chapter 2 methods for describing sets of data. objectives describe data using graphs describe data...
TRANSCRIPT
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Chapter 2
Methods for Describing Sets of Data
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Objectives
Describe Data using Graphs
Describe Data using Charts
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Describing Qualitative Data
• Qualitative data are nonnumeric in nature• Best described by using Classes• 2 descriptive measures class frequency – number of data points in a
class class relative = class frequency
frequency total number of data points in data set
class percentage – class relative freq. x 100
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Describing Qualitative Data – Displaying Descriptive Measures
Summary Table
Class Frequency Class percentage – class relative frequency x 100
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Describing Qualitative Data – Qualitative Data Displays
Bar Graph
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Describing Qualitative Data – Qualitative Data Displays
Pie chart
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Describing Qualitative Data – Qualitative Data Displays
Pareto Diagram
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Graphical Methods for Describing Quantitative Data
The Data
Company Percentage Company Percentage Company Percentage Company Percentage1 13.5 14 9.5 27 8.2 39 6.52 8.4 15 8.1 28 6.9 40 7.53 10.5 16 13.5 29 7.2 41 7.14 9.0 17 9.9 30 8.2 42 13.25 9.2 18 6.9 31 9.6 43 7.76 9.7 19 7.5 32 7.2 44 5.97 6.6 20 11.1 33 8.8 45 5.28 10.6 21 8.2 34 11.3 46 5.69 10.1 22 8.0 35 8.5 47 11.710 7.1 23 7.7 36 9.4 48 6.011 8.0 24 7.4 37 10.5 49 7.812 7.9 25 6.5 38 6.9 50 6.513 6.8 26 9.5
Percentage of Revenues Spent on Research and Development
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Graphical Methods for Describing Quantitative Data
For describing, summarizing, and detecting patterns in such data, we can use three graphical methods:
• dot plots• stem-and-leaf displays
• histograms
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Graphical Methods for Describing Quantitative Data
Dot Plot
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Graphical Methods for Describing Quantitative Data
Stem-and-Leaf Display
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Graphical Methods for Describing Quantitative Data
Histogram
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Graphical Methods for Describing Quantitative Data
More on Histograms
Number of Observations in Data Set Number of Classes
Less than 25 5-6
25-50 7-14
More than 50 15-20
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Summation Notation
Used to simplify summation instructions
Each observation in a data set is identified by a subscript
x1, x2, x3, x4, x5, …. xn
Notation used to sum the above numbers together is
n
n
i
i xxxxxx
4321
1
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Summation Notation
Data set of 1, 2, 3, 4
Are these the same? and
4
1
2
i
ix24
1
i
ix
301694124
23
22
21
24
1
xxxxxi
i
100104321 22224
1
4321
xxxxxi
i
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Numerical Measures of Central Tendency
• Central Tendency – tendency of data to center about certain numerical values
• 3 commonly used measures of Central Tendency:
Mean
Median
Mode
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Numerical Measures of Central Tendency
The Mean
• Arithmetic average of the elements of the data set
• Sample mean denoted by
• Population mean denoted by
• Calculated as and
x
n
xx
n
i
i 1
n
xn
i
i 1
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Numerical Measures of Central Tendency
The Median
• Middle number when observations are arranged in order
• Median denoted by m
• Identified as the observation if n is odd, and the mean of the and observations if n is even
5.02
n
2
n1
2n
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Numerical Measures of Central Tendency
The Mode
• The most frequently occurring value in the data set
• Data set can be multi-modal – have more than one mode
• Data displayed in a histogram will have a modal class – the class with the largest frequency
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Numerical Measures of Central Tendency
The Data set 1 3 5 6 8 8 9 11 12
Mean
Median is the or 5th observation, 8
Mode is 8
79
63
9
121198865311
n
xx
n
i
i
5.02
n
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Numerical Measures of Variability
• Variability – the spread of the data across possible values
• 3 commonly used measures of Variability: Range
Variance
Standard Deviation
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Numerical Measures of Variability
The Range
• Largest measurement minus the smallest measurement
• Loses sensitivity when data sets are large
These 2 distributionshave the same range.
How much does therange tell you about the data variability?
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Numerical Measures of Variability
The Sample Variance (s2)
• The sum of the squared deviations from the mean divided by (n-1). Expressed as units squared
• Why square the deviations? The sum of the deviations from the mean is zero
1
)(1
2
2
n
xxs
n
ii
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Numerical Measures of Variability
The Sample Standard Deviation (s)
• The positive square root of the sample variance
• Expressed in the original units of measurement
21
2
1
)(s
n
xxs
n
ii
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Numerical Measures of Variability
Samples and Populations - Notation
Sample Population
Variance s2
Standard Deviation s
2
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Numerical Measures of Relative Standing
Descriptive measures of relationship of a measurement to the rest of the data
Common measures:• percentile ranking• z-score
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Numerical Measures of Relative Standing
Percentile rankings make use of the pth percentileThe median is an example of percentiles.Median is the 50th percentile – 50 % of observations lie above it, and 50% lie below itFor any p, the pth percentile has p% of the measures lying below it, and (100-p)% above it
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Numerical Measures of Relative Standing
z-score – the distance between a measurement x and the mean, expressed in standard units
Use of standard units allows comparison across data sets
x
zs
xxz
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Numerical Measures of Relative Standing
More on z-scores
Z-scores follow the empirical rule for mounded distributions
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Methods for Detecting Outliers
Outlier – an observation that is unusually large or small relative to the data values being described
Causes:• Invalid measurement• Misclassified measurement• A rare (chance) event
2 detection methods:• Box Plots• z-scores
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Methods for Detecting Outliers
Box Plots
• based on quartiles, values that divide the dataset into 4 groups
• Lower Quartile QL – 25th percentile
• Middle Quartile - median
• Upper Quartile QU – 75th percentile
• Interquartile Range (IQR) = QU - QL
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Methods for Detecting Outliers
Box Plots
Not on plot – inner and outer fences, which determine potential outliers
QU (hinge)
QL (hinge)
Median
Potential Outlier
Whiskers
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Methods for Detecting Outliers
Rules of thumb• Box Plots
– measurements between inner and outer fences are suspect
– measurements beyond outer fences are highly suspect
• Z-scores– Scores of 3 in mounded distributions (2 in
highly skewed distributions) are considered outliers