18

CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 GENERAL

Watershed management implies rational utilization of land and water

resources for optimum and sustained production with the minimum of hazards to

natural resources and environment. It requires collection and analysis of a great

deal of information on physical relationship of vegetation-soil-water to land

management which ensures economic and social progress of a region. Land

degradation, due to soil erosion by natural processes as well as human

interference, is very much alarming and has become a global issue. In India,

about 17.5 million hectares, which forms 53 % of total land mass, is subjected to

varying degrees of environmental degradation due to rapid deforestation, soil

erosion, siltation of rivers and reservoirs, water logging and salinity

(Chakraborti, 1993).

Water is a precious natural resource and at the same time a complex

factor to manage. There is no doubt that India has done well in the sector of

water resources development in the form of major, medium and minor irrigation

projects, in the last fifty years which has in turn played an important role in the

progress of the country. Water resources development is a continuous process

which has to be resorted on account of ever increasing demands. The major

irrigation projects cater to millions of hectares of land, whereas at the other

extreme local level projects such as small pond/tanks involving small structures

may also be used to fulfill the requirements of a small community at the village

level. The integrated watershed management (IWM) approach has been globally

accepted as the best for natural resource management (Gosain et al. 2004).

With rapid growing population and improving living standards the

pressure on our water resources has been increasing and per capita availability of

water resources has been reducing day by day. Due to spatial and temporal

19

variability in precipitation, the country faces the problem of flood and drought

syndrome. Over exploitation of groundwater is leading to reduction of low

flows in the rivers, declining of the groundwater resources and salt water

intrusion in aquifers of the coastal areas. Canal irrigation in some of the

command areas has resulted in water logging and salinity. The availability and

demands of water resources in India as well as the various issues and strategies

for developing a holistic approach for sustainable development and

management of the water resources of the country need to be assessed

(Rakesh kumar et al. 2005).

2.2 WATERSHED MANAGEMENT AND MODELING

Scientific basis of an approach - Watershed management - has assumed

urgency for planned development of land and water resources and to arrest land

degradation process to preserve environment and ecological balance. Decision

support to such management planning requires scientific knowledge of resources

information, expected runoff and sediment yield, priority classification of

watersheds for conservation planning, monitoring of watershed for

environmental impact assessment and technologies of GIS for data base creation,

scenario development and appropriate decision making. Remote sensing

technique is ideally suited to evolve such a management strategy (Chakraborti,

1993).

Watershed management plays an important role in moving towards

sustainable natural resource and agricultural development. Watersheds have

been viewed as useful systems for planning and implementing natural resource

and agricultural development for many centuries. Recognition of the importance

of watersheds can be traced back to some of the earliest civilizations; ancient

Chinese proverb states that,

“Whoever rules the mountain also rules the river” and

“Green mountains yield clean and steady water”.

20

Expanding human populations and their increasing demands for natural

resources have led to exploitation and degradation of land and water resources.

Current and the projected scarcity of land and water resources and the human

response to these scarcity, threaten sustainable development and represent

paramount environmental issues for the 21st century. Water scarcity has been

widely identified as the top global issue of concern forth century, next in the

developed and the developing countries alike. By 2025, it is estimated that

between 46 and 52 countries, with an aggregate population of about 3 billion

people will suffer from water scarcity. Water scarcity is compounded by soil

degradation, groundwater depletion, water pollution and the high costs of

developing new water supplies or transferring water from water rich to water

poor areas (Brooks et al. 2000).

Participatory watershed development has proved to be an attractive

approach to rural development over recent decades. Several recent studies and

papers have documented the impacts of watershed development efforts. Many

programmes in India, especially, those implemented by government have been

widely criticized for causing no impact. Few impact assessments have

addressed, in detail, the impact of watershed development on rural water

supplies. As population increases and the per capita demands rise, leading to

perhaps a doubling in demand for domestic water over the next 20-30 years,

competition and conflicts over water resources are going to get a lot worse

unless radial steps are taken. The intended impacts of watershed development

are, among others, to increase groundwater recharge and increase groundwater

recharge and increase the overall water resource availability. Measures like soil

and water conservation (especially bunds), drainage line treatments such as

check dams, tree planting may aim to reduce the runoff and increase percolation

(John Butterworth et al. 2001).

A watershed may be as small as a flower bud or a parking lot or as large

as hundreds of thousands of square kilometers as exemplified by the Mississippi

21

River basin. Watershed models are fundamental to water resources assessment,

development and management. They are, for example, used to analyze the

quantity and quality of stream flow, reservoir system operations, groundwater

development and protection, surface water and groundwater conjunctive use

management, water distribution systems, water use, and a range of water

resources management activities. There were also attempts to quantify other

abstractions, such as interception, depression storage, and detention storage.

Horton (1919) derived a series of empirical formulae for estimating interception

during a storm for various types of vegetal covers. The Soil Conservation

Service (1956) of the U.S. Department of Agriculture has developed what is now

referred to as the SCS-CN method for computing the amount of storm runoff,

taking abstractions into account (Singh et al. 2002).

