chapter 2 - risk, return, and portfolio theory.ppt
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Chapter 2Chapter 2
Risk, Return Risk, Return and Portfolio and Portfolio
TheoryTheory
Risk, Return Risk, Return and Portfolio and Portfolio
TheoryTheory
Learning ObjectivesLearning Objectives
• The difference among the most important types of The difference among the most important types of returnsreturns
• How to estimate expected returns and risk for How to estimate expected returns and risk for individual securitiesindividual securities
• What happens to risk and return when securities are What happens to risk and return when securities are combined in a portfoliocombined in a portfolio
• What is meant by an “efficient frontier”What is meant by an “efficient frontier”• Why diversification is so important to investorsWhy diversification is so important to investors
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
What are investment returns?
Investment returns measure the financial results of an investment.
Returns may be historical /realized or prospective/expected (anticipated).
Returns can be expressed in:
Dollar terms.
Percentage terms. CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
What is the return on an investment that costs $1,000 and is sold after 1 year for $1,100?
Dollar return:
Percentage return:
$ Received - $ Invested $1,100 - $1,000 = $100.
$ Return/$ Invested $100/$1,000 = 0.10 = 10%.
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
What is investment risk?
Typically, investment returns are not known with certainty.
Investment risk pertains to the probability of earning a return less than that expected.
The greater the chance of a return far below the expected return, the greater the risk.
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Measuring ReturnsMeasuring Returns
Measuring ReturnsMeasuring ReturnsIntroductionIntroduction
Ex Ante Returns/ Expected returnEx Ante Returns/ Expected return• Return calculations may be done Return calculations may be done ‘before-the-‘before-the-
fact,’ fact,’ in which case, assumptions must be in which case, assumptions must be made about the futuremade about the future
Ex Post Returns/realized Ex Post Returns/realized • Return calculations done Return calculations done ‘after-the-fact,’ ‘after-the-fact,’ in in
order to analyze what rate of return was order to analyze what rate of return was earned.earned.
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Measuring Average ReturnsMeasuring Average ReturnsEx Post ReturnsEx Post Returns
• Measurement of historical rates of return that Measurement of historical rates of return that have been earned on a security or a class of have been earned on a security or a class of securities allows us to identify trends or securities allows us to identify trends or tendencies that may be useful in predicting tendencies that may be useful in predicting the future.the future.
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Measuring Average ReturnsMeasuring Average ReturnsArithmetic AverageArithmetic Average
Where:Where:rrii = the individual returns = the individual returns
nn = the total number of observations = the total number of observations
• Most commonly used value in statisticsMost commonly used value in statistics• Sum of all returns divided by the total number of Sum of all returns divided by the total number of
observationsobservations
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
(AM) Average Arithmetic 1
n
rn
ii
Measuring Expected (Ex Ante) ReturnsMeasuring Expected (Ex Ante) Returns
• While past returns might be interesting, While past returns might be interesting, investor’s investor’s are most concerned with future are most concerned with future returns.returns.
• Sometimes, historical average returns will not Sometimes, historical average returns will not be realized in the future.be realized in the future.
• Developing an independent estimate of ex Developing an independent estimate of ex ante returns usually involves use of ante returns usually involves use of forecasting discrete scenarios with forecasting discrete scenarios with outcomesoutcomes and and probabilities of occurrenceprobabilities of occurrence..
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Estimating Expected ReturnsEstimating Expected ReturnsEstimating Ex Ante (Forecast) ReturnsEstimating Ex Ante (Forecast) Returns
• The general formulaThe general formula
Where:Where:ERER = the expected return on an investment = the expected return on an investment
RRii = the estimated return in scenario = the estimated return in scenario ii
ProbProbi i = the probability of state = the probability of state i i occurring occurring
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
)Prob((ER)Return Expected 1
i
n
iir
Estimating Expected ReturnsEstimating Expected ReturnsEstimating Ex Ante (Forecast) ReturnsEstimating Ex Ante (Forecast) Returns
Example:Example:
This is type of forecast data that are required to This is type of forecast data that are required to make an ex ante estimate of expected return.make an ex ante estimate of expected return.
State of the EconomyProbability of Occurrence
Possible Returns on
Stock A in that State
Economic Expansion 25.0% 30%Normal Economy 50.0% 12%Recession 25.0% -25%
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Estimating Expected ReturnsEstimating Expected ReturnsEstimating Ex Ante (Forecast) Returns Using a Spreadsheet ApproachEstimating Ex Ante (Forecast) Returns Using a Spreadsheet Approach
Example Solution:Example Solution:
Sum the products of the probabilities and possible Sum the products of the probabilities and possible returns in each state of the economy.returns in each state of the economy.
(1) (2) (3) (4)=(2)×(3)
State of the EconomyProbability of Occurrence
Possible Returns on
Stock A in that State
Weighted Possible
Returns on the Stock
Economic Expansion 25.0% 30% 7.50%Normal Economy 50.0% 12% 6.00%Recession 25.0% -25% -6.25%
Expected Return on the Stock = 7.25%
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Estimating Expected ReturnsEstimating Expected ReturnsEstimating Ex Ante (Forecast) Returns Using a Formula ApproachEstimating Ex Ante (Forecast) Returns Using a Formula Approach
Example Solution:Example Solution:
Sum the products of the probabilities and possible Sum the products of the probabilities and possible returns in each state of the economy.returns in each state of the economy.
