate your Maximum Heart
Rate (MHR). For healthy individuals, one’s Target Heart Rate
(THR) range is typically 60-90% of MHR, depending
on the individual’s level of fitness. (MHR can be calculated by
subtracting your age from 220.)
Resistance Training Intensity
• For resistance training, one of the most popular ways of
determining intensity is to work to a percentage of your One-
Repetition Maximum (1RM). 1RM testing should only be done
by a qualified strength and conditioning trainer as injuries can
result if it is not done properly.
Type
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The type of training a person pursues is influenced by a
number of factors. A combination of aerobic and anaerobic
training is ideal.
• You can train by performing specific activities directly related
to your sport (e.g., ball-control drills in soccer, stick-handling
in hockey, etc.).
• You can also train by performing activities that build strength
and endurance without mimicking skills (e.g., resistance training
for strength, running for aerobic endurance, and plyometric
activities for power).
• The season will also affect what type of training is done, since
weather conditions may not permit certain kinds of training.
Time
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It goes without saying, perhaps: All training should be progressive.
• Individuals just beginning to exercise should keep sessions short,
slowly building up to sessions of longer duration.
• Your lifestyle is also a factor. Fitting exercise into a busy schedule
can be difficult, but it can pay dividends in terms of overall fitness
and health and it will make other aspects of life easier.
Other Training Principles
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There are five basic training principles that complement F.I.T.T. Theseare:
• The Principle of Progressive Overload
• The Principle of Specificity
• The Principle of Reversibility
• The Principle of Diminishing Returns, and
• The Principle of Individual Differences
(1) Progressive Overload
For physiological changes to occur, the body
must be subjected to greater stresses, applied
in a progressive manner, than those to which it
is normally accustomed. This is known as the
principle of progressive overload.
• A person training
for a long bike
race might begin
with a shorter
distance until he
or she is able to
cycle for longer
periods of time.
• The same is
true for strength
training—proceed
progressively.
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(2) Specificity
In order to reach maximum outcomes, you
should mimic as closely as possible the effort
required in the sport or activity. This is known
as the principle of specificity.
• Hurdlers like Perdita Felicien
must train by jumping hurdles
and distance runners must
train by running distances to
achieve their best results.
• In addition to whatever
strength and aerobic
training may be required,
peak performance requires
attention and effort directed to
the specific activities involved
in the sport.
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(3) Reversibility
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Stated another way: “Use it or lose it”! This is
the principle of reversibility—namely, if you stop
training for a period of time, the improvements
you made will be lost or reversed.
Detraining is the term used to describe the
process that occurs when someone stops
training; for example, as a result of:
• Injury,
• Lack of motivation, or
• Other commitments that encroach on available
training time.
Most professional athletes intentionally “lie
low” in the “off season” to refresh themselves
for the new competition period.
(4) Diminishing Returns
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An athlete will eventually reach a “performance
plateau” at which point his or her progress in
training and results tend to level off. At that point,
improvements become more difficult to achieve—
that is, there are diminishing returns.
•A person who has had relatively little
training (such as a beginning jogger) is
usually able to make significant gains
early on in terms of both fitness and
strength.
•Highly trained runners usually make
relatively smaller gains with repeated
training.
(5) Individual Differences
Every athlete has a unique physical and psychological
makeup and responds differently to a given training
protocol. This is known as the principle of individual
differences.
• Good coaches and trainers take this
principle into account and come up
with a program and fitness regimen
that is ideally suited to each athlete.
• Individuals have different needs—
you cannot simply copy someone
else’s fitness regimen.
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Training Methods Used Today
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The main functional fitness training methods include:
•Periodization
•Flexibility training
•Core training
•Cardiorespiratory training
•Resistance training
•Circuit and stage training
•Plyometrics training
•Speed/agility/quickness training
•Balance training
Periodization
Periodization refers to the development of an overall training plan
separated into distinct training periods. The objective is to maximize
performances at peak times and to reduce the risk of injury and
mental burnout.