With the start of a new millennium, human race has to face environmental

challenges greater in magnitude than ever before because the scale of the

problem in shifting from local to regional and to global ones. Indeed, the

footprint of human activity continues to expand to the point that it is exerting a

major effect on nearly all of the Earth’s systems. Global environmental problems

such as global climate change, threat of biological and chemical warfare and

terrorism and unsustainable development in many parts of the world have

become the significant issues for the future of the planet and of mankind.

During the past decades, more and more of the complex environmental

challenges have been addressed by using a watershed approach.

According to the U.S. Environmental Production Agency (EPA),

environmental management using a watershed approach constitutes “a

coordinating framework for environmental management that focuses public and

private sector efforts to address the highest priority problems within the

hydrologically defined geographic areas”. The highly complex nature of human

and natural systems, the ability to understand them and project future conditions

using the watershed approach have increasingly taken a geographic dimension.

22

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) technology has played critical roles in all

aspects of watershed management from assessing watershed conditions through

modeling impacts of human activities on water quality and to visualizing the

impacts of alternative management scenarios. The field and science of GIS have

been transformed over the last two decades. Increasingly, researchers, resource

planners and policy makers have realized the power of GIS and its unique

ability to enhance watershed management (Sunday Tim et al. 2003).

2.2.1 Surface Water Management

Regarding the surface water resources, in the past, several organizations

and individuals have estimated water availability for the nation. Recently, the

National Commission for integrated water resources development estimated

the basin-wise average annual flow in Indian river systems as 1953 km3.

Utilizable water resource is the quantum of withdrawal water from its place of

natural occurrence. Within the limitations of physiographic conditions and socio-

political environment, legal and constitutional constraints and the technology of

development available at present, utilizable quantity of water from the surface

flow has been assessed. The utilizable annual surface water of India is 690 km3.

Reliable prediction of quantity and rate of runoff from surface of the land

into rivers and streams are difficult and time consuming one to obtain data about

ungauged watersheds. However, this information is essential in dealing with

many watershed development and management problems. Conventional methods

are tedious and time consuming one for remote and inaccessible areas. Remote

sensing technology can augment the conventional methods to a great extent in

rainfall – runoff studies. The SCS model is an empirical approach to determine

the volume of runoff emanating from a watershed. Hydrologists can use this

model to establish curve number from IRS digital data base for watersheds by

correlating generalized land use/land cover with hydrologic soil groups and data

derived from the SCS tables. A combination of remote sensing and SCS model

23

may help in rational planning and management strategies to be out lined for

the development of a watershed (Promod kumar et al. 1991).

Satellite remote sensing techniques, in conjunction with landform-soil-

vegetation relationships and ground truth, are popular for locating suitable sites

for the construction of water harvesting structures and soil and water

conservation measures. The Soil Conservation Service model (USDA-SCS,

1972) computes direct runoff through an empirical equation that requires rainfall

and a basin coefficient as inputs. The basin coefficient, known as the runoff

curve number (CN), represents the runoff potential of the land cover-soil

complex. In the past few decades two approaches have been suggested for

estimating CN values using remotely sensed data. The runoff curve numbers

estimated from those remotely sensed parameters in combination with observed

rainfall, predict runoff depth and peak flow within a high degree of accuracy in

desertic regions (Sharma et al. 1992).

The use of GIS and remote sensing to facilitate the estimation of runoff

from watershed and agricultural fields has gained increasing attention in recent

years. This is mainly due to the fact that rainfall-runoff models include both

spatial and geomorphologic variations. The US Department of Agriculture,

Natural Resources Conservation Service Curve Number (USDA-NRCS-CN)

method was used in this study for determining the runoff depth. The Runoff

curve number was determined based on the factors of hydrologic soil group, land

use, land treatment and hydrologic conditions. The GIS and remote sensing were

used to provide quantitative measurements of drainage basin morphology for

input into runoff models so as to estimate runoff response. The results of the

study showed that the Land sat images were helpful in identifying the runoff

response of watersheds regardless of their somewhat varied spatial resolution.

The spatial distribution of CN and runoff depth reflects the change in the runoff

response of the watershed due to change in land use (Melesse et al. 2002).

24

Hydrological modeling is a powerful technique of hydrologic system

investigation for both the research hydrologists and the practicing water

resources engineers involved in the planning and development of integrated

approach for management of water resources. Hydrologic models are symbolic

or mathematical representation of known or assumed functions expressing the

various components of a hydrological cycle. Various models are available for

the estimation of direct runoff from a watershed produced by a given

precipitation (Kulkarni et al. 2004).

Prediction of surface runoff from ungauged and inadequately gauged

watersheds, in the India, necessitates development of models to simulate the

watershed hydrologic responses. To accomplish this, curve number (CN)

approaches and geomorphological instantaneous unit hydrograph (GIUH)

models are needed. Modified exponentially distributed GIUH

(ED-GIUH) model, can be used in generating direct runoff hydrographs (DRHs),

the ED-GIUH concepts were used to generate the DRHs for the Banha

watersheds under the Upper Damoder Valley, Jharkhand, India. The estimated

runoff using the ED-GIUH concept was compared with the original natural

resources conservation service curve number (NRCSCN) generated runoff and

validated with the observed runoff data of the watershed. The model input data,

including natural drainage network and Horton’s morphological parameters were

estimated by using a watershed morphological estimation tool interface of

ArcGIS. The path probability of the channel and overland flow was estimated

from the generated feature classes of watershed topology and drainage networks

to derive the instantaneous unit hydrograph (IUH). Further, from the IUH, an

accounting procedure was used to estimate the unit hydrograph and DRHs for

different rainfall events occurring over the watershed (Sarangi et al. 2008).