7.25%
)25.0(-25%0.5)(12% .25)0(30%
)Prob(r)Prob(r )Prob(r
)Prob((ER)Return Expected
332211
1i
n
iir
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Measuring RiskMeasuring Risk
RiskRisk
• Probability of incurring harmProbability of incurring harm• For investors, risk For investors, risk is the probability of earning is the probability of earning
an inadequate return.an inadequate return.– If investors require a 10% rate of return on a given If investors require a 10% rate of return on a given
investment, then any return less than 10% is investment, then any return less than 10% is considered harmful.considered harmful.
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
RiskRiskIllustratedIllustrated
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Possible Returns on the Stock
Probability
-30% -20% -10% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40%
Outcomes that produce harm
The range of total possible returns on the stock A runs from -30% to more than +40%. If the required return on the stock is 10%, then those outcomes less than 10% represent risk to the investor.
A
RangeRange
• The difference between the maximum and The difference between the maximum and minimum values is called the rangeminimum values is called the range
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Differences in Levels of RiskDifferences in Levels of RiskIllustratedIllustrated
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Possible Returns on the Stock
Probability
-30% -20% -10% 0% 10% 20% 30% 40%
Outcomes that produce harm The wider the range of probable outcomes the greater the risk of the investment.
A is a much riskier investment than BB
A
Refining the Measurement of RiskRefining the Measurement of RiskStandard Deviation (Standard Deviation (σσ))
• Range measures risk based on only two Range measures risk based on only two observations (minimum and maximum value)observations (minimum and maximum value)
• Standard deviation uses all observations.Standard deviation uses all observations.– Standard deviation can be calculated on forecast or Standard deviation can be calculated on forecast or
possible returns as well as historical or ex post possible returns as well as historical or ex post returns.returns.
(The following two slides show the two different formula used for Standard (The following two slides show the two different formula used for Standard Deviation)Deviation)
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Measuring RiskMeasuring RiskEx post Standard DeviationEx post Standard Deviation
nsobservatio ofnumber the
year in return the
return average the
deviation standard the
:
_
n
ir
r
Where
i
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
1
)(post Ex 1
2_
n
rrn
ii
Measuring RiskMeasuring RiskExample Using the Ex post Standard DeviationExample Using the Ex post Standard Deviation
ProblemProblem
Estimate the standard deviation of the historical returns on investment A Estimate the standard deviation of the historical returns on investment A that were: 10%, 24%, -12%, 8% and 10%.that were: 10%, 24%, -12%, 8% and 10%.
Step 1 – Calculate the Historical Average ReturnStep 1 – Calculate the Historical Average Return
Step 2 – Calculate the Standard DeviationStep 2 – Calculate the Standard Deviation
%0.85
40
5
10812-2410 (AM) Average Arithmetic 1
n
rn
ii
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
%88.121664
664
4
404002564
4
2020162
15
)814()88()812()824(8)-(10
1
)(post Ex
22222
222221
2_
n
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Measuring RiskMeasuring RiskEx ante Standard DeviationEx ante Standard Deviation
A Scenario-Based Estimate of RiskA Scenario-Based Estimate of Risk
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
)()(Prob anteEx 2
1i ii
n
i
ERr
Scenario-based Estimate of RiskScenario-based Estimate of RiskExample Using the Ex ante Standard Deviation – Raw DataExample Using the Ex ante Standard Deviation – Raw Data
State of the Economy Probability
Possible Returns on Security A
Recession 25.0% -22.0%Normal 50.0% 14.0%Economic Boom 25.0% 35.0%
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
GIVEN INFORMATION INCLUDES:
- Possible returns on the investment for different discrete states
- Associated probabilities for those possible returns
Scenario-based Estimate of RiskScenario-based Estimate of RiskEx ante Standard Deviation – Spreadsheet ApproachEx ante Standard Deviation – Spreadsheet Approach
• The following two slides illustrate an The following two slides illustrate an approach to solving for standard deviation approach to solving for standard deviation using a spreadsheet model.using a spreadsheet model.
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Scenario-based Estimate of RiskScenario-based Estimate of RiskFirst Step – Calculate the Expected ReturnFirst Step – Calculate the Expected Return
State of the Economy Probability
Possible Returns on Security A
Weighted Possible Returns
Recession 25.0% -22.0% -5.5%Normal 50.0% 14.0% 7.0%Economic Boom 25.0% 35.0% 8.8%
Expected Return = 10.3%
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Determined by multiplying the probability times the
possible return.
Expected return equals the sum of the weighted possible returns.
Scenario-based Estimate of RiskScenario-based Estimate of RiskSecondSecond Step – Measure the Weighted and Squared Deviations Step – Measure the Weighted and Squared Deviations
State of the Economy Probability
Possible Returns on Security A
Weighted Possible Returns
Deviation of Possible
Return from Expected
Squared Deviations
Weighted and
Squared Deviations
Recession 25.0% -22.0% -5.5% -32.3% 0.10401 0.02600Normal 50.0% 14.0% 7.0% 3.8% 0.00141 0.00070Economic Boom 25.0% 35.0% 8.8% 24.8% 0.06126 0.01531
Expected Return = 10.3% Variance = 0.0420
Standard Deviation = 20.50%
State of the Economy Probability
Possible Returns on Security A
Weighted Possible Returns
Deviation of Possible
Return from Expected
Squared Deviations
Weighted and
Squared Deviations
Recession 25.0% -22.0% -5.5% -32.3% 0.10401 0.02600Normal 50.0% 14.0% 7.0% 3.8% 0.00141 0.00070Economic Boom 25.0% 35.0% 8.8% 24.8% 0.06126 0.01531
Expected Return = 10.3% Variance = 0.0420
Standard Deviation = 20.50%
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Second, square those deviations from the mean.
