Chapter 1: Understanding Our Environment• What is Environmental Science?

• A brief history of conservation and Environmentalism: Historic roots of nature protection - pragmatic resource conservation - moral and aesthetic nature preservation - modern environmentalism - global concerns

• Current Conditions: A marvelous planet - environmental dilemmas - signs of hope

• North/South a divided world: world bank estimates - rich and poor countries - fair share resources - north/south division - political economies

• Human Development: United Nations Human Development Index (HDI) - developmental discrepancies - good and bad news - sustainable development - The 20:20 compact for human development - Indigenous people

• Environmental Perspectives: Pessimism and outrage - optimism

What Is Environmental Science?

1. Environment:

• From the French environner: to encircle or surround. - The circumstances or conditions that surround an organism or

group of organisms, OR - The complex of social or cultural conditions that affect an

individual or community.

Since humans inhabit the natural world as well as the "built" or technological, social, and cultural world, all constitute importantparts of our environment.

2. Environmental Science:

• Systematic study of our environment and our proper place in it. • Highly interdisciplinary, integrating natural sciences, social sciences, and humanities in a broad, holistic study of the worldaround us. • Mission-oriented, problem solving science.

- Seeks new knowledge about (and impacts of humans on) the natural world.

- Identifies solutions to environmental problems. These solutions often involve human social systems as

well as natural science.

A Brief History of Conservation & Environmentalism

A. Historic Roots of Nature Protection

Although many early societies had negative impacts on their surroundings, others lived in relative harmony. Recognizing humanmisuse of nature, however, is not unