chapter 2: historical & metatheoretical perspectives on motivation notes from class textbook:...
TRANSCRIPT
![Page 1: Chapter 2: Historical & Metatheoretical Perspectives on Motivation Notes from class textbook: Pintrich, P.R., & Schunk, D.H. (1996). Motivation in Education:](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649d215503460f949f6aab/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Chapter 2: Historical & Metatheoretical Perspectives on Motivation
Notes from class textbook:
Pintrich, P.R., & Schunk, D.H. (1996). Motivation in Education: Theory, Research, & Applications. Englewood Cliff, NJ: Prentice Hall.
![Page 2: Chapter 2: Historical & Metatheoretical Perspectives on Motivation Notes from class textbook: Pintrich, P.R., & Schunk, D.H. (1996). Motivation in Education:](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649d215503460f949f6aab/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
Behavioral Theories
• View motivation as a change in the rate, frequency of occurrence, or form of behavior
• Function of environmental events and stimuli
• Reinforcing consequences make behavior more likely to occur
• Punishing consequences make behavior less likely to occur
![Page 3: Chapter 2: Historical & Metatheoretical Perspectives on Motivation Notes from class textbook: Pintrich, P.R., & Schunk, D.H. (1996). Motivation in Education:](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649d215503460f949f6aab/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
Cognitive Theories
• Stress mental structures and the processing of information and beliefs
• View motivation is an internal process -- we cannot observe it directly
• Disagree on which specific processes are important
• Processes: attributions, perceptions of competence, values, affects, goals, social comparisons
![Page 4: Chapter 2: Historical & Metatheoretical Perspectives on Motivation Notes from class textbook: Pintrich, P.R., & Schunk, D.H. (1996). Motivation in Education:](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649d215503460f949f6aab/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
Early Views of Motivation
• Volition/Will
• Instincts
![Page 5: Chapter 2: Historical & Metatheoretical Perspectives on Motivation Notes from class textbook: Pintrich, P.R., & Schunk, D.H. (1996). Motivation in Education:](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649d215503460f949f6aab/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
Volition/Will
• Mind comprised of knowing (cognition), feeling (emotion), and willing (motivation)
• Wundt introduced method of introspection -- required subjects to verbally report their immediate experiences following exposure to objects or events.
• Is volition an independent process or a by-product of other mental processes?
![Page 6: Chapter 2: Historical & Metatheoretical Perspectives on Motivation Notes from class textbook: Pintrich, P.R., & Schunk, D.H. (1996). Motivation in Education:](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649d215503460f949f6aab/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
Volition according to Wundt
• A central, independent factor in human behavior
• Presumably accompanies such processes as sensation, perception, attention, and formation of mental associations
• Helps translate our thoughts and feelings into action
![Page 7: Chapter 2: Historical & Metatheoretical Perspectives on Motivation Notes from class textbook: Pintrich, P.R., & Schunk, D.H. (1996). Motivation in Education:](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649d215503460f949f6aab/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
Freud’s Theory
• Motivation is psychical energy
• Forces within the individual are responsible for behavior
• “Moving force”
• Psychical energy builds up and develops when needs exist
• Energy can be repressed
![Page 8: Chapter 2: Historical & Metatheoretical Perspectives on Motivation Notes from class textbook: Pintrich, P.R., & Schunk, D.H. (1996). Motivation in Education:](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649d215503460f949f6aab/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
Conditioning Theories
• Connectionism
• Classical conditioning
• Operant conditioning
![Page 9: Chapter 2: Historical & Metatheoretical Perspectives on Motivation Notes from class textbook: Pintrich, P.R., & Schunk, D.H. (1996). Motivation in Education:](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649d215503460f949f6aab/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
Connectionism
• Thorndike (1913)
• Learning involves formation of associations (connections) between sensory experiences (perceptions of stimuli or events) & neural impulses that manifest themselves behaviorally
• Law of Effect is central principal
![Page 10: Chapter 2: Historical & Metatheoretical Perspectives on Motivation Notes from class textbook: Pintrich, P.R., & Schunk, D.H. (1996). Motivation in Education:](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649d215503460f949f6aab/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
Law of Effect
• When a modifiable connection between a situation and a response is made and is accompanied by a satisfying state of affairs, that connection’s strength is increased.
![Page 11: Chapter 2: Historical & Metatheoretical Perspectives on Motivation Notes from class textbook: Pintrich, P.R., & Schunk, D.H. (1996). Motivation in Education:](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649d215503460f949f6aab/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
Law of Effect
• When a modifiable connection between a situation and a response is made and is accompanied by an annoying state of affairs, that connection’s strength is decreased.
![Page 12: Chapter 2: Historical & Metatheoretical Perspectives on Motivation Notes from class textbook: Pintrich, P.R., & Schunk, D.H. (1996). Motivation in Education:](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649d215503460f949f6aab/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
Classical Conditioning
• Pavlov (1927, 1928)
• Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) & unconditioned response (UCR)
• Conditioned stimulus (CS) & conditioned response (CR)
![Page 13: Chapter 2: Historical & Metatheoretical Perspectives on Motivation Notes from class textbook: Pintrich, P.R., & Schunk, D.H. (1996). Motivation in Education:](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649d215503460f949f6aab/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
Pavlov’s DogStage 1
UCS UCR
![Page 14: Chapter 2: Historical & Metatheoretical Perspectives on Motivation Notes from class textbook: Pintrich, P.R., & Schunk, D.H. (1996). Motivation in Education:](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649d215503460f949f6aab/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
Pavlov’s DogStage 2 -- Repeated Trials
UCS
UCR
CS
![Page 15: Chapter 2: Historical & Metatheoretical Perspectives on Motivation Notes from class textbook: Pintrich, P.R., & Schunk, D.H. (1996). Motivation in Education:](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649d215503460f949f6aab/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
Pavlov’s DogStage 3 -- Final Result
CRCS
![Page 16: Chapter 2: Historical & Metatheoretical Perspectives on Motivation Notes from class textbook: Pintrich, P.R., & Schunk, D.H. (1996). Motivation in Education:](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649d215503460f949f6aab/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
Operant Conditioning• Skinner (1953)
• Stimulus Response Consequence
• Reinforcement -- increases the rate or likelihood of responding
• Punishment -- decreases the rate or likelihood of responding
![Page 17: Chapter 2: Historical & Metatheoretical Perspectives on Motivation Notes from class textbook: Pintrich, P.R., & Schunk, D.H. (1996). Motivation in Education:](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649d215503460f949f6aab/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
Reinforcement
Present Positive Reinforcer Increases Response
Remove Negative Reinforcer Increases Response
![Page 18: Chapter 2: Historical & Metatheoretical Perspectives on Motivation Notes from class textbook: Pintrich, P.R., & Schunk, D.H. (1996). Motivation in Education:](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649d215503460f949f6aab/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
Punishment
Present NegativeReinforcer
Decreases Response
Remove Positive Reinforcer
Decreases Response
![Page 19: Chapter 2: Historical & Metatheoretical Perspectives on Motivation Notes from class textbook: Pintrich, P.R., & Schunk, D.H. (1996). Motivation in Education:](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649d215503460f949f6aab/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
Applying Conditioning in the Classroom
• Ensure that students have the readiness to learn
• Help students form associations between stimuli & responses
• Associate learning & classroom activities with pleasing outcomes
![Page 20: Chapter 2: Historical & Metatheoretical Perspectives on Motivation Notes from class textbook: Pintrich, P.R., & Schunk, D.H. (1996). Motivation in Education:](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649d215503460f949f6aab/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
Applying Conditioning in the Classroom (…continued)
• Reinforce desired behaviors & extinguish undesired ones
• Reinforce progress in learning & behavior
• Make participation at valued activities contingent on working on less-valued ones
![Page 21: Chapter 2: Historical & Metatheoretical Perspectives on Motivation Notes from class textbook: Pintrich, P.R., & Schunk, D.H. (1996). Motivation in Education:](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649d215503460f949f6aab/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
Drive Theories -- Emphasized the contribution of internal factors (drives) to behavior. Drives are internal forces that seek to maintain homeostasis, or the optimal states of bodily mechanisms.
• Woodworth’s theory
• Systematic behavior theory
• Incentive motivation
• Mowrer’s theory
• Acquired drives
![Page 22: Chapter 2: Historical & Metatheoretical Perspectives on Motivation Notes from class textbook: Pintrich, P.R., & Schunk, D.H. (1996). Motivation in Education:](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649d215503460f949f6aab/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
Purposive Behaviorism -- Stresses the goal directedness of behavior. Environmental stimuli are means to goal attainment & must be studied in the context of behavioral sequences to understand people’s actions.
• Expectancy learning
• Latent learning
![Page 23: Chapter 2: Historical & Metatheoretical Perspectives on Motivation Notes from class textbook: Pintrich, P.R., & Schunk, D.H. (1996). Motivation in Education:](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649d215503460f949f6aab/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
Arousal Theories -- Look at motivation in terms of level of emotional arousal. Deal with behaviors, emotions, & other internal mechanisms. Motivation depends strongly on affective processes (as opposed to cognitive or behavioral processes.)
• James-Lange theory• Optimal level of arousal• Applying arousal theories in the classroom• Schachter’s theory of emotion
![Page 24: Chapter 2: Historical & Metatheoretical Perspectives on Motivation Notes from class textbook: Pintrich, P.R., & Schunk, D.H. (1996). Motivation in Education:](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649d215503460f949f6aab/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
Applying Arousal Theories in the Classroom:
• Maintain student motivation at an optimal level; avoid periods of boredom & high anxiety
• Incorporate novelty & incongruity into teaching & student activities
• Develop in students positive emotions about learning rather than uncertainty
![Page 25: Chapter 2: Historical & Metatheoretical Perspectives on Motivation Notes from class textbook: Pintrich, P.R., & Schunk, D.H. (1996). Motivation in Education:](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649d215503460f949f6aab/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
Field Theory
• Every psychological event depends upon the state of the person and at the same time on the environment
• The person and environment constitute the individual’s life space
• Motivation represents the individual’s efforts to satisfy needs and impose homeostasis on the field
![Page 26: Chapter 2: Historical & Metatheoretical Perspectives on Motivation Notes from class textbook: Pintrich, P.R., & Schunk, D.H. (1996). Motivation in Education:](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649d215503460f949f6aab/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
Cognitive Consistency --
Address the cognitions people have & how these cognitions affect behavior.
• Balance theory
• Cognitive dissonance
![Page 27: Chapter 2: Historical & Metatheoretical Perspectives on Motivation Notes from class textbook: Pintrich, P.R., & Schunk, D.H. (1996). Motivation in Education:](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649d215503460f949f6aab/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
Trait Theory -- Allport’s Functional Autonomy of Motives• People were best viewed as unique systems constantly evolving & striving towards goals• Traits are part of system but are idiosyncratic & can be studied only with references to
particular individuals• Traits are unique realities within individuals that help to account for the relative consistency of
behavior across situations
![Page 28: Chapter 2: Historical & Metatheoretical Perspectives on Motivation Notes from class textbook: Pintrich, P.R., & Schunk, D.H. (1996). Motivation in Education:](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649d215503460f949f6aab/html5/thumbnails/28.jpg)
Humanistic Theory -- Emphasizes people’s capabilities & potentialities. Stresses that individuals have choices & seek control over their lives. Does not explain behavior in terms of unconscious, powerful inner forces and does not focus on environmental stimuli & responses as determinants of behavior
• Rogers’s client-centered therapy– Actualizing tendency
– Need for positive regard
![Page 29: Chapter 2: Historical & Metatheoretical Perspectives on Motivation Notes from class textbook: Pintrich, P.R., & Schunk, D.H. (1996). Motivation in Education:](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649d215503460f949f6aab/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
Assumptions of Humanistic Theories
• The study of humans is holistic -- we must understand their behaviors, thoughts, & feelings. Emphasis is on individuals’ subjective awareness of themselves & their situations
• Human choices, creativity, & self-actualization are important areas to study
• It is better to study an important problem with a less refined methodology than a trivial problem with a complex methodology
![Page 30: Chapter 2: Historical & Metatheoretical Perspectives on Motivation Notes from class textbook: Pintrich, P.R., & Schunk, D.H. (1996). Motivation in Education:](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649d215503460f949f6aab/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
Applying Humanistic Theories in the Classroom• Show positive regard for students
• Separate students from their actions; accept them for who they are rather than for how they act
• Encourage personal growth by providing students with choices & opportunities to initiate learning activities & establish goals
• Use contracts & allow students to evaluate their learning
• Facilitate learning by providing students with resources & encouragement
![Page 31: Chapter 2: Historical & Metatheoretical Perspectives on Motivation Notes from class textbook: Pintrich, P.R., & Schunk, D.H. (1996). Motivation in Education:](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649d215503460f949f6aab/html5/thumbnails/31.jpg)
Metatheoretical Models and Metaphors
• Mechanistic model
• Organismic model
• Contextual model
![Page 32: Chapter 2: Historical & Metatheoretical Perspectives on Motivation Notes from class textbook: Pintrich, P.R., & Schunk, D.H. (1996). Motivation in Education:](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649d215503460f949f6aab/html5/thumbnails/32.jpg)
Mechanistic Model
• Assumes that the laws of natural science are the basic laws in the world & that everything is reducible to them
• Reductionistic -- Complex events can be reduced to simpler phenomena
• Additive because complex phenomena represent the summations of many basic phenomena
• Stresses the environment
![Page 33: Chapter 2: Historical & Metatheoretical Perspectives on Motivation Notes from class textbook: Pintrich, P.R., & Schunk, D.H. (1996). Motivation in Education:](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649d215503460f949f6aab/html5/thumbnails/33.jpg)
Organismic Model
• Assumes that changes in organisms often are qualitative & cannot be reduced to previous behavior
• Changes can emerge suddenly (like in human development)
• Metaphor: a living, growing organism like a plant. Course of growth is uneven.
• Emphasizes the individual
![Page 34: Chapter 2: Historical & Metatheoretical Perspectives on Motivation Notes from class textbook: Pintrich, P.R., & Schunk, D.H. (1996). Motivation in Education:](https://reader036.vdocuments.site/reader036/viewer/2022062515/56649d215503460f949f6aab/html5/thumbnails/34.jpg)
Contextual Model
• Contends that environmental conditions play a greater role in change than organismic ones
• Metaphor: A historical event -- does not operate in isolation; to understand events, one must know something about the dispositions of the principal individuals involved & the situation prevailing at the time
• Places importance on the individual in relation to, or in dynamic interaction with, the environment