The sum of the weighted and square deviations is the variance in percent squared terms.
The standard deviation is the square root of the variance (in percent terms).
First calculate the deviation of possible returns from the expected.
Now multiply the square deviations by their probability of occurrence.
Scenario-based Estimate of RiskScenario-based Estimate of RiskExample Using the Ex ante Standard Deviation FormulaExample Using the Ex ante Standard Deviation Formula
herein.herein.
%5.20205.
0420.
)06126(.25.)00141(.5.)10401(.25.
)8.24(25.)8.3(5.)3.32(25.
)3.1035(25.)3.1014(5.)3.1022(25.
)()()(
)()(Prob anteEx
222
222
2331
2222
2111
2
1i
ERrPERrPERrP
ERr ii
n
i
State of the Economy Probability
Possible Returns on Security A
Weighted Possible Returns
Recession 25.0% -22.0% -5.5%Normal 50.0% 14.0% 7.0%Economic Boom 25.0% 35.0% 8.8%
Expected Return = 10.3%
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Modern Portfolio TheoryModern Portfolio Theory
PortfoliosPortfolios
• A portfolio is a collection of different securities such as A portfolio is a collection of different securities such as stocks and bonds, that are combined and considered a stocks and bonds, that are combined and considered a single assetsingle asset
• The risk-return characteristics of the portfolio is obviously The risk-return characteristics of the portfolio is obviously different than the characteristics of the assets that make different than the characteristics of the assets that make up that portfolio, especially with regard to risk.up that portfolio, especially with regard to risk.
• Combining different securities into portfolios is done to Combining different securities into portfolios is done to achieve achieve diversificationdiversification..
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Expected Return of a PortfolioExpected Return of a PortfolioModern Portfolio TheoryModern Portfolio Theory
The Expected Return on a Portfolio is simply the weighted The Expected Return on a Portfolio is simply the weighted average of the returns of the individual assets that make up the average of the returns of the individual assets that make up the portfolio:portfolio:
The portfolio weight of a particular security is the percentage of The portfolio weight of a particular security is the percentage of the portfolio’s total value that is invested in that security.the portfolio’s total value that is invested in that security.
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
)( n
1i
iip ERwER
Expected Return of a PortfolioExpected Return of a PortfolioExampleExample
%288.8%284.4%004.4
) %6(.714)%14(.286)( n
1i
iip ERwER
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Portfolio value = $2,000 + $5,000 = $7,000Portfolio value = $2,000 + $5,000 = $7,000
rrAA = 14%, r = 14%, rBB = 6%, = 6%,
wwAA = weight of security A = weight of security A = $2,000 / $7,000 = 28.6% = $2,000 / $7,000 = 28.6%
wwBB = weight of security B = weight of security B = $5,000 / $7,000 = (1-28.6%)= 71.4% = $5,000 / $7,000 = (1-28.6%)= 71.4%
Range of Returns in a Two Asset PortfolioRange of Returns in a Two Asset Portfolio
In a two asset portfolio, simply by changing the weight of the In a two asset portfolio, simply by changing the weight of the constituent assets, different portfolio returns can be achieved.constituent assets, different portfolio returns can be achieved.
Because the expected return on the portfolio is a simple Because the expected return on the portfolio is a simple weighted average of the individual returns of the assets, you can weighted average of the individual returns of the assets, you can achieve portfolio returns bounded by the highest and the lowest achieve portfolio returns bounded by the highest and the lowest individual asset returns.individual asset returns.
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Range of Returns in a Two Asset PortfolioRange of Returns in a Two Asset Portfolio
Example 1:Example 1:
Assume ERAssume ERA A = 8% and ER= 8% and ERBB = 10% = 10%
(See the following 6 slides based on Figure 8-4)(See the following 6 slides based on Figure 8-4)
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Expected Portfolio ReturnExpected Portfolio ReturnAffect on Portfolio Return of Changing Relative Weights in A and BAffect on Portfolio Return of Changing Relative Weights in A and B
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Ex
pe
cte
d R
etu
rn %
Portfolio Weight
10.50
10.00
9.50
9.00
8.50
8.00
7.50
7.00
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
2 - 4 FIGURE
ERA=8%
ERB= 10%
Expected Portfolio ReturnExpected Portfolio ReturnAffect on Portfolio Return of Changing Relative Weights in A and BAffect on Portfolio Return of Changing Relative Weights in A and B
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
2 - 4 FIGURE
Ex
pe
cte
d R
etu
rn %
Portfolio Weight
10.50
10.00
9.50
9.00
8.50
8.00
7.50
7.00
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
ERA=8%
ERB= 10%
A portfolio manager can select the relative weights of the two assets in the portfolio to get a desired return between 8% (100% invested in A) and 10% (100% invested in B)
Expected Portfolio ReturnExpected Portfolio ReturnAffect on Portfolio Return of Changing Relative Weights in A and BAffect on Portfolio Return of Changing Relative Weights in A and B
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Ex
pe
cte
d R
etu
rn %
Portfolio Weight
10.50
10.00
9.50
9.00
8.50
8.00
7.50
7.00
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
2 - 4 FIGURE
ERA=8%
ERB= 10%
The potential returns of the portfolio are bounded by the highest and lowest returns of the individual assets that make up the portfolio.
