38

CHAPTER-2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 INTRODUCTION

With the advanced reinforced concrete structures the heavy

reinforcing structures and complicated shapes of structures are no

longer unusual. During 1980’s skilled labor shortage has become a

serious problem in particularly in Japan, at construction sites and a

need was felt for a concrete that would overcome the problems of

defective workmanship.

SCC was developed at that time to improve the durability of

concrete structures. The necessity of this type of concrete was

proposed by Professor Okamura of Kochi university of Technology,

Japan in 1986 [62]. Since then, various investigations have been

carried out and SCC has been used in structures in Japan, mainly by

large construction companies. Investigations for establishing a

rational mix-design method and self-compactability testing methods

have been carried out from the viewpoint of making it a standard

concrete. SCC flows like “honey” and has a very smooth surface level

after placing. With regard to its composition, self-compacting concrete

consists of the same components as conventionally vibrated concrete,

which are cement, aggregates and water, with the addition of chemical

and mineral admixtures in different proportions Dr.Okamura (1986)

defined SCC as follows at three different stages of concrete

39

(1) Fresh : Self - compactable.

(2) Early age : avoidance of initial defects

(3) After hardening : protection against external factors.

Other applications of self compacting concrete are summarized below.

Bridge (Anchorage, arch, beam, girder, tower, pier)

Box culverts

Building

Concrete filled steel column

Tunnel (lining, immersed tunnel , fill of survey tunnel)

Dam ( concrete around structure)

Concrete products(block, culvert water tank, slab and segment)

Diaphragm wall

Tank (sidewall, joint between sidewall and slab)

2.1 Mehta. P.K. (1977) [51] did investigations on the properties of

blended cements made from RHA. For both lime RHA and Portland

RHA cements, RHA containing silica in a highly reactive form is an

excellent ingredient. Portland RHA cements when replaced up to 50%

by ash showed considerably high compressive strengths than OPC

even at as early as 3 and 7 days. This show RHA cements has

resistance to organic and mineral acids.

2.2 Mehta. P.K. (1977) [52] concluded that due to acid resistance

property Rice husk ash cements and concretes are more durable in

acidic environment. So in mortars and concretes made with reactive

aggregates, RHA can be used as mineral admixture.

40

2.3 Mehta. P.K. and Peritz (1978)[50] According to them, the use of

Rice husk ash reduces the temperatures in high strength mass

contents. By maintaining combustion temperature below 5000C,

under oxidizing conditions for prolonged periods or up to 6800C with a

hold time less than one minute, amorphous silica can be produced.

2.4 According to Chandraprasirt. P. (1983) and Cook (1984) [16] to

get a high degree of reactivity the finely ground RHA with a fineness of

9000-16000 sq.cm/gm (Blaine’s apparatus) is necessary and that can

be obtained with electrical motor steel ball mills

2.5 Kazumasa Ozawa et al (1989) [63] completed the first prototype

of self-compacting concrete using materials already in the market. By

using different types of super plasticizers, he studied the workability

of concrete and developed a concrete, which was more workable. It

was suitable for rapid placement and had a very good permeability.

Ozawa (1989) carried out experiments by focusing on the influence of

mineral admixtures, like fly ash and blast furnace slag, on the flowing

ability and segregation resistance of self-compacting concrete. He

found out that the flowing ability of the concrete improved remarkably

when Portland cement was partially replaced with fly ash and blast

furnace slag. After trying different proportions of admixtures, he

concluded that 10-20% of fly ash and 25-45% of slag cement, by

mass, showed the best flowing ability and strength characteristics.

2.6 Hsu and Hsu (1994) [31] A complete stress-strain equation under

axial compression was proposed by them. The empirical formula

41

includes the effect of steel fibres. The equation is in the form of

Y=a x / (a-1+xb)

Y = Normalized stress

x = Normalized strain

a, b are constants obtained using the experimental data.

2.7 Badawe B.R & B.R Kumbhar P.D (1997) [10] The concrete with

RHA as an admixture is almost similar to that of silica fume in terms

of relative silica. Significant improvement in permeability of concrete

with RHA compared to the controlled OPC concrete is observed. The

chemical resistance of RHA concrete improved significantly with

respect to H2SO4.With the addition of RHA as a pozzolanic material the

durability of concrete can be improved in multiple directions

2.8 M.Ouchi, Hajime Okamura (1997)[49] They had done

investigations on the effect of super plasticizer (a chemical admixture)

on flowability and viscosity of mortar in self-compacting concrete.

From experimental results, it is found that the ratio of funnel speed to

flow area of mortar with a fixed amount of super plasticizer is almost

constant, independent of the water-powder ratio. The higher the

amount of super plasticizer the lower is the ratio of funnel speed to

flow area. This ratio is proposed as an index for the effect of super

plasticizer on mortar flowability and viscosity from the viewpoint of

achieving self-compactability. This index is useful to evaluate the

amount of super plasticizer for proper flowability and viscosity of

mortar.

42

2.9 Seshagiri Rao. M.V., Janardhana.M.,etal (1999) [86] Author’s

studies reveal that with addition of 60% FA and 30% RHA the 7 days

and 28 days compressive strengths are observed to have improved by

about 43%, which is due to significant contribution of RHA as an

admixture. There is marginal improvement in flexural strengths in

high fly ash concretes with RHA as an admixture. There is a clear cut

improvement in stress – strain behaviour of fly ash concretes up to

60% FA and with 30% RHA as an additional admixture. The behaviour

is almost identical to that of ordinary concretes. Similarly the moduli

of elasticity of fly ash concretes with and without RHA are slightly low

with a marginal improvement in fly ash + RHA concretes. The fly ash

concretes with RHA are more durable in terms of permeability,

freezing and thawing, shrinkage, sulphate and acid resistance.

2.10 Gao peiwei. et al, (2000) [25] mentioned that the conventional

concrete is primarily made of only three fundamental ingredients viz.

cement, aggregates and water. A new type of concrete termed High

Performance Concrete (HPC) has become popular in concrete

construction industry in recent years. To produce this type of

concrete, the admixtures like super plasticizer, super fine powder,

segregation reducing powder, viscosity modifying agents are used

apart from aggregate, cement and water. The most important principle

is to reduce the amount of cement in HPC. There are three reasons to

support this view (i) to attain long term durability, (ii) to preserve our

natural resources and (iii) to save the cost of the materials and energy.

43

2.11 K. Ganesh Babu and V. Sree Rama Kumar (2000) [37]

Evaluated efficiency of various Supplementary Cementitious Materials

(SCM) such as GGBS, silica fume, fly ash in concretes. As per their

studies the utilization of SCM’s is well accepted because of the several

improvements possible in the concrete composites and due to the

overall economy. They quantified the 28-day cementitious efficiency of

ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) in concrete at the

various replacement levels. The overall strength efficiency was found

to be a combination of general efficiency factor (depending on the age)

and a percentage efficiency factor(depending upon the percentage of

replacement), as was the case with a few other cementitious materials

like fly ash and silica fume reported earlier. This evaluation makes it

possible to design GGBS concretes for a desired strength at any given

percentage of replacement.

They assessed the cementitious efficiency of GGBS in concrete

at the various replacement percentages through the efficiency concept

by establishing the variation of the strength to water-to-cementitious

materials ratio relations of the GGBS concretes from the normal

concretes at 28 days.

2.12 Nan Sua, Kung-Chung Hsub, His-Wen Chai (2001) [57] proposed

a new mix design method for self-compacting concrete (SCC), to

ensure that the concrete obtained has flowability, self-compacting

ability and other desired SCC properties. The amount of aggregates

required is determined, and the paste of binders is then filled into the

voids of aggregates. Thus by using appropriate material properties the

44

amount of aggregates, binders and mixing water, as well as type and

dosage of superplasticizer (SP) to be used are determined. Fresh

properties like Slump flow, V-funnel, L-flow, U-box and compressive

strength tests were carried out successfully to examine the

performance of produced high quality SCC. This method is simple

when compared to the method developed by the Japanese Ready-

Mixed Concrete Association, as it is easy for implementation, simple,

less time-consuming, saves cost and requires a smaller amount of

binders.

2.13 Neol P Mailvaganam (2001)[59] According to the author, various

constituents of cement and cement hydration reaction are influenced

by chemical and mineral admixtures. The performance of admixtures

depends on the nature, amount of admixtures, specific surface of the

cement, composition, water cement ratio, proportions of aggregates,

conditions of curing and temperature. Optimum use 0f these

materials study of interaction between admixture- cement and

admixture – admixture is necessary. The influence of admixtures is in

five stages.

Stage – I- 0-15 min-Initial hydration process

Stage – II-15 min – 4 hrs-Induction period or lag phase

Stage – III-4 hrs – 8 hrs- Acceleration and setting

Stage – IV- 8 hrs – 24 hrs hardening and

Stage – V- 1 – 28 days-Curing.

2.14 Roy D.M, Arjunam .P., Silsbee M. R (2001)[80] The mortars

made with plain Portland cement are less acid resistant than mortars

45

made with substitution of SF, MK &FA. Mortars are less affected by

1% hydrochloric acid, 1% sulphuric acid and 1% Nitric acid

environment. But at higher acid concentrations i.e. at 5% sulphuric

acid, 5% acetic acid and 5% phosphoric acid the mortars showed less

resistance. Chemical resistance is in the order of SF, MK, and FA as

replacement levels increased from 0 to 10%.

2.15 Subramanyan.S and Chattopadhyay.D (2002)[92] The

development of the mix proportions for self-compacting concrete and

the procedure used for selecting the combination of viscosity

modifying agent, super plasticizer and ultra fine powders are studied

by authors in detail.

The reduction in dosage of Welan gum can be possible with the

appropriate dosage of Micro silica, which may reduce the final setting

time and increase the compressive strength. Suitability of self –

compacting concrete mixture proportion was verified through a

complicated mould and in a field trail and the results are encouraging.

2.16 According to the investigations of Chai Jaturapitakkul and

Roongreung. (2003)[15] About 200 kg of rice husk is produced from

1000kg of rice grain. After rice husk was burnt, about 20% of rice

husk i.e. 40 kg would become RHA (Mehta 1986)[51]. It contains high

amount of Sio2, most of which is in amorphous form (Gambhir 1995),

which makes RHA a pozzolanic material according to ASTM C 618

(1997). The pozzolana which has high fineness in the presence of

moisture react with Ca(OH)2 at room temperature providing cementing

property. The main products in the cement hydration, are Calcium

46

Silicate Hydrate (C S H) Calcium Aluminate Hydrate (C A H) and

Calcium Hydroxide Ca(OH)2. CSH and CAH are the cementing

materials which contribute to the strength of the concrete. The CAH

produces lower compressive strength than that of CSH, while Ca(OH)2

reacts with SiO2 and Al2O3 to form pozzolanic material resulting in

additional CSH and CAH in mixture, improving some of the properties

of the concrete like reduced bleeding, increased compressive strength,

reduced permeability etc. RHA used by them was of specific gravity of

2.18 and Blaine’s fineness of 18,050 cm2/gm.

2.17 Ganesan N., Indira P.V, Santhosh Kumar P.T.(2003) [24]

While several attempts have been made in the recent years to study

the strength and behavior SCC, only a few studies have been carried

out on the strength and behavior of structural elements made of SCC.

From the literature, it may be noted that self compacting concrete

appears to be a very useful composite due to its high performance,

applicability in the congested zones and durability. The authors feel

that more number of studies have to be carried out to understand

short term and long term behavior of structural elements such as

beams, beams-column joints using SCC, Hence these studies.

2.18 Jagadish Vengala and Ranganath R.V. (2003) [34] developed

high performance self-compacting concrete and discussed the results

of an experimental study of the fresh concrete properties. Coarse

aggregate is replaced partly by fly ash which has increased the paste

content and enhanced the self-compacting properties. The high

powder content which has been advocated for development of SCC,

47

contributed to its long-term strength and durability as it imparts a

continuous hydrating system to the concrete. If the concrete is having

fly ash greater than 140 kg per cum, an increase in strength of the

order of 35% occurs at later ages where as similar increase occurs in

SCC mixes of high volume fly ash and the order is of 35-60%.

2.19 Muthu K.U, Puttappa C.G, Veeraraghavan.A (2003) [54]

Observed that the flexural strength of High Strength Concrete (HSC)

beams is about one tenth of compressive strength of concrete. The

beams designed according to IS 456 deflected more when compared to

other beams. The service load was taken 2/3 of ultimate load. The

deflection at ultimate load for HSC beams occurred at an average

value of span/220.

2.20 Okamura Hajime and Masahiro Ouchi’s (2003) [60] main aim is

to establish a rational mix-design method. Self- compactability testing

methods have been carried out from the view point to make self-

compacting concrete a standard concrete. By using rational mix-

design method and an appropriate acceptance testing method at the

job site, the main obstacles for the wide use of self-compacting

concrete can be considered to have been solved. The next task is to

promote the rapid diffusion of the techniques for the production of

self-compacting concrete its use in construction. Rational training and

qualifications systems for engineers should also be established. In

addition, new structural design and construction systems making full

use of self-compacting concrete should be introduced.

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2.21 Pal, S.C., Mukherjee, A, Pathak. S.R. (2003)[65] According to

them Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) is a by-product

obtained in the manufacture of pig iron in the blast furnace and is

formed by the combination of constituents of iron ore with lime stone

flux. When molten slag is cooled, it forms into fine, granular, almost

fully non-crystalline, glassy form known as granulated slag. Such

granulated slag, when finely ground and combined with Portland

cement, exhibit excellent cementitious properties.

2.22 Rajamane N.P., Annie Peter, Lakshmanan N., (2003) [73] Lot

of investigation is done on fresh state of concrete but these authors

made investigations on the properties of SCC and reviewed its

properties in hardened state. Self compacting concrete (SCC) has

considerable advantages for complicated and heavily reinforced

structural elements and large construction projects. It is observed that

the structural behavior of SCC is similar to conventionally vibrated

concrete, and by proper combination of powdery materials and water-

binder ratio, any strength level of SCC can be achieved.

2.23 Sri Ravindrarajah R, et al (2003) [90] The authors investigated

workability, bleeding capacity, segregation potential, compressive and

tensile strengths, and drying shrinkage of SCC and ordinary concrete.

Ordinary concrete had 465 kg/m3

of cement whereas the self-

compacting concrete consists of 350 and 135 kg/m3 of cement and fly

ash respectively. The bleeding capacity for the self-compacting

concrete was less than that of ordinary concrete. When vibration was

employed at the time of moulding the strength of both concrete types

49

was found to increase. The mix compositions and superplasticiser

dosage has influenced the drying shrinkage.

2.24 Stefan Kordts and Wolfgang Breit (2003) [91] The property of

fresh concrete like workability, slump etc can be achieved in a variety

of ways with different concrete constituent materials and compositions

known as self compacting. The nature of the application determines

the requisite workability and its period. By representing the

workability in a diagram using the slump flow parameter as a

measure of the yield value and the V-funnel flow time parameter as a

measure of the viscosity, an approach for assessing the self

compacting properties of a SCC has been developed. By varying the

levels of water and superplasticizer the optimum workability range for

self compaction as well as the limits of workability has to be tested

and specified for the corresponding SCC in fresh and hardened

concrete investigations.

2.25 Venkatesh Babu D.L. (2003) [101] Author presented an

experimental investigation on the properties like workability and

compressive strength of self-compacting concrete. Several tests are

conducted involving various binder combinations, water-binder ratio

and high range water reducing admixtures and set retarding

admixtures to optimize the mix proportions for flowable self

compacting concrete. Investigation on the properties like workability

and compressive strength of self-compacting concrete are done. Test

results show that the workability characteristics of SCC are within

limiting constraints of SCC. The highest compressive strength of SCC

50

mix at 28 days of age of curing is 71.33 MPa. The test results and

fresh properties of concrete are within the limits of self Compacting

Concrete i.e. flow ability, passing ability and resistance against

segregation.

2.26 Amit Mittal, Kaisare M.B and Shetty R.G (2004) [3] mentioned

that SCC is ideally suitable for heavily congested reinforced concreting

structures wherein the access for concreting is difficult. The author

described in brief the methodology adopted for the design of SCC mix,

testing methods to qualify SCC and method adopted for concreting

walls and other structures of a condenser cooling water pump house

at Tarapur Atomic power project (TAPP 3& 4).

2.27 Annie Peter.J, etal (2004) [6] The structural behavior of SCC &

Conventional Concrete (CVC) in hardened state is studied in detail;

reinforced concrete (RC) beams of size 150mm x 400mm x 3000mm

with similar concrete strength and identical reinforcement were cast,

tested and compared. The structural behavior such as load-deflection

characteristics, crack-widths, spacing of cracks, number of cracks,

crack pattern, ultimate load-carrying capacity, moments-curvature

relationship, longitudinal strain in both concrete and steel are

observed. It is observed that the load – deformation behavior of both

SCC and CVC beams were similar up to the peak load stage. Beyond

the peak load stage, there is no drop in load in CVC beams with

increased deformation while drop in load is observed in SCC beams

with increased deformation. Whereas the peak and failure loads were

51

nearly the same for CVC beams but the failure load in SCC beams was

nearly 25% lower when compared to the peak load.

Crack spacing of both CVC and SCC were almost same. Crack

widths were within the limits specified by IS 456 at all load stages.

The average crack widths of both the types of beams were compared.

2.28 Bapat S.G., Kulkarni S.B. and Bandekar K.S. (2004) [11]

They designed a SCC mix of M30 grade, the56-day strength

achieved was 50MPa. The SCC mix was produced with low water

content of 165 Kg/m3, powder content of 450kg/m3 and cement

content as low as 225kg/m3. This mix was used by Nuclear power

corporation of India Ltd.(NPICL) for various structure in nuclear power

plants (NPPs), especially for those having congested reinforcement. By

using this SCC mix, after de-shuttering which was done 13 hours

after concreting it was observed that concrete flowed and occupied the

form completely, surface finish both for the column and wall was good

with uniform distribution of aggregate. The finished product obtained

was more durable, better qualitative, less heat of hydration and eco-

friendly too.

2.29 Chava Srinivas. et al (2004) [18]

Studies about maximizing the usage of fly ash, High volume fly ash

(HVFA) can be incorporated into M20 grade concrete. On studying the

stress-strain behaviour, it is observed that the ductility of normal

concrete is more than that of fly ash concrete.

2.30 Lachemi M, Hossain K. M. A.(2004)[40] shown that the use of

viscosity modifying admixtures (VMA) proved very effective in

52

stabilizing the rheology of SCC. The cost of concrete increases with the

usage of commercial VMAs currently available in the market which are

costly. This article presents the suitability of four different types of

new polysaccharide-based VMA in the development of SCC. The study

confirms the production of satisfactory SCC with acceptable fresh and

hardened properties comparable with or even better than that can be

made with commercial VMA and with Welgan gum which are

encouraging. When compared with commercial VMA the suggested

mix with 0.05% of new type VMA ,the SCC require 7% less VMA

dosage satisfying the requirement of fresh and hardened properties of

SCC and it is also cost-effective.

Since the chemical and mineral admixtures interact with various

constituents of cement and influence cement hydration reaction the

authors attribute the need of usage of admixtures.The cost of

materials will be decreased by using mineral admixtures like fly ash,

GGBS, silica fume, rice husk ash etc and there by reducing the

cement content. Use of superplasticizer imparts fluidity to the mix and

the use of viscosity modifying admixtures (VMA) has proved very

effective in stabilizing the rheology of SCC. Addition of mineral

admixtures increases the setting times due to slow pozzolanic

reaction.

2.31 Mahesh Y.V.S.S.U and Manu Santhanam (2004) [44] made an

attempt to correlate field test methods for flow behavior of SCC, so

that these can be used interchangeably. Based on the laboratory

work, the slump flow value and the U-box test can be used to

53

qualitatively characterize the SCC mixture as acceptable or

unacceptable. It is observed that Viscosity of the SCC mixture

decreases with an increase in the water to powder-ratio. The decrease

in viscosity is indicated by drop in T50 and V-funnel flow time. The

data suggests a linear relationship between the V-funnel flow time and

the T50 slump flow, thus the two stages can be used interchangeable

in the field

2.32 Manu Santhanam and Subramanian.S (2004) [46] have

discussed in detail the existing research about various aspects of self-

compacting concrete, mix design, test methods, construction related

issues, including materials and properties. By using the viscosity

modifying agents of the pseudo plastic variety complied with high-

range water reducing agent for dynamic control of flow he observed

the segregation is increasing. The rheological parameter yield stress

and plastic viscosity-has made it easy to describe the role of

superplasticiser, particle packing and pseudo plastic viscosity

modifying agent in SCC. Their research also explained in detail the

prescribed variant of SCC based on the type of application and placing

conditions.

2.33 Mohammed Sonebi (2004)[42] made an attempt to develop

medium strength SCC (MS-SCC), by reducing the cement content and

by using pulverized fuel ash (PFA) with a minimum amount of

superplasticizer (SP) resulting in the decrease in the cost of materials.

Totally twenty six mixes were prepared, of them twenty-one mixes

were used to derive the statistical models, and five were used for the

54

verification and the accuracy of the developed models. By using

polynomial regression the influences of W/P, cement and PFA

contents and the dosage of SP were characterised and analysed. The

results show that a MS-SCC mix of 30 to 35 MPa of 28-day

compressive strength can be achieved by using PFA up to 210 kg/m3.

2.34 Narayana P.S.S, Srinivasa Rao. P, Swami.B.L.P(2004) [55] The

improvement in 28 days compressive strength is 20% more with 5%

addition of micro silica compared with 0% addition. With the addition

of micro silica the resistance of concrete to the attack of acids and

sulphates improved. The percentage of weight loss will be less at 20%

addition of micro silica, when immersed in H2SO4,HCl and Na2SO4.

2.35 Pai B.V.B. (2004) [65] According to him general opinion amongst

most of the engineers is that SCC cost is much more than that of the

corresponding normal strength or high-strength concrete (NSC/HSC).

But SCC materials cost just about 10-15 percent higher. It is superior

to conventional concrete in respect of all properties, more so it is the

preferred choice when concreting conditions are difficult. But on a

more rational basis, the charges for form work including establishing

lab for making good finished surfaces, will be more advantageous.

2.36 Praveen Kumar and Kaushik.S.K. (2004) [71] The interfacial

transition zone (ITZ) in SCC and conventional concretes with similar

compressive strengths at 28 days is investigated by the authors in

detail and a new model for ITZ in SCC is proposed. If observations are

done using scanning electron microscopy on the transition zone in

samples of self-compacting concrete and normal concrete, the

55

microstructure distinctly differs from each other. In contrast to the

normal concrete the transition zone in self-compacting concrete was

free of micro-cracks. The porosity of this zone reduces due to the

presence of micro silica and fly ash particles in the transition zone.

2.37 Raghu Prasad P.S. et al (2004) [72] They reported that due to

the slow pozzolanic reaction developed, due to the addition of

admixtures to the cement or concrete during both initial and final

setting times gets delayed. This delayed setting is beneficial during the

hot weather concreting. The blended cement concrete shows

considerable strength development and continues for longer period

beyond 28 days but surface absorption in blended cement concrete is

less compared to conventional concretes leading to migration of

corrosion in reinforcement.

2.38 Rama Rao.G.V. Seshagiri Rao.M.V. et al (2004)[75] Authors

have done studies on M40-M80 grade concretes by taking optimum

percentage of 10% RHA as admixture. They observed at higher

percentages, the workability is getting reduced drastically requiring

high percentage of super plasticiser.

2.39 Amit Mittal, Kaisare M.B and Shetty R.G (2005) [4] described

the use of self compacting concrete, as per these studies it was

difficult to place concrete and do compaction for wall of a pump

house of Tarapur Atomic Power Project 3 & 4 (TAPP 3 & 4) which

were 14.4 m high, as all the other structures around these walls

were are already constructed. The use of self compacting concrete in

this structure has shown the significant role of SCC. This is an

56

excellent example of how innovative concrete technology can be

used to solve practical problems and improve efficiency of

concreting operation.

2.40 Anne-Mieke and Greet De Schutter (2005) [5] have done a

remarkable study on the fresh, hardening and hardened SCC, with

due attention given to the time dependent mechanical behaviour. In

this investigation, results are reported concerning the creep and

shrinkage of SCC. Comparison is done on the experimental results

with some traditional models which showed that the ACI- models

resulted into a accurate prediction while the models suggested by

Delarrard and Model Code resulted into an under estimation of

deformations. So it can be said that use of SCC will probably does not

lead to a necessity to take extra preventions considering shrinkage

and creep behaviour of the structure.

2.41 Cho-Lung Hwang and Chich-Ta-Tsai (2005) [17] As per them

the major parameters considered for evaluating the properties of SCC

are of three types of aggregate packing (primitive, dense and gap

gradation) and five different paste contents (1.2, 1.4, 1.6, 1.8, and 2.0

of void within aggregate). They observed that, the denser the aggregate

packing, the better the workability and engineering properties. By

application of the densified mixture design algorithm (DMDA), high

flow ability and suitable growth can be achieved for every aggregate

package type design mix. It is also observed that the strength

efficiency of SCC designed by DMDA is much higher than that by

traditional one.

57

2.42 Girish S.,Jagadish and Ranganath R.V. (2005)[27] They

developed SCC by using fly ash from Raichur Thermal Power Plant

and with three different super plasticizers. Based on the experimental

investigation, it was observed that with minor adjustment of super

plasticizer dosages self compacting concrete can be achieved using the

sequential procedure with different super plasticizer for the given mix

proportions. It was observed that performance of polycarboxylic based

super plasticizer was found to be superior with respect to time

retention among all the superplasticisers used in the present study.

By repeated dosage of superplasticisers at regular time intervals the

flow retention of the SCC mix can be achieved. For measuring SCC’s

fresh properties the slump flow test and L-Box test give a good

combination.

2.43 Mario Collepardi (2005) [47] designed a special SCC mix

containing the amount of fine materials of approximately 500 kg/m3,

gravel of maximum size of 18 mm, a very low cement content (150

kg/m3), a large amount of limestone filler (250-380 kg/m3) and fly ash

in the range of 50-150 kg/m3 .Due to the combined use of an acrylic

superplasticiser and a viscosity agent based on a colloidal biopolymer

emulsion, SCC with a slump flow of about 700 mm was manufactured

which has compressive strength of about 20 MPa at 3 days and 30-40

MPa at 28 days.

2.44 Paratibha Aggarwal, Yogesh and Siddique.R (2005) [69]

discussed at length about the research aspects of self-compacting

concrete, including materials and mix design, different tests such as

58

V-funnel test, L-Box test, J-ring etc, performance of SCC for under

water applications, in basement walls, columns, beams etc, properties

including fresh concrete properties like slump flow, compressive

strength, segregation resistance, permeability etc and durability

studies like sulphate resistance, internal frost resistance to freezing

and thawing also gives insight to predict the performance of SCC

mixtures using modeling techniques. The models developed can be

used as economical tools for optimized design of SCC mixtures there

by reducing number of mix trails and to generate further results using

other materials.

2.45 Ravindra Krishna.M,SeshagiriRao & Ranga Raju (2005) [82]

The present experimental studies are taken up to study the corrosion

behaviour of steel in high strength concrete using FA, GGBS and

superplasticiser as admixture in M 60 grade concrete. It is observed

that the “Corrosion Durability Factors” which is an indication of life

expectancy, reveals that the concrete with 25% FA +SP and concrete

with 25% GGBS +SP concrete will have the higher life expectancy

compared to Reference concrete.

2.46 Ravindra Krishna.M, A.V.Rama Prasad, Seshagiri Rao M.V &

Ranga Raju (2005)[79]

Durability Studies carried out in the investigation through acid attack

revealed that RHA concrete in present investigation is 81% more

durable in term of acid durability factors compared to reference

concrete

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2.47 Sivarama Sarma B., Manohar S. & Bhattachar S.(2005) [89]

Correlation is arrived between the L-Box, V-Funnel and slump spread

developed from the experimental programmed by the authors. It was

observed that the ideal range of slump-spread values 500-600 mm

has been related to all the empirical test procedures, shear stress and

viscosity values. The influence of various types of cements, aggregates,

mineral and chemical admixtures used throughout the country in the

production of SCC is studied in detail. All the requirements of

hardened SCC concrete are satisfied except modulus of elasticity.

2.48 The European Guidelines for Self Compacting Concrete

Specification, Production and Use (2005) [95] “The European

Guidelines for Self Compacting Concrete” represent a state of the art

document. The proposed specifications and related test methods are

intend to facilitate standardization at European level for ready-mixed

and site mixed concrete. These Guidelines and specifications were

prepared by a project group comprising five European Federations

dedicated to the promotion of advanced materials, and systems for the

supply and use of concrete. This approach encourages increased

acceptance and utilization of SCC. “The European Guidelines for Self

Compacting Concrete” defines SCC and many of the technical terms

used to describe its properties and use. It also provides information on

associated constituent materials used, standards related to mix

proportions and testing in the production of SCC, providing

reassurance to designers on compliance of SCC on durability and

other engineering properties of hardened concrete. The guidelines

60

given for arriving trial mix proportions simplifies the mix design

procedure of SCC.They also cover specific and important requirements

regarding the site preparation, testing and methods of placing.

2.49 Wenzhong Zhu and Peter JM Bartos (2005) [102] The area of

interest was interfacial transition Zone (ITZ) between cement paste

and aggregates or reinforcement, its significant influence on

engineering properties and durability of concrete or cementations

composites being widely recognized. There are general concerns that

the ITZ around steel bars and coarse aggregate in structural SCC

could be radically different from those in conventional concrete by

considering the different characteristics in particle packing and the

highly flowable and vibration-free packing nature of SCC. Results of

non indentation method appeared to indicate that the ITZ was denser

and significantly more uniform in SCC than in conventional concrete.

2.50 Zia P, Nanez R.A, Mata L.A. and Dwairi H.M. (2005) [103]

The first experience of using self-consolidating concrete for pre-

stressed concrete bridge girders in North Carolina is studied by

authors. It is a multi-span bridge which is under construction in

eastern North Carolina and will use one hundred thirty AASHTO Type

III girders, each 54.8 ft (16.7m) long.

By using different mineral admixtures like fly ash, GGBS, silica

fume, Rice husk ash and their combinations with proper

proportioning of the constituent material SCC of acceptable fresh

properties can be developed. The high powder content in SCC

contributes to long-term strength and durability because of

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continuous hydrating system of the concrete. The high amount of

SiO2, most of which is in amorphous form makes RHA a pozzolanic

material. Finely ground RHA with fineness of 16000 sq.cm/gm and

above improves the microstructure of the interfacial transition zone

(ITZ) between the cement paste and the aggregate in SCC. The

addition of large quantities of RHA greatly influenced the fresh

concrete properties like filling, passing abilities and segregation

resistance of SCC. There is no significant difference in the elastic

modulus, creep and shrinkage of SCC from the corresponding

properties of normal concrete. The moduli of elasticity in fly ash

concretes with and without RHA are slightly low.

The procedures used for selecting the combination of viscosity

modifying agent, superplasticizer and ultra fine powders for SCC was

studied by authors. By using appropriate material properties the

amount of aggregates, binders and mixing water, as well as type and

dosage of super plasticizer (SP) to be used are determined. Also by

using appropriate guidelines trial mix proportions of SCC can be

developed. SCC has a promising future in prefabrication. The benefits

include the complete elimination of vibration needed for compaction,

reduction in cost, improvement of the factory environment, extension

of the life of the moulds and good surface finishes that reduce the

need for manual finishing.

It is ideally situated for the concreting structures wherein the

access for concreting is difficult due to heavily congested

reinforcement. In recent years SCC is widely used at all places where

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congestion of reinforcement is present and where shapes of

reinforcement are complicated for placing and compaction. SCC was

used in a condenser cooling water pump house at Tarapur Atomic

power project 3&4, Nuclear power Corporation of India Ltd. (NPICL).

2.51 Anirwan Senguptha and Manu Santhanam (2006)[7]

produced six different consistency classes of SCC as per EFNARC-

2005 in the laboratory using locally available materials. All mixes

satisfied the criteria set forth by EFNARC, and showed good passing

ability and segregation to resistance. To get SCC of high flow

combined with stability, higher powder contents are needed. The

higher powder content mixtures also resulted in the highest

compressive strengths.

2.52 Debashis Das, Gupta V.K. and Kaushik S.K. (2006) [22]

They investigated how to develop SCC to study the effect of maximum

size and volume of coarse aggregate on the properties of SCC. Overall

twelve mixtures were investigated and the water-powder ratio was

kept fixed throughout the programme. But successive replacement of

coarse aggregate was adopted to achieve self-compacting properties.

Even these properties can be achieved for a very high percentage of

sand content (that is up to 85%). According to them the self-

compacting concrete can also be developed without using any

viscosity modifying agent by using maximum size of the coarse

aggregate. As the size increases the tendency of the mix to segregate

increases. Finally the results conveys that best-compacting properties

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are obtained for a sand content of 70% and a coarse aggregate content

of 30% of the total aggregate.

2.53 Gauld, Jasen (2006) [26] pointed out that the latent hydraulic

binder that can be used in conjunction with cement is GGBS to

produce Portland-slag or blast furnace cements. The material is an

ideal choice in both general and specialized concretes due to the

merits of GGBS within concrete. The concretes that replace certain

levels of cement with GGBS when compared with a concrete that

solely uses cement are characterized by a greater resistance to sulfate

attack, reduced chloride ion diffusion,lower early-age temperature rise

and benefits from longer-term strength development.

2.54 J.Annie,N. Lakshmanan & P. Devadas Manoharan (2006)[33]

made a comparison between SCC and conventionally vibrated cement

concrete having similar strength is done. Six double under-reamed

piles having a diameter of 250 mm and a length of 4 m, three made

of SCC and three of conventionally vibrated cement concrete, were

cast and tested to evaluate their static behavior in axial compression

and tension (pullout). The ductile provisions like envisage lap length,

anchorage length, and increased number of lateral ties at various

locations would lead to increased reinforcement and hence SCC would

be a preferred option for structural elements. The place where SCC

can be used with confidence is under-reamed piles. Also the surface

finish of SCC piles was excellent without any signs of segregation or

presence of honey combs.

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2.55 Naveen Kumar C. Jagadish V and Ranganath R.V. (2006) [58]

Discussed the successful use of fillers other than fly ash in self

compacting concrete. The available literature has been reviewed to

bring out the advantages of such fillers when used in SCC.

Experimental studies were done with fly ash, metakaolin and their

blends as fillers in SCC.The result shows that SCC can be produced

with cement content, as low as 200 Kg/m3 of concrete along with fly

ash as rest of the powder. High strength SCC can be obtained by

incorporation of metakaolin. With different fillers like silica fume and

metakaolin a high early strength mix of around 50-70MPa can be

achieved. It is also observed that as long as the paste volume

constituted by the powder and water is kept unaltered, SCC can be

obtained for widely differing flyash contents or cement contents.

Finally the experimental study reports that fly ash can be used in

large quantities in SCC and cement can be reduced to 200 kg.

2.56 Saeed Ahmed, Imran A., Bukari and Sajjad Afzal (2006) [82]

As per their studies eight reinforced concrete beams with web

reinforcement were cast to get more knowledge about the properties

of fresh and hardened SCC. Test variable is shear span to effective

depth ratio (a/d). Two sets of four beams were cast for ordinary

concrete and SCC separately. Based on their experimental

investigations they concluded that the concrete strength of SCC and

normal concrete are almost similar under comparable conditions.

Under similar conditions, ordinary concrete beams showed greater

deflection as compared to the SCC beams however this difference

65

was more at higher shear span to depth ratios. With increase in shear

span to depth ratio equal to 4, a gradual increase in relative flexural

strength of the beams was observed in case of ordinary concrete

beams, where as for higher values of a/d ratio relative flexural

strength increased at a higher rate.

They also observed the structural behavior properties of SCC

and FRSCC members such as spacing of cracks, number of cracks,

crack pattern load-deflection characteristics, crack-widths, ultimate

load-carrying capacity, moments-curvature relationship, longitudinal

strain in both concrete and steel and are compared with conventional

concrete(CVC) properties. It was found that in CVC beams there is no

drop in load with increased deformation while in SCC beams there is a

drop in load with increased deformation. Also observed that the peak

and failure loads were nearly the same for CVC beams. The average

crack widths of both the types of beams were compared. Crack

spacing in both cases were almost same but finally addition of fibers

enhanced the ductility significantly in FRSCC.

2.57 Tahir Kibriya (2006) [93] His investigations aim was to evaluate

the properties of high strength SCC made from blended cements using

rice husk ash (RHA), Portland cement, natural aggregates and sand.

Wide range investigations were carried out to study the mechanical

behaviour and permeability for various mixes for compressive

strengths of 60N/mm2, 80N/mm2 and 100N/mm2. The results were

observed to be higher for concrete with 50% Portland cement blended

with 50% rice husk ash by about 4 to 9% than the control specimen.

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Better sulphate and acid resistance, higher elastic moduli and

reduced permeabilities were observed.

2.58 A. Ahmadi,O. Alidoust, I. Sadrinejad et al (2007) [1] studied

using waste materials like rice husk ash (RHA), the cost of materials

used in concrete production decreases. RHA has been used as a

highly reactive pozzolanic material to improve the micro structure of

the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between the cement paste and the

aggregate in SCC. According to the researchers RHA provides a

positive effect on the mechanical properties at age beyond 60 days

with 20% replacement of cement by RHA.

2.59 N.R.D. Murthy, D.R.Seshu and M.V.S.Rao (2007) [56] The

stress-strain behaviour of fly ash concrete with steel fibres in ordinary

grade M30 concrete is studied by the authors. Cement was replaced

by fly ash up to 40% at regular intervals of 10%. Improvement in

ductile behavior was observed in concrete with fly ash and steel. To

predict the behaviour of such concrete under compression an

empirical equation has been proposed and the empirical equation

proposed is in the form Y = A X / (1 + B X2),where A,B are the

constants in ascending and descending portion of stress-strain curve .

The proposed equation showed a good correlation with experimental

values and the energy absorption capacity has also shown an increase

up to when cement was replaced by fly ash up to 30%.

2.60 A. Sadr Momtazi et al (2008)[8] Different SCC mixes with

various amounts of Rice-Husk Ash were tested with the Slump-Flow

test, L-Box test,V-Funnel test to evaluate bleeding, resistance to

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segregation and workability. The results showed higher compressive

strength in SCC, whereas shrinkage does not differ when compared

with normal concrete, but the properties like Modulus of Elasticity

and Poisson's ratio were almost higher in SCC. The samples were

cured in different environmental conditions such as water, humid and

air.

2.61 K. Ganesh Babu and P. Dinakar (2008) [36] mentioned that the

percentage replacement of pozzolana is the basic parameter in

deciding the amount of water for good flow but not the super

plasticizer. It was observed that in the case of fly ash there was a

continuous increase of flow with increase in the percentage, whereas

in case of ground granulated blast furnace slag and silica fume there

was an optimum percentage beyond which there was a decrease in the

flow. For both GGBS and silica fume the highest flowability that can

be achieved is around 45% and 10% respectively. Also, compressive

strength variation was also observed with water to binder ratio of all

pastes (for 2 % super plasticizer dosage) resulting in strengths of

around 20 to 80 MPa for the different paste mixtures, which serves as

a guideline for the strength of different concretes under investigation.

2.62 Malathy R., Govindasamy T. (2007) [45] Design mixes of SCC

for different grades varying from M20 to M60 were considered by

authors to study flow properties and strength properties. Various tests

were conducted to study the flow properties such as passing ability,

filling ability, viscosity and segregation resistance and compaction

factor. Different charts have been developed for obtaining quantity of

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cement, fly ash and coarse aggregate required for different grades of

SCC. It is found that the flow properties of developed SCC for various

grades are satisfying the recommended values. The segregation

resistance is also good. The difference between the tensile strength of

SCC and normal concrete is very negligible. It is also observed that the

relationship between compressive and split tensile designed SCC

mixes is obeying power law similar to normal concrete.

2.63 M. Sonebi and P. J. M. Bartos (2007)[42] discussed at length

about the investigations carried out on fresh properties of self-

compacting concrete, such as filling ability (measured by slump flow

and flow time) and plastic fresh settlement measured in a column.

Various combinations of fine inorganic powders and admixtures were

incorporated in the SCC mixes. The results on SCCs were compared

with the normal mix. Apart from compressive strength and splitting

tensile strength of SCCs the effects of water/powder ratio, slump and

nature of the sand on the fresh settlement were also evaluated. They

concluded that with the increase in water/powder ratio and slump,

the settlement of fresh self-compacting concrete increased, also the

nature of sand influenced the maximum settlement.

2.64 Ravindra Gettu (2008) [77] In some pioneering applications of

SCC, where the experience has led to a better understanding of the

merits and limitations of the associated technology is highlighted by

the author. The applications considered for study are prefabricated

elements, tunnel linings and the framed structure of a residential

building and the repair of roof girders. It is found that by the usage of

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SCC in prefabricated elements, the major benefits in terms of the

noise, vibration reduction and lower wear and- tear of the moulds and

faster production times are observed, whereas in the residential

construction, SCC can be used beneficially in the construction of

piles, pile caps, beams, columns and slabs. The possibility of

achieving high strength as well as good flow behavior in the

construction of a tunnel lining resulted in a slender lining with an 80-

MPa strength

2.65 Shobha.M (2007) [88] Several studies are done on SCC and the

use of admixtures in it. The main objective of her study is to

investigate the effect of maximum size of aggregate on the fresh and

hardened properties of SCC. The compressive strength of SCC in

which 20% of sand replaced by GGBS and with maximum aggregate

size of 20mm is good at an early age of 7 days. The Ultra Pulse

Velocity values of all SCC mixes are found to be greater. Hence the

mixes posses excellent general conditions i.e. minimum cracks, good

concrete strength and excellent uniformity.

2.66 T. Suresh Babu, M.V. S.Rao & D. Rama Seshu [2008] [98] Glass

Fibre Reinforced Self Compacting Concrete was developed and an

attempt has been made to study mechanical properties and stress-

strain behaviour of self compacting concrete and glass fibre reinforced

self compacting concrete. A strength based mix proportion of self

compacting concrete was arrived based on Nan-Su method of mix

design and the proportion was fine tuned by using Okamura’s

guidelines. Five self compacting concrete mixes with different mineral

70

admixtures like fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag and rice

husk ash were taken for investigation with and without incorporating

glass fibres. A marginal improvement in the ultimate strength was

observed due to the addition of glass fibres to the self compacting

concrete mix. Also incorporation of glass fibres had enhanced the

ductility of self compacting concrete. Complete Stress-Strain

behaviour has been presented and an empirical equation is proposed

to predict the behaviour of such concrete under compression.

2.67 Michele Valente, Michele Vigneri, Marco Bressan, Alessandro

Pasqualini, Sebastiano Bianchini [41]

According to them the use of the pozzolanic activity index

characterizes the efficiency of fly ash. Although the factor of efficiency

can be defined for any concrete property, their study will refer

specifically the compressive strength and the permeability to

chlorides. The effects of fly ash on the concrete’s properties were

described using the efficiency factor. In their study the fly ash

efficiency factor was referred to two very important concrete

properties: compressive strength and permeability to chlorides. The

variability of aforesaid efficiency factors depends on cement content,

fly ash content and age of concrete. The experimental data obtained in

their study show that the efficiency factors suggested by European

standards are much lower, especially when referred to 56-90 days

aged concrete.