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Flexibility Training
Flexibility training refers to training that
increases the range of motion of joints in order
to enhance performance and reduce the risk of
injury. Methods used to achieve this include:
• Static stretching
• Active-isolated
stretching
• Dynamic
stretching
• Yoga, and
• Self-myofascial
release (self-
massage)
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Core Training
A strong core (mid-section from shoulders to hips)
is a critical component in fitness and sport
performance.
• Core training involves this
group of muscles, including
the back and abdominals.
• Like other types of training,
core training should follow
the common principles,
including periodization.
• Training programs for the core
should start by focussing on
improving core stability, then
core strength, and eventually
core power.© 2015 Thompson Educational Publishing, Inc. 20
Cardiorespiratory Training
Endurance training is a key component
of any integrated training program.
A cardiorespiratory
training program is
generally composed
of three phases:
• (1) base training,
• (2) interval training, and
• (3) sport-specific training.
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Resistance (Strength) Training
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In resistance training, a weight or some other
force provides resistance to working muscles,
which thereby gain strength according to the
principle of progressive overload.
There are a number of variables involved:
• The order in which exercises are to be done
• The number of repetitions to be done in each set
• The number of sets of each exercise
• The amount of rest to take between each set
• The intensity of the exercises
• The volume of each workout (the total amount of
weight lifted), and
• The number of training sessions in a given period
Circuit and Stage Training
• Circuit training consists of a group of four to ten
exercises that are performed for a specific number
of repetitions or for a given time period before the
individual moves to the next exercise.
• Stage
training is
similar to
circuit training,
but instead of
rotating from
one station
to the next,
participants
finish all sets
before moving
to the next
station.
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Plyometrics Training
• Plyometrics (or stretch-shortening exercises)
involves a series of explosive drills, usually using
the body’s own weight as the overload (although
sometimes a medicine ball or weighted vests can
be substituted).
• It is a form of resistance
training that its advocates
claim can develop strength and
power.
• This training method
should be undertaken only
after an
individual has developed a
solid resistance-training base.
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Speed/Agility/Quickness Training
• Speed/agility/quickness training develops not only
strength and power, but also motor learning and
control.
• Footwork drills, for
example, can help
athletes become
more agile, and box
drills help them
execute changes in
direction.
• Many of these types
of training drills can
also be adapted to
specific sports.
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Balance Training
Balance is the ability to maintain equilibrium
while standing still (static balance) or while
moving (dynamic balance).
• Balance training
can range from basic
stabilization exercises,
such as standing on
one foot, to more
complex dynamic
balance strength
exercises, and, finally,
to balance power
exercises such as
single leg hops.
© 2015 Thompson Educational Publishing, Inc. 28
Environmental Factors and Training
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People rarely exercise in ideal conditions. Environmental
factors such as the following can influence fitness training
and performance:
•Extreme temperatures
•High humidity
•High altitude
•Air quality
Exercising in extreme environmental conditions can be
dangerous and even fatal.
Our Bodies’ Heat Exchange Mechanisms
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• A person can withstand a drop in
core body temperature of about
10 degrees Celsius, but an
increase of only 5 degrees
Celsius.
• To prevent our temperatures
from soaring in extreme heat,
the body promotes four different
mechanisms of heat exchange;
these are:
• Evaporation: the removal of
sweat from the surface of the
skin
Equipment and Clothing
• In hot conditions, excessive clothing and equipment
can block the body’s cooling mechanisms. New
high-tech fabrics allow moisture to evaporate
through them, thus facilitating more effective body
cooling.
• In cold
weather,
experts
recommend
a “layered”
approach—
wearing a
few, thin
layers of
clothing
while
exercising
outdoors.
© 2015 Thompson Educational Publishing, Inc. 31
Atmospheric Pressure and Altitude
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• The available oxygen in the ambient air around us
drops as the barometric pressure decreases at
higher elevations. Thus, there is less oxygen in the
blood of an exercising individual, which leads to a
noticeable decrease in exercise performance.
• Even a small rise in altitude will decrease
performance in endurance events.
• Many endurance athletes adopt a “live high, train
low” approach—spending their non-training time
at high altitude, while realizing the physiological
benefits of training at sea level.
Air Pollution
• People who train outdoors take in more air—up to
ten times more than a sedentary person.
• Thus, they suffer a greater health risk in breathing
in air pollutants, e.g., lead and carbon monoxide.
They should exercise during cooler weather, avoid
training
during
afternoon
hours,
check the
“air quality
index” before
exercising
outdoors,
and exercise
indoors
during “bad
air days.”
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Uh, oh…teacher burnout!
Causes of Overtraining
Environmental Causes:
– TR Sessions are too long or too intense
– Injury
– Progressions are too steep
– There is too little time for recovery
– Problems with others
– Unrewarding environment
– Monotonous training
– Lack of sleep, poor nutrition
Personal factors:– High expectations
– Lack of enjoyment
– Perfectionism
– Poor coping strategies for stress
– Lack of personal control in training
Signs of Overtraining
• Loss of self-confidence
• Drowsiness and apathy
• Irritability
• Emotional and motivational changes
• Sadness
• Anxiety
• Anger and hostility
• Confusion
• Difficulties with concentration
• Boredom
• Feeling of devaluation from coaches/teammates
Avoiding Burnout and Overtraining
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Burnout results from two combined factors:
• physiological (e.g., too little rest and recovery)
• psychological (e.g., low motivation)
To prevent burnout and overtraining, athletes need to strive for a more
gradual approach, and
• Detect early signs of physical and/or mental fatigue and
incorporate extra rest periods
• Break the training and/or competitive schedule down to allow
for “off-seasons”
• Work toward long-term goals while introducing an element of
“freshness” into a training routine
• Ensure proper sleep, nutrition, and hydration
Warming Up & Cooling Down Are a Must!
• Warm-up: Begin with range-of-motion (ROM) or
dynamic movements of major joints to give some
flexibility gains and serve as a first check on
how the body
feels before
a workout.
Move into a
light aerobic
circulatory
warm-up and
moderate
dynamic
stretches.
• Cool-down:
Emphasis
is usually
on static
stretching.
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Fitness Appraisals
© 2015 Thompson Educational Publishing, Inc. 39
Physiological test results or scores are a necessary preliminary to
designing any kind of training program. A wide range of fitness
appraisals are available:
• For example, a high-end athlete might select the 40-metre dash as
a method of appraisal that would furnish the results on which a
sample training program could be based.
• An everyday athlete, on the other hand, might select a far less
demanding walk-run test.
• The question of what exactly to assess and which tests are
most appropriate depends on
equipment availability, knowledge of how to use it, time, expertise,
and the objectives and issues of concern to the individual.
Components of Fitness
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1.Speed
2.Agility
3.Balance
4.Coordination
5.Cardiovascular endurance
6.Muscular power
7.Muscular strength
8.Muscular endurance
9.Body composition
10.Reaction time
11.Spirituality
12.Flexibility
Selected Fitness Tests
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• Speed and reaction. Measures all-out linear speed (e.g., metre stick
drop, 5-33 metre sprints).
• Power and Strength. Measures explosiveness (e.g., standing long
jump, vertical jump).
• Agility and Coordination. Measure change of dirction (e.g.,
Illinois agility, hexagon drill).
• Flexibility. Measures range of motion of joints (e.g., sit and reach,
trunk rotation test).
• Endurance. Measures how well the body uses oxygen (e.g., Luc
Léger “Beep Test,” step tests).
• Body Composition. Measures body fat and tissue distribution (e.g.,
hydrostatic weight, body segment measurements).
VO2 Max
The higher the value is , the more capacity the
individual has to metabolize oxygen
Fit males: 44-45 ml/kg/min
Fit females: 31-42 ml/kg/min
Lance Armstrong: 83 ml/kg/min
Highest recorded male: 94 ml/kg/min (x-country skier)
Highest recorded female: 74 ml/kg/min (x-country skier)
Racing horse: 150 ml/kg/min
You can train your body to improve VO2max by
increasing intensity and duration
Expensive tests can approximate ones vo2max
Beep test may also estimate ones vo2max value