Expected Portfolio ReturnExpected Portfolio ReturnAffect on Portfolio Return of Changing Relative Weights in A and BAffect on Portfolio Return of Changing Relative Weights in A and B
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Ex
pe
cte
d R
etu
rn %
Portfolio Weight
10.50
10.00
9.50
9.00
8.50
8.00
7.50
7.00
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
2 - 4 FIGURE
ERA=8%
ERB= 10%
The expected return on the portfolio if 100% is invested in Asset A is 8%.
%8%)10)(0(%)8)(0.1( BBAAp ERwERwER
Expected Portfolio ReturnExpected Portfolio ReturnAffect on Portfolio Return of Changing Relative Weights in A and BAffect on Portfolio Return of Changing Relative Weights in A and B
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
8 - 4 FIGURE
Ex
pe
cte
d R
etu
rn %
Portfolio Weight
10.50
10.00
9.50
9.00
8.50
8.00
7.50
7.00
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
ERA=8%
ERB= 10%
The expected return on the portfolio if 100% is invested in Asset B is 10%.
%10%)10)(0.1(%)8)(0( BBAAp ERwERwER
Expected Portfolio ReturnExpected Portfolio ReturnAffect on Portfolio Return of Changing Relative Weights in A and BAffect on Portfolio Return of Changing Relative Weights in A and B
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
8 - 4 FIGURE
Ex
pe
cte
d R
etu
rn %
Portfolio Weight
10.50
10.00
9.50
9.00
8.50
8.00
7.50
7.00
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
ERA=8%
ERB= 10%
The expected return on the portfolio if 50% is invested in Asset A and 50% in B is 9%.
%9%5%4
%)10)(5.0(%)8)(5.0(
BBAAp ERwERwER
Range of Returns in a Two Asset PortfolioRange of Returns in a Two Asset Portfolio
Example 1:Example 1:
Assume ERAssume ERA A = 14% and ER= 14% and ERBB = 6% = 6%
(See the following 2 slides )(See the following 2 slides )
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Range of Returns in a Two Asset PortfolioRange of Returns in a Two Asset PortfolioE(r)E(r)AA= 14%, E(r)= 14%, E(r)BB= 6%= 6%
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
A graph of this relationship is found on the following slide.
Expected return on Asset A = 14.0%Expected return on Asset B = 6.0%
Weight of Asset A
Weight of Asset B
Expected Return on the
Portfolio0.0% 100.0% 6.0%
10.0% 90.0% 6.8%20.0% 80.0% 7.6%30.0% 70.0% 8.4%40.0% 60.0% 9.2%50.0% 50.0% 10.0%60.0% 40.0% 10.8%70.0% 30.0% 11.6%80.0% 20.0% 12.4%90.0% 10.0% 13.2%100.0% 0.0% 14.0%
Range of Returns in a Two Asset PortfolioRange of Returns in a Two Asset Portfolio E(r)E(r)AA= 14%, E(r)= 14%, E(r)BB= 6%= 6%
Range of Portfolio Returns
0.00%2.00%4.00%6.00%8.00%
10.00%12.00%14.00%16.00%
Weight Invested in Asset A
Exp
ecte
d R
etur
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Tw
o A
sset
Por
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io
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Expected Portfolio ReturnsExpected Portfolio ReturnsExample of a Three Asset PortfolioExample of a Three Asset Portfolio
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio TheoryK. Hartviksen
Relative Weight
Expected Return
Weighted Return
Stock X 0.400 8.0% 0.03Stock Y 0.350 15.0% 0.05Stock Z 0.250 25.0% 0.06 Expected Portfolio Return = 14.70%
Risk in PortfoliosRisk in Portfolios
Risk, Return and Portfolio TheoryRisk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Modern Portfolio Theory - MPTModern Portfolio Theory - MPT
• Prior to the establishment of Modern Portfolio Theory Prior to the establishment of Modern Portfolio Theory (MPT), most people only focused upon investment (MPT), most people only focused upon investment returns…they ignored risk.returns…they ignored risk.
• With MPT, investors had a tool that they could use to With MPT, investors had a tool that they could use to dramatically reduce the riskdramatically reduce the risk of the portfolio of the portfolio without a without a significant reductionsignificant reduction in the expected return of the in the expected return of the portfolio.portfolio.
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Expected Return and Risk For PortfoliosExpected Return and Risk For PortfoliosStandard Deviation of a Two-Asset Portfolio using CovarianceStandard Deviation of a Two-Asset Portfolio using Covariance
))()((2)()()()( ,2222
BABABBAAp COVwwww
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Risk of Asset A adjusted for weight
in the portfolio
Risk of Asset B adjusted for weight
in the portfolio
Factor to take into account comovement of returns. This factor
can be negative.
Expected Return and Risk For PortfoliosExpected Return and Risk For PortfoliosStandard Deviation of a Two-Asset Portfolio using Correlation CoefficientStandard Deviation of a Two-Asset Portfolio using Correlation Coefficient
))()()()((2)()()()( ,2222
BABABABBAAp wwww
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Factor that takes into account the degree of
comovement of returns. It can have a negative value if correlation is
negative.
Grouping Individual Assets into PortfoliosGrouping Individual Assets into Portfolios
• The riskiness of a portfolio that is made of different risky The riskiness of a portfolio that is made of different risky assets is a function of three different factors:assets is a function of three different factors:– the riskiness of the individual assets that make up the portfoliothe riskiness of the individual assets that make up the portfolio
– the relative weights of the assets in the portfoliothe relative weights of the assets in the portfolio
– the degree of comovement of returns of the assets making up the the degree of comovement of returns of the assets making up the portfolioportfolio
• The standard deviation of a two-asset portfolio may be The standard deviation of a two-asset portfolio may be measured using the Markowitz model:measured using the Markowitz model:
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
BABABABBAAp wwww ,2222 2
Risk of a Three-Asset PortfolioRisk of a Three-Asset Portfolio
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
The data requirements for a three-asset portfolio grows dramatically if we are using Markowitz Portfolio selection formulae.
We need 3 (three) correlation coefficients between A and B; A and C; and B and C.
A
B C
ρa,b
ρb,c
ρa,c
CACACACBCBCBBABABACCBBAAp wwwwwwwww ,,,222222 222
Risk of a Four-asset PortfolioRisk of a Four-asset Portfolio
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
The data requirements for a four-asset portfolio grows dramatically if we are using Markowitz Portfolio selection formulae.
We need 6 correlation coefficients between A and B; A and C; A and D; B and C; C and D; and B and D.
A
C
B D
ρa,b ρa,d
ρb,c ρc,d
ρa,c
ρb,d
CovarianceCovariance
• A statistical measure of the correlation of A statistical measure of the correlation of the fluctuations of the annual rates of the fluctuations of the annual rates of return of different investments.return of different investments.
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
)-)((Prob _
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CorrelationCorrelation
• The degree to which the returns of two stocks The degree to which the returns of two stocks co-move is measured by the correlation co-move is measured by the correlation coefficient (coefficient (ρρ).).
• The correlation coefficient (The correlation coefficient (ρρ) between the ) between the returns on two securities will lie in the range of returns on two securities will lie in the range of +1 through - 1.+1 through - 1.
+1 is perfect positive correlation+1 is perfect positive correlation
-1 is perfect negative correlation-1 is perfect negative correlation
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
BA
ABAB
COV
Covariance and Correlation CoefficientCovariance and Correlation Coefficient
• Solving for covariance given the correlation Solving for covariance given the correlation coefficient and standard deviation of the two coefficient and standard deviation of the two assets:assets:
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
BAABABCOV
Importance of CorrelationImportance of Correlation
• Correlation is important because it affects the Correlation is important because it affects the degree to which diversification can be degree to which diversification can be achieved using various assets.achieved using various assets.
• Theoretically, if two assets returns are Theoretically, if two assets returns are perfectly positively correlated, it is possible to perfectly positively correlated, it is possible to build a riskless portfolio with a return that is build a riskless portfolio with a return that is greater than the risk-free rate.greater than the risk-free rate.
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Affect of Perfectly Negatively Correlated ReturnsAffect of Perfectly Negatively Correlated ReturnsElimination of Portfolio RiskElimination of Portfolio Risk
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Time 0 1 2
If returns of A and B are perfectly negatively correlated, a two-asset portfolio made up of equal parts of Stock A and B would be riskless. There would be no variabilityof the portfolios returns over time.
Returns on Stock A
Returns on Stock B
Returns on Portfolio
Returns%
10%
5%
15%
20%
Example of Perfectly Positively Correlated ReturnsExample of Perfectly Positively Correlated ReturnsNo Diversification of Portfolio RiskNo Diversification of Portfolio Risk
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Time 0 1 2
If returns of A and B are perfectly positively correlated, a two-asset portfolio made up of equal parts of Stock A and B would be risky. There would be no diversification (reduction of portfolio risk).
Returns%
10%
5%
15%
20%
Returns on Stock A
Returns on Stock B
Returns on Portfolio
Affect of Perfectly Negatively Correlated ReturnsAffect of Perfectly Negatively Correlated ReturnsElimination of Portfolio RiskElimination of Portfolio Risk
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Time 0 1 2
If returns of A and B are perfectly negatively correlated, a two-asset portfolio made up of equal parts of Stock A and B would be riskless. There would be no variabilityof the portfolios returns over time.
Returns%
10%
Returns on Portfolio5%
15%
20%
Returns on Stock B
Returns on Stock A
Affect of Perfectly Negatively Correlated ReturnsAffect of Perfectly Negatively Correlated ReturnsNumerical ExampleNumerical Example
%10%5.2%5.7
) %5(.5)%15(.5)( n
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CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Weight of Asset A = 50.0%Weight of Asset B = 50.0%
YearReturn on
Asset AReturn on
Asset B
Expected Return on the
Portfolioxx07 5.0% 15.0% 10.0%xx08 10.0% 10.0% 10.0%xx09 15.0% 5.0% 10.0%
Perfectly Negatively Correlated Returns over time
%10%5.7%5.2
) %15(.5)%5(.5)( n
1i
iip ERwER
Diversification PotentialDiversification Potential
• The potential of an asset to diversify a portfolio is The potential of an asset to diversify a portfolio is dependent upon the degree of co-movement of returns of dependent upon the degree of co-movement of returns of the asset with those other assets that make up the the asset with those other assets that make up the portfolio.portfolio.
• In a simple, two-asset case, if the returns of the two assets In a simple, two-asset case, if the returns of the two assets are perfectly negatively correlated it is possible are perfectly negatively correlated it is possible (depending on the relative weighting) to eliminate all (depending on the relative weighting) to eliminate all portfolio risk.portfolio risk.