25

2.2.2 Groundwater Management

The groundwater resources in the annual potential natural groundwater

recharge from rainfall in India is about 342.43 km3, which is 8.56 % of total

annual rainfall of the country. The annual potential groundwater recharge

augmentation from canal irrigation system is about 89.46 km3. Thus, total

replenishable groundwater resource of the country is assessed as 431.89 %.

After allotting 15 % of this quantity for drinking and 6 km3 for industrial

purposes, the remaining can be utilized for irrigation purposes. Thus, the

available groundwater resource for irrigation is 361 km3, of which utilizable

quantity (90 %) is 325 km3. The estimates by the Central Ground Water Board

(CGWB) of total replenishable groundwater resource, provision for domestic,

industrial and irrigation uses and utilizable groundwater resources for future use

(Rakesh kumar et al. 2005).

Groundwater is a precious resource of limited extent. In order to ensure a

judicious use of groundwater, proper evaluation is required. Any groundwater

development program needs a large volume of multidisciplinary data from

various sources. Integrated remote sensing and GIS can provide the appropriate

platform for convergent analysis of diverse data sets for decision making in

groundwater management and planning. An integrated remote sensing and GIS

based methodology is developed and tested for the evaluation of groundwater

resources in a watershed. IRS-LISS-II and LISS-III data along with other data

sets are existing maps and field observation data have been utilized to extract

information on the hydro-geomorphic features of hard rock terrain. There are

three components of the study area demarcation of groundwater potential zones,

identification of recharge sites and suitability analysis for future artificial

recharge sites. All the information layers have been integrated through GIS

analysis and the criteria for groundwater prospective zones mapping and

artificial recharge site selection have been identified. In this study, an integrated

26

remote sensing and GIS based methodology has been developed and

demonstrated for evaluation of groundwater resources (Saraf et al. 2000).

Groundwater is the most preferred source of water for various user sectors

in India on account of its near universal availability, dependability and low

capital cost. The increasing dependence on groundwater as a reliable source of

water has resulted in indiscriminate extraction in various parts of the country

without due regard to the recharging capacities of aquifers and other

environmental factors. On the other hand, there are areas in the country, where

groundwater development is sub-optimal in spite of the availability of sufficient

resources, and canal command areas suffering from problems of water logging

and soil salinity due to the gradual rise in groundwater levels. The development

of groundwater in the country is highly uneven and shows considerable

variations from one place to another (Jha et al. 2009).

2.2.3 Watershed Management – A Multi-dimensional approach

One must analyze and quantify the different elements of hydrological

processes taking place within the area of interest to deal with watershed

management issues. The analysis should take place in a particular micro

watershed and to achieve this goal the choice and use of an appropriate

watershed model is a must, because abstraction of complex hydrologic processes

is required.

The prediction of variables such as precipitation, runoff, river stages, etc.

have always been major problems in hydrology. Hydrological phenomena are

extremely complex, highly nonlinear and exhibit a higher degree of spatial and

temporal variability. Hence, hydrological modeling becomes one of the

important tasks for planning, operation and control of any water resource

project. In the area of rainfall runoff modeling, numerous runoff forecasting

techniques have been suggested and used in the past. The artificial neural

network (ANN) is the most widely used one. The concept of ANNs is inspired

27

by the biological neural networks of the human brain. Mathematically, an ANN

is a complex nonlinear function with many parameters that are adjusted in such a

way that the ANN output becomes similar to the measured output on a known

data set. The discovery of the back-propagation algorithm for training an ANN

has caused a tremendous growth of interest in this field. Artificial Neural

Networks (ANN) model can be used for rainfall runoff model. The particular

advantage of the ANN is that, even if the 'exact’ relationship between sets of

input and output data are unknown they are acknowledged to exist. The network

can be 'trained' to learn' that relationship, requiring no prior knowledge of the

catchment characteristics (Minns and Hall, 1996; Christian W. Dawson and

Robert Wilby, 1998).

A watershed is made up of the natural resources in a basin, especially,

water, soil and vegetative factors. Watershed management is the integration of

technologies within the natural boundaries of a drainage area for optimum

development of land, water and plant resources to meet the basic needs of people

and animals in a sustainable manner. This includes land improvements,

rehabilitation and other technical works as well as betterment of people.

Watershed based resource utilization involves the optimum use of the area’s

precipitation for the improvement and stabilization of agriculture on the

watershed through better water, soil and crop management. Sound watershed

management means improving overall productivity, controlling floods and

reducing erosion as well as sediment accumulation.