• This is demonstrated through the following series of This is demonstrated through the following series of spreadsheets, and then summarized in graph format.spreadsheets, and then summarized in graph format.
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Example of Portfolio Combinations and Example of Portfolio Combinations and CorrelationCorrelation
AssetExpected
ReturnStandard Deviation
Correlation Coefficient
A 5.0% 15.0% 1B 14.0% 40.0%
Weight of A Weight of BExpected
ReturnStandard Deviation
100.00% 0.00% 5.00% 15.0%90.00% 10.00% 5.90% 17.5%80.00% 20.00% 6.80% 20.0%70.00% 30.00% 7.70% 22.5%60.00% 40.00% 8.60% 25.0%50.00% 50.00% 9.50% 27.5%40.00% 60.00% 10.40% 30.0%30.00% 70.00% 11.30% 32.5%20.00% 80.00% 12.20% 35.0%10.00% 90.00% 13.10% 37.5%0.00% 100.00% 14.00% 40.0%
Portfolio Components Portfolio Characteristics
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Perfect Positive
Correlation – no
diversification
Both portfolio returns and risk are bounded by the range set by the constituent assets when ρ=+1
Example of Portfolio Combinations and Example of Portfolio Combinations and CorrelationCorrelation
AssetExpected
ReturnStandard Deviation
Correlation Coefficient
A 5.0% 15.0% 0.5B 14.0% 40.0%
Weight of A Weight of BExpected
ReturnStandard Deviation
100.00% 0.00% 5.00% 15.0%90.00% 10.00% 5.90% 15.9%80.00% 20.00% 6.80% 17.4%70.00% 30.00% 7.70% 19.5%60.00% 40.00% 8.60% 21.9%50.00% 50.00% 9.50% 24.6%40.00% 60.00% 10.40% 27.5%30.00% 70.00% 11.30% 30.5%20.00% 80.00% 12.20% 33.6%10.00% 90.00% 13.10% 36.8%0.00% 100.00% 14.00% 40.0%
Portfolio Components Portfolio Characteristics
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Positive Correlation –
weak diversification
potential
When ρ=+0.5 these portfolio combinations have lower risk – expected portfolio return is unaffected.
Example of Portfolio Combinations and Example of Portfolio Combinations and CorrelationCorrelation
AssetExpected
ReturnStandard Deviation
Correlation Coefficient
A 5.0% 15.0% 0B 14.0% 40.0%
Weight of A Weight of BExpected
ReturnStandard Deviation
100.00% 0.00% 5.00% 15.0%90.00% 10.00% 5.90% 14.1%80.00% 20.00% 6.80% 14.4%70.00% 30.00% 7.70% 15.9%60.00% 40.00% 8.60% 18.4%50.00% 50.00% 9.50% 21.4%40.00% 60.00% 10.40% 24.7%30.00% 70.00% 11.30% 28.4%20.00% 80.00% 12.20% 32.1%10.00% 90.00% 13.10% 36.0%0.00% 100.00% 14.00% 40.0%
Portfolio Components Portfolio Characteristics
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
No Correlation –
some diversification
potential
Portfolio risk is lower than the risk of either asset A or B.
Example of Portfolio Combinations and Example of Portfolio Combinations and CorrelationCorrelation
AssetExpected
ReturnStandard Deviation
Correlation Coefficient
A 5.0% 15.0% -0.5B 14.0% 40.0%
Weight of A Weight of BExpected
ReturnStandard Deviation
100.00% 0.00% 5.00% 15.0%90.00% 10.00% 5.90% 12.0%80.00% 20.00% 6.80% 10.6%70.00% 30.00% 7.70% 11.3%60.00% 40.00% 8.60% 13.9%50.00% 50.00% 9.50% 17.5%40.00% 60.00% 10.40% 21.6%30.00% 70.00% 11.30% 26.0%20.00% 80.00% 12.20% 30.6%10.00% 90.00% 13.10% 35.3%0.00% 100.00% 14.00% 40.0%
Portfolio Components Portfolio Characteristics
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Negative Correlation –
greater diversification
potential
Portfolio risk for more combinations is lower than the risk of either asset
Example of Portfolio Combinations and Example of Portfolio Combinations and CorrelationCorrelation
AssetExpected
ReturnStandard Deviation
Correlation Coefficient
A 5.0% 15.0% -1B 14.0% 40.0%
Weight of A Weight of BExpected
ReturnStandard Deviation
100.00% 0.00% 5.00% 15.0%90.00% 10.00% 5.90% 9.5%80.00% 20.00% 6.80% 4.0%70.00% 30.00% 7.70% 1.5%60.00% 40.00% 8.60% 7.0%50.00% 50.00% 9.50% 12.5%40.00% 60.00% 10.40% 18.0%30.00% 70.00% 11.30% 23.5%20.00% 80.00% 12.20% 29.0%10.00% 90.00% 13.10% 34.5%0.00% 100.00% 14.00% 40.0%
Portfolio Components Portfolio Characteristics
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Perfect Negative
Correlation – greatest
diversification potential
Risk of the portfolio is almost eliminated at 70% invested in asset A
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Diversification of a Two Asset Portfolio Demonstrated Graphically
The Effect of Correlation on Portfolio Risk:The Two-Asset Case
Expected Return
Standard Deviation
0%
0% 10%
4%
8%
20% 30% 40%
12%
B
AB= +1
A
AB = 0
AB = -0.5
AB = -1
Impact of the Correlation CoefficientImpact of the Correlation Coefficient
• Figure 2-7 (see the next slide) illustrates the Figure 2-7 (see the next slide) illustrates the relationship between portfolio risk (relationship between portfolio risk (σσ) ) and the and the correlation coefficientcorrelation coefficient– The slope is not linear a significant amount of The slope is not linear a significant amount of
diversification is possible with assets with no diversification is possible with assets with no correlation (it is not necessary, nor is it possible to correlation (it is not necessary, nor is it possible to find, perfectly negatively correlated securities in the find, perfectly negatively correlated securities in the real world)real world)
– With perfect negative correlation, the variability of With perfect negative correlation, the variability of portfolio returns is reduced to nearly zero.portfolio returns is reduced to nearly zero.
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Expected Portfolio ReturnExpected Portfolio ReturnImpact of the Correlation CoefficientImpact of the Correlation Coefficient
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
2 - 7 FIGURE
15
10
5
0
Sta
nd
ard
De
via
tio
n (
%)
of
Po
rtfo
lio
Re
turn
s
Correlation Coefficient (ρ)
-1 -0.5 0 0.5 1
Zero Risk PortfolioZero Risk Portfolio
• We can calculate the portfolio that removes all risk.We can calculate the portfolio that removes all risk.
• When When ρρ = -1, then = -1, then
• Becomes:Becomes:
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
BAp ww )1(
))()()()((2)()()()( ,2222
BABABABBAAp wwww
An Exercise using T-bills, Stocks and BondsAn Exercise using T-bills, Stocks and Bonds
Base Data: Stocks T-bills BondsExpected Return(%) 12.73383 6.151702 7.0078723
Standard Deviation (%) 0.168 0.042 0.102
Correlation Coefficient Matrix:Stocks 1 -0.216 0.048T-bills -0.216 1 0.380Bonds 0.048 0.380 1
Portfolio Combinations:
Combination Stocks T-bills BondsExpected Return Variance
Standard Deviation
1 100.0% 0.0% 0.0% 12.7 0.0283 16.8%2 90.0% 10.0% 0.0% 12.1 0.0226 15.0%3 80.0% 20.0% 0.0% 11.4 0.0177 13.3%4 70.0% 30.0% 0.0% 10.8 0.0134 11.6%5 60.0% 40.0% 0.0% 10.1 0.0097 9.9%6 50.0% 50.0% 0.0% 9.4 0.0067 8.2%7 40.0% 60.0% 0.0% 8.8 0.0044 6.6%8 30.0% 70.0% 0.0% 8.1 0.0028 5.3%9 20.0% 80.0% 0.0% 7.5 0.0018 4.2%10 10.0% 90.0% 0.0% 6.8 0.0014 3.8%
Weights Portfolio
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Historical averages for
returns and risk for three asset
classes
Historical correlation coefficients
between the asset classes
Portfolio characteristics for each combination of securities
Each achievable portfolio combination is plotted on expected return, risk (σ) space, found on the following slide.
Achievable PortfoliosAchievable PortfoliosResults Using only Three Asset ClassesResults Using only Three Asset Classes
Attainable Portfolio Combinationsand Efficient Set of Portfolio Combinations
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
12.0
14.0
0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0
Standard Deviation of the Portfolio (%)
Po
rtfo
lio E
xpec
ted
Ret
urn
(%
) Efficient Set
Minimum Variance
Portfolio
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
The plotted points are attainable portfolio
combinations.
The efficient set is that set of achievable portfolio
combinations that offer the highest rate of return for a
given level of risk. The solid blue line indicates the efficient
set.
Achievable Two-Security PortfoliosAchievable Two-Security PortfoliosModern Portfolio TheoryModern Portfolio Theory
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
2 - 9 FIGURE
Ex
pe
cte
d R
etu
rn %
Standard Deviation (%)
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
This line represents the set of portfolio combinations that are achievable by varying relative weights and using two non-correlated securities.
DominanceDominance
• It is assumed that investors are rational, It is assumed that investors are rational, wealth-maximizing and risk averse.wealth-maximizing and risk averse.
• If so, then some investment choices dominate If so, then some investment choices dominate others.others.
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Investment ChoicesInvestment ChoicesThe Concept of Dominance IllustratedThe Concept of Dominance Illustrated
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
A B
C
Return%
Risk
10%
5%
To the risk-averse wealth maximizer, the choices are clear, A dominates B,A dominates C.
A dominates B because it offers the same return but for less risk.
A dominates C because it offers a higher return but for the same risk.
20%5%
Efficient FrontierEfficient FrontierThe Two-Asset Portfolio CombinationsThe Two-Asset Portfolio Combinations
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
A is not attainable
B,E lie on the efficient frontier and are attainable
E is the minimum variance portfolio (lowest risk combination)
C, D are attainable but are dominated by superior portfolios that line on the line
above E
2 - 10 FIGURE
Ex
pe
cte
d R
etu
rn %
Standard Deviation (%)
A
E
B
C
D
Efficient FrontierEfficient FrontierThe Two-Asset Portfolio CombinationsThe Two-Asset Portfolio Combinations
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
2 - 10 FIGURE
Ex
pe
cte
d R
etu
rn %
Standard Deviation (%)
A
E
B
C
D
Rational, risk averse investors will only want to hold portfolios such as B.
The actual choice will depend on her/his risk preferences.