Some of the basic principles of integrated watershed management are:

� Utilizing the land according to its capability

� Adequate vegetative cover during the rainy season

� Conserving as much rainwater as possible at the place where it falls

� Draining out excess water with safe velocity and diverting it to storage

ponds/recharge ponds for future use

28

� Effective utilization of surface and groundwater resources

� Avoiding gully formation and checking at suitable intervals to control

soil erosion and recharge groundwater

� Safe utilization of marginal lands through alternative land use systems

A watershed is made up of the natural resources in a basin, especially

water, soil and vegetative factors. Watershed management is the integration of

technologies within the natural boundaries of a drainage area for optimum

development of land, water and plant resources to meet the basic needs of people

and animals in a sustainable manner. This includes land improvements,

rehabilitation and other technical works as well as betterment of people.

Watershed management – A multidimensional approach aims to improve the

livelihood of community/farmers by increasing their earning capacity through

offering improved facilities required for optimum production.

The major objectives of multidimensional approach are to:

� Conserve soil, rainwater and vegetation effectively and harvest the

surplus water to create water sources in addition to groundwater

recharge.

� Promote sustainable farming and stabilize crop yields by adopting

suitable soil, water, nutrient management and crop management

practices.

� Cover the non-arable area effectively through afforestation,

horticulture and pasture land development based on land capability

class.

� Enhance the income of individuals by adopting alternative enterprises

and restore ecological balance (Pathak et al. 2002).

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2.3 APPLICATION OF REMOTE SENSING AND GIS

Remote sensing and GIS play a greater role in the field of hydrology and

water resources development. Remote sensing provides multi-spectral, multi-

temporal and multi-sensor data of the earth’s surface. One of the greatest

advantages of using remote sensing data for hydrological investigations and

monitoring is its ability to generate information in spatial and temporal domain,

which is very crucial for successful analysis, prediction and validation. The GIS

technology provides suitable alternatives for the efficient management of large

and complex databases (Muthukrishnan et al. 2008).

2.3.1 GIS based SCS-CN Method

Runoff is one of the most important hydrologic variables used in most of

the water resources applications. Reliable prediction of the quantity and the rate

of runoff, from land surface into streams and rivers, is difficult and time

consuming to obtain for ungauged watersheds. However, this information is an

important factor in dealing with many watershed development and management

problems. Conventional models for prediction of river discharge require

considerable hydrological and meteorological data. Collection of these data is

expensive, time consuming and a difficult process. Knowledge of peak and total

runoff due to rainfall is most important for designing any hydrologic structure.

Direct measurement of runoff is always good but in most of the cases it is not

possible at desired time and location. Remote sensing technology combined with

geographical information system (GIS) can augment the conventional methods

to a great extent in rainfall-runoff studies. The remote sensing data provides

spatial information on land cover, soils as input to SCS model. The discharge

measured by the Public Health Engineering Department, Sagar and the direct

runoff volume estimated using SCS curve number method was compared and

monthly correlation coefficient was calculated. In general, good correlation was

30

found between the measured and estimated runoff volume. The seasonal

correlation coefficient varies between 0.92 to 0.94 (Nayak et al. 2003).

The Soil Conservation Service (now called the Natural Resources

Conservation Service) Curve Number (SCS-CN) method (SCS, 1972), is the

result of exhaustive field investigations carried out by several early investigators.

It is one of the most popular methods for computing the volume of surface

runoff for a given rainfall event from small agricultural, forest and urban

watersheds. The method is simple, easy to understand and apply, stable, and

useful for ungauged watersheds. The primary reason for its wide applicability

and acceptability lies in the fact that it accounts for most runoff producing

watershed characteristics: soil type, land use/treatment, surface condition, and

antecedent moisture condition. This method takes into account the land use,

hydrological soil cover and antecedent moisture conditions for predicting the

yield from the basin. The area of Land use/Land cover and hydrological soil

types are used in the SCS method and it is used for calculating runoff from the

watershed.

The Soil Conservation Service Curve Number (SCS-CN) method is

widely used for predicting direct runoff volume for a given rainfall event. The

applicability of the SCS-CN method and the runoff generation mechanism were

thoroughly analyzed in a Mediterranean experimental watershed in Hyderabad.

The region is characterized by a Mediterranean semi-arid climate. A detailed

land cover and soil survey, using remote sensing and GIS techniques, showed

that the watershed is dominated by coarse soils with high hydraulic

conductivities, whereas a smaller part is covered with medium textured soils and

impervious surfaces. The analysis indicated that the SCS-CN method fails to pre

direct the runoff for the storm events studied and that there is a strong correlation

between the CN values obtained from measured runoff and the rainfall depth.

31

The conventional hydrological data are inadequate for the purpose of

design and operation of water resources systems. In such cases remote sensing

data are of great use for the estimate of relevant hydrological data. Remote

sensing data can serve as model input for the determination of river catchment

characteristics such as land use/land cover, geomorphology, slope, drainage, etc.

The combination of remote sensing and SCS model makes the runoff estimate

more accurate and fast (Sundar kumar et al. 2010).

2.3.2 Groundwater Resources

The Groundwater Estimation Committee (GEC) was constituted by the

Government of India, in 1997, to recommend methodologies for the estimation

of the groundwater resource potential in India. It was recommended by the

committee that the groundwater recharge should be estimated following the

groundwater level fluctuation method. Groundwater resources estimation using

Water level fluctuation method for monsoon season and Rainfall infiltration

factor method for non-monsoon season were applied for estimating the gross

groundwater potential of the study area.

Groundwater is one of the most valuable natural resources, which

supports human health, economic development and ecological diversity. Because

of its several inherent qualities (consistent temperature, widespread and

continuous availability, excellent natural quality, limited vulnerability, low

development cost, drought reliability, etc.), it has become an immensely

important and dependable source of water supplies in all climatic regions

including urban and rural areas of the developed and the developing

countries (Hemapriya et al. 2010).

Groundwater is precious and the most widely distributed resource of the

earth, unlike any other mineral resource. The world’s total water resources are

estimated at 1.37 × 108 M ha-m. Of these global water resources about 97.2 % is

salt water found mainly in oceans, and only 2.8 % is available as fresh water on

32

all the time, on the planet earth. Of the 2.8 % fresh water about 2.2 % is

available as surface water and 0.6 % as groundwater. Thus, the groundwater is

the largest source of fresh water on the planet excluding the polar icecaps and

glaciers. The average annual groundwater recharge from rainfall and leakage

from canals and irrigation systems is of the order of 67 M ha-m of which 40 %

i.e., 27 M ha-m, is extractable economically. The present utilization of

groundwater is roughly half of this (13 M ha-m), and about 14 M ha-m is

available for further exploitation and utilization (Raghunath, 2007).

Water is the most valuable and vital resource for sustenance of life and

also for any developmental activity. With the surface water sources dwindling

to meet the various demands, groundwater has become the only reliable

resource. The indiscriminate use of this vital natural resource is creating

groundwater – mining problem in various parts of world (Sunitha et al. 2012).

Hence, the groundwater resource should be evaluated thoroughly, carefully and

reliably on a real-time basis to meet the ever growing needs.

Remote sensing (RS),with its advantage of spatial, spectral and temporal

availability of data covering large and inaccessible area within a short time, has

become a very rapid and cost effective tool in assessing, monitoring and

conserving groundwater resources (Pradeep kumar et al. 2010). In the present

study, attempts have been made to develop a suitable GIS based model for

delineating groundwater potential zones of a watershed by integrating different

thematic layers, which have direct control on groundwater occurrence.

2.3.2.1 Groundwater potential zones as per GEC-1997 Norms

Geographical Information System (GIS) is a powerful environment for

real time database development, especially, in studies such as delineating

groundwater potential zones and recharge sites, groundwater modeling studies,

etc. Many researchers have used RS and GIS techniques for groundwater

exploration and identification of artificial research sites. Groundwater resources

33

potential has been evaluated with the help of Survey of India toposheets and

satellite data for various thematic maps such as base map, drainage map, geology

map, geomorphology map, slope map, drainage density map and land use/land

cover map of the study area have been prepared using Arc GIS software. These

thematic maps have been integrated and appropriate weightage have been

assigned to various factors controlling occurrence of groundwater. The results

showed categories of groundwater potential zones ranging from very good to

poor. The integrated Remote sensing and GIS based approach is a powerful tool

for assessing groundwater potential based on which suitable locations for

groundwater withdrawals could be identified (Pradeep kumar et al. 2010).

The exploration for groundwater in hard rock terrains is a complex task.

To overcome this complexity, the integrated approach based on advanced

applications of remote sensing and geographical information systems (GIS)

lends itself as an efficient and effective result oriented method for studying the

development and management of water resources. The ever increasing

population and the modern industrial and agricultural activities not only create a

greater demand for groundwater resources, due to the inadequate availability of

surface water resources, but also pollute the groundwater resources by releasing

untreated wastes. The integration and analysis of various thematic maps and

image data proved useful for the delineation of zones of groundwater potential

and zones of groundwater quality suitable for domestic purposes. Measures that

could address the water need may include the construction of water harvesting

structures for augmentation of groundwater resources and also through the

implementation of proper BMPs (Best Management Practices) for watersheds

throughout the region (Srinivasa rao et al. 2003).

Frequent failure of monsoons and over-exploitation of groundwater, in

some parts of the country, have resulted in a rapid water depletion, besides a

substantial quantity of rainwater goes waste through surface runoff into the

ocean. Hence, in order to maintain the water table condition in balance and to

34

restrict the surface runoff going waste, various measures for artificial

groundwater recharge can be implemented in such zones. It helps the aquifers

from total water table deeper part of the aquifer system. Many workers in

various parts of the world have followed different techniques for generation of

thematic maps on geology and hydrogeology integrated the data to select

favorable areas for groundwater recharge. Artificial recharge sites are

interdependent on various parameters like permeability, soil depth, drainage

intensity, water holding capacity, geology and soil texture. Thematic data have

been integrated for evaluation of groundwater potential zones for the study area.