DiversificationDiversification
Risk, Return and Portfolio TheoryRisk, Return and Portfolio Theory
DiversificationDiversification
• We have demonstrated that risk of a portfolio can be We have demonstrated that risk of a portfolio can be reduced by spreading the value of the portfolio across, reduced by spreading the value of the portfolio across, two, three, four or more assets.two, three, four or more assets.
• The key to efficient diversification is to choose assets The key to efficient diversification is to choose assets whose returns are less than perfectly positively whose returns are less than perfectly positively correlated.correlated.
• Even with random or naïve diversification, risk of the Even with random or naïve diversification, risk of the portfolio can be reduced.portfolio can be reduced.– This is illustrated in Figure 8 -11 and Table 8 -3 found on the This is illustrated in Figure 8 -11 and Table 8 -3 found on the
following slides.following slides.• As the portfolio is divided across more and more securities, the risk As the portfolio is divided across more and more securities, the risk
of the portfolio falls rapidly at first, until a point is reached where, of the portfolio falls rapidly at first, until a point is reached where, further division of the portfolio does not result in a reduction in risk.further division of the portfolio does not result in a reduction in risk.
• Going beyond this point is known as superfluous diversification.Going beyond this point is known as superfluous diversification.
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
DiversificationDiversificationDomestic DiversificationDomestic Diversification
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
2 - 11 FIGURE
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Sta
nd
ard
Dev
iati
on
(%
)
Number of Stocks in Portfolio
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Average Portfolio RiskJanuary 1985 to December 1997
DiversificationDiversificationDomestic DiversificationDomestic Diversification
Number of Stocks in Portfolio
Average Monthly Portfolio
Return (%)
Standard Deviation of Average
Monthly Portfolio Return (%)
Ratio of Portfolio Standard Deviation to
Standard Deviation of a Single Stock
Percentage of Total Achievable Risk Reduction
1 1.51 13.47 1.00 0.002 1.51 10.99 0.82 27.503 1.52 9.91 0.74 39.564 1.53 9.30 0.69 46.375 1.52 8.67 0.64 53.316 1.52 8.30 0.62 57.507 1.51 7.95 0.59 61.358 1.52 7.71 0.57 64.029 1.52 7.52 0.56 66.17
10 1.51 7.33 0.54 68.30
14 1.51 6.80 0.50 74.1940 1.52 5.62 0.42 87.2450 1.52 5.41 0.40 89.64100 1.51 4.86 0.36 95.70200 1.51 4.51 0.34 99.58222 1.51 4.48 0.33 100.00
Source: Cleary, S. and Copp D. "Diversification with Canadian Stocks: How Much is Enough?" Canadian Investment Review (Fall 1999), Table 1.
Table 8-3 Monthly Canadian Stock Portfolio Returns, January 1985 to December 1997
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Total Risk of an Individual AssetTotal Risk of an Individual AssetEquals the Sum of Market and Unique RiskEquals the Sum of Market and Unique Risk
• This graph illustrates This graph illustrates that total risk of a that total risk of a stock is made up of stock is made up of market risk (that market risk (that cannot be diversified cannot be diversified away because it is a away because it is a function of the function of the economic ‘system’) economic ‘system’) and unique, company-and unique, company-specific risk that is specific risk that is eliminated from the eliminated from the portfolio through portfolio through diversification.diversification.
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
[8-19]
Sta
nd
ard
Dev
iati
on
(%
)
Number of Stocks in Portfolio
Average Portfolio Risk
Diversifiable (unique) risk
Nondiversifiable (systematic) risk
risk )systematic-(non Uniquerisk c)(systematiMarket risk Total
International DiversificationInternational Diversification
• Clearly, diversification adds value to a Clearly, diversification adds value to a portfolio by reducing risk while not reducing portfolio by reducing risk while not reducing the return on the portfolio significantly.the return on the portfolio significantly.
• Most of the benefits of diversification can be Most of the benefits of diversification can be achieved by investing in 40 – 50 different achieved by investing in 40 – 50 different ‘positions’ (investments)‘positions’ (investments)
• However, if the investment universe is However, if the investment universe is expanded to include investments beyond the expanded to include investments beyond the domestic capital markets, additional risk domestic capital markets, additional risk reduction is possible.reduction is possible.
(See Figure 8 -12 found on the following slide.)(See Figure 8 -12 found on the following slide.)
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
DiversificationDiversificationInternational DiversificationInternational Diversification
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
2 - 12 FIGURE
100
80
60
40
20
0
Pe
rce
nt
ris
k
Number of Stocks
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
International stocks
U.S. stocks
11.7
Summary and ConclusionsSummary and Conclusions
In this chapter you have learned:In this chapter you have learned:– How to measure different types of returnsHow to measure different types of returns– How to calculate the standard deviation and How to calculate the standard deviation and
interpret its meaninginterpret its meaning– How to measure returns and risk of portfolios How to measure returns and risk of portfolios
and the importance of correlation in the and the importance of correlation in the diversification process.diversification process.
– How the efficient frontier is that set of achievable How the efficient frontier is that set of achievable portfolios that offer the highest rate of return for a portfolios that offer the highest rate of return for a given level of risk.given level of risk.
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Concept Review QuestionsConcept Review Questions
Risk, Return and Portfolio TheoryRisk, Return and Portfolio Theory
Concept Review Question 1Concept Review Question 1Ex Ante and Ex Post ReturnsEx Ante and Ex Post Returns
What is the difference between ex ante and What is the difference between ex ante and ex post returns?ex post returns?
CHAPTER 2 – Risk, Return and Portfolio Theory