Artificial recharge sites have been identified, based on the number of

parameters, in the study area. Again, the study area was classified into priority

zones, numbered as 1, 2, 3 and 4, suggesting the artificial recharge sites as High

favorable zone, Moderate favorable zone and least favorable zone. The study

planners and decision makers can give more suggestion to create new plans and

models to implement the water resource development and action plan in the

study area and promote the check dam or developing of percolation ponds

(Sukumar et al. 2010).

2.3.2.2 Identification of groundwater recharge zones using RS and GIS

Ecosystem services have been increasingly recognized as important assets

for sustainable development, since a close interdependency exists between

ecosystem services and groundwater. On the one hand, these services depend

directly on the functioning of ecosystems such as wetlands, forests, lakes and

coastal areas which derive freshwater for their functioning from sub-surface

water, including groundwater. Groundwater resources dependent on recharge

through infiltration of rain waters. The rate and quality of recharge, amongst

others, is determined by the type and spatial configuration of ecosystems. The

close linkages between the groundwater and ecosystem services are often not

recognized and undervalued. Many ecosystem services have a direct linkage

with groundwater storage, recharge and discharge. Groundwater recharge is a

35

portion of rainfall that infiltrates into the soil and percolates into the soil mantle

and reaches the groundwater only after vegetation interception, evaporation from

ground and runoff.

The groundwater recharges seldom lend it to be measured directly, as

Penman (1949) and Grindley (1970) viewed, that recharge is a function of

effective precipitation (Precipitation minus Evapotransipiration), which depends

on land use pattern. The recharge of groundwater takes place directly by

infiltration of the precipitation or of the surface water in the outcrop areas of

water bearing formations or indirectly by contributions of other hydro geological

structures or of adjacent aquifers (Gheorghe, 1978). Krishnamurthy et al. (1996)

have discussed in the detailed methodology to demarcate the groundwater

potential zones of Marudaiyar basin, Tamilnadu. In the study, different thematic

maps were prepared using remotely sensed data as well as drainage density and

slope classes from survey of India topographical sheets. All the thematic layers

have been integrated and analyzed using a model developed with logical

conditions in the GIS environment. Subba Rao et al. (2001) attempted to assess

the groundwater favorable zones for the development and exploration with the

help of geomorphological units and associated features. Intersection of

lineaments and lineaments parallel to the drainage network can give better yield.

Identification of suitable sites for groundwater artificial recharge is very

important, which is necessary to carry out with enough accuracy. The study area

was Gavbandi river basin located in Boushehr province, Iran. In this study,

among different methods of artificial recharge, two methods of water spreading

and artificial basins were selected. For this purpose, four factors of slope, surface

infiltration, alluvial thickness and water quality of sediment were investigated.

The slope map was prepared from topographic maps. Surface infiltration was

estimated from the texture of sediment samples. The aquifer thickness was

determined by Geo-electric method and the point measured thickness of the

aquifer. The alluvial quality was determined from Electrical Conductivity data of

36

the study area. The maps of land use and landform units of the study area

were extracted from Land sat ETM+ images. The suitable sites for artificial

recharge were identified by overlaying of the slope, surface infiltration,

thickness and quality of sediment layers in GIS. In order to study the relationship

between landform units and artificial recharge, two maps of the landform and

suitable sites were overlaid. Considering the different types of land-use, only

range lands are found always appropriate for artificial recharge. Therefore, the

range lands and non-range land regions have been identified on the land-use map

and coded as one and zero, respectively (Saravi et al. 2006).

2.4 GEO-PHYSICAL METHOD

Raviprakash and Devendra Mishra (1993) dealt with the selection of

tube-well sites, geo-electrical resistivity investigation, occurrence and movement

of groundwater to the unconsolidated materials, weathered and fractured rock.

Groundwater potential zones and recharge pockets have been identified

based on hydro-geological data and the geo-electrical data. Based on these

studies on the groundwater potential of the study area has been categorized as

good, medium and poor. More than 80 wells have been monitored to assess and

48 Vertical Electrical Soundings (VES) have been carried out. In the present

study, attempts have been made to delineate groundwater potential zones and

recharge pockets on the basis of the geo-electrical results, geological and hydro

geological conditions using the concept of watershed. Schlumberger method of

electrical resistivity technique has been adopted to delineate the subsurface

lithological configuration, aquifer characteristics and depth to bedrock.

Geological and geohydrological studies, followed by geophysical studies, made

easy the efforts to locate feasible groundwater pockets like valley fills,

weathered zones and fractured zones in the study area. Geological structures,

like fractured zones and faults, have been confirmed by geo-electrical survey and

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suggested for bore wells to a depth of 70 to 80 m from the ground surface

(Jagadeeswara Rao et al. 2003).

The occurrence and movement of groundwater is restricted to the

unconsolidated material, weathered and fractured rocks. For the selection of tube

well sites, geoelectrical resistivity investigations have been carried out at the

sites, which were found suitable based on hydrogeomorphological and hydro

geological studies. Twenty six Vertical Electrical Soundings (VES) have been

carried out by using Schlumberger electrode configuration which have brought

out 3 to 7 layered sub-surface layers. The resistivity of water bearing

weathered/fractured rocks varies from 120 – 150 ohm m (Basudeo rai et al.

2005).

Muhammad Arshad et al. (2007) carried out a resistivity survey in order

to study groundwater conditions along the Jhang Branch canal, such as depth,

thickness and location of the aquifer and the type of water. Vertical electrical

soundings by Schlumberger array method have been conducted at 9 locations up

to a depth of 200 m. The resistivity data confirm that the aquifer consists of a

muddy aquifer. These data were used to determine the lithology and the

groundwater quality of the aquifer. Interpretation of the VES tests indicates the

presence of an alluvial aquifer that mainly consists of sand and clay. The

resistivity of the aquifer between 30 m to 140 m showed the increasing value,

which indicated the existence of fresh groundwater. The groundwater after 140

m to 200 m possesses marginally good quality having larger TDS values than the

upper zone.

Surface geophysical methods can be used to assess soil and rock

properties and for the non-destructive testing of man-made structures. They are

also frequently used for archaeological investigations. Geophysical methods can

be used for Geotechnical forensics in which the cause of a structural failure is

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investigated. There are four major areas where surface geophysical methods may

be applied to environmental and engineering problems:

� Assessment of natural geologic and hydro geological conditions;

� Detection and mapping of contaminant plumes, spills, and leaks;

� Detection and mapping of landfills, trenches, buried wastes and

drums, or other underground structures and utilities; and

� Evaluation of soil and rock properties and man-made structures.

Geophysical prospecting of groundwater comes under both surface and

subsurface exploration. Under geophysical prospecting, Schlumberger array of

electrical resistivity method has been adopted in this study. The interpretation

and analysis of VES data have been carried out using Surfer 9.0 and IPI2 WIN

Software and the following are investigated:

� Obtaining the geoelectrical parameters, generating pseudo sections

and Iso resistivity maps.

� Delineating the subsurface geology and evaluating the groundwater

resources.

2.5 LAND USE/LAND COVER CHANGE DETECTION

Land use is the factor on which human beings employ land and its

resources including agriculture, urban development, grazing, logging and

mining. In contrast, land cover describes the physical state of the land surface,

which includes cropland, forests, wetlands, pasture, roads and urban areas

(Jaisawal et al. 1999; Mukherjee et al. 2009). Currently, land use/land cover

changes (LU/LC) attribute to carbon emissions into the atmosphere. Change in

land use and land cover affects the exchange of energy, water and momentum

between biosphere and atmosphere and the change has been demonstrated by

experiments which quantify the effects of changes in land use/land cover on

climate.

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The worldwide trajectory of LU/LC changes over the last 300 years has

been to decrease the area of forests and increase the area of agricultural lands

(Houghton, 2003). Change in land use/land cover also enhances soil erosion,

creates strong environmental impacts and high economic costs by its effect on

agricultural production, infrastructure and water quality (Lal, 1998; Pimentel

et al. 1995). Remote sensing has proven to be a cost effective tool for studying

changes (Jensen, 1996).

Srivastava et al. (2003) appraised the rapid growth in population coupled

with expansion of urban fringe and encroachment in the prime land is a matter of

great concern for the authorities associated with the urban planning. Satellite

remote sensing offers varied advantages and has been widely accepted as a

technique for urban mapping as well as monitoring of changes in land use/land

cover. In this study, multi-date, multi-sensor remote sensing data of year 2000

(IRS-1D LISS-III) and year 1994 (IRS-1B LISS-II) has been used for various

land use classes delineated include built-up, agriculture, sand, water, scrub and

open/barren land. Changes in area, under major land use/land cover types, have

been determined through the comparison of their spatial extent in 1994 and

2000. The planning agencies are expected to get benefited by the usage of

remote sensing based methodology for achieving a balanced and sustainable

development in the region.

Symeonakis et al. (2004) revealed the relationship between land use/land

cover (LULC) changes and land degradation in two Mediterranean sites has been

investigated using remotely sensed and ancillary data. Land sat MSS data,

dating back to the 1970s, were used for the mapping of historic land use/land

cover types, whereas Land sat TM and ETM+ data were employed for the

analysis of their recent state. The results show increased susceptibility to runoff

and erosion mostly in the areas which were under forest fires, urbanization

and/or overgrazing were the main causes of change and suggest that mitigation

measures should be taken for the prevention of further degradation. The readily

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implemented methodology proposed, based on modest data requirements, is a

useful tool for catchment to regional scale LULC change and land degradation

studies.

Satellite imagery can yield a variety of products useful in watershed

management. Land use information, such as obtained from satellite and an

urban growth model, combined with analysis of impervious surface area, can be

used to estimate present and future surface runoff and peak discharge in small

and medium sized watersheds (Toby N.Carlson, 2004). Mustafa et al. (2005)

used Satellite data and GIS integrated with a spatial hydrological model to

evaluate the impacts of land development in the Upper Bernam River Basin of

Malaysia.

2.6 EVALUATION OF SOIL RESOURCES

The rational utilization, improvement and conservation of soil resources

are not possible without enlarging through understanding of their physico-

chemical properties, geographical distribution and classification. Although the

soils of much of the arid and semiarid regions are superficially similar in

appearance, a careful study reveals a great diversity. Studies carried out, both

within and outside India, on red and black soils are not exhaustive and there is a

need for detailed investigation.

Based on the available information the literature is reviewed under the

following headings

� Soil survey for land evaluation/land use planning

� Profile properties

� Surface soil properties

Shankaranarayana and Hirekerur (1982) stated that soil series which is the

basic unit of soil classification in soil taxonomy needs to be critically considered

in applying the soil classification system. The series is both the mapping unit and

41

also the lowest category of any hierarchical taxonomic classification. With the

exception of series all the mapping units used in detailed soil surveys are

pragmatic groupings lying outside the taxonomic classification. Soil

characteristics and the taxonomy of the shrink-swell soils in the semi-arid

tropical region of India are discussed. A new sub-group of Vertisols, with a

mollic epipedon, is proposed for extensive shrink-swelled soils in

Maharashtra (Rajeev Srivastav and Jagdish Prasad, 1992).

India has made considerable investment in soil resource inventory over

ten years. The information on detailed soil survey of different irrigation

commands, about Karnataka, is available. While the resource information is

available in the form of reports and maps, proper use of these for land use

decisions is not vigorously followed. It is high time that efforts need be taken in

the land use planning, including the projected productivity, because of the

changes in cropping systems and management. Information on soil and related

properties obtained from the soil survey and soil classification can help in better

delineation of soil and land suitability for irrigation and in efficient irrigation

water management. Detailed soil resource inventories need be readily available

through a standardized and computerized database. This is a pre-requisite for

determining the appropriate conservation activities in monitoring our natural

resource base. With the advances in information technology the data on soils,

weather and other data can be integrated to take such decisions (Das, 1999).

A study was under taken by Patel et al. (2001) in one part of Solani

watershed of Haridwar and Saharanpur districts in Uttaranchal and Uttar

Pradesh, respectively to assess the land capability, to adopt suitable soil

conservation majors and suggest appropriate land use through remote sensing

and GIS approaches. Thematic information on soils slope and land use was

generated from remotely sensed data, Survey of India toposheets and field

survey. These special information were integrated using GIS techniques for

generating basic resource map such as composite land use and land capability.

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Present composite land use and land capability maps and the suitability criteria

were framed to prepare land use adjustment plan for appropriate soil

conservation needs and proper land utilization parts of Solani watershed.

The soils of the watershed can be grouped under following types: (i) fine

soil, (ii) coarse soils, (iii) fine loamy soils and, others. Amongst the alluvial

soils, the older alluvium is unaffected by floods and siltation (Muthukrishnan

and Manjunatha, 2008).

2.7 SOCIO-ECONOMIC STUDIES

The selection of social and economic metrics to document the baseline

conditions and analyse the dynamic relationships between ecosystems and

human communities are important factors for scientists, managers, and

watershed citizens. A large variety of social and economic data are available but

these have limited use without theoretical frameworks (Lois Wright Morton and

Steve Padgitt, 2005). The need to have better understanding of the linkages and

interdependencies of socio-economic and coastal environmental dynamics has

taken on a more deliberate role in the development and assessment of Integrated

Coastal Management world-wide. The analysis and establishment of indicator-

driven programs, to assess change in coastal and watershed systems, have

increasingly moved the stress on socio-economic forces and their impacts

(Robert E. Bowen and Cory Riley, 2003).

Watershed management has evolved and passed through several

developmental stages. In the initial stages, it was a subject of forestry and

forestry-related hydrology. The involvement of people was not an issue. It was

solely an affair of government forest departments. During the second stage the

land-resources and management-related activities with an eye on economic

benefits play major roles. At this stage, the focus on beneficiaries with the

slogan “participatory and integrated” watershed management, with involvement

and contribution from local people, become primary concerns.

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2.8 SUMMARY

The review of literature survey has focused on various aspects of

watershed management. The study was done with a multidimensional approach

on watershed management to evaluate the surface water on the earth surface,

groundwater assessment below the earth surface to study the land and soil on

earth surface on account of evaporation and percolation, changes deduced in

land use/land cover trend, soil resources for land capability, crop suitability, etc.

Finally, a socio-economic survey has to be conducted in the field to meet various

groups of people - for small and big farmers - to get the feed-back of

questionnaire to generate the watershed database. The findings of the research

suggest ways to implement proper methods in successful manner and to

conserve water and land resources to improve the growing economy of the

nation in its attempt to increase in agriculture production. All the present studies

have been carried out in mini-watershed based studies and it has to be carried out

in village level to focus on more beneficiaries for successful development.

The watershed based approach is a comprehensive interrelated approach

to watershed and natural resources management. It examines and recognizes the

needs of all the resources; namely soil, water, air, plants, animals, and people in

relation to local social, cultural and economic factors. The watershed

management approach provides a better understanding and appreciation of

nature, provides a context for integration (using practical, tangible management

units that people understand, focusing and coordinating efforts, finding common

ground and meeting multiple needs) and better management. Based on the

discussion the thesis utilized conventional methods as well as remote sensing

and GIS for achieving the objectives of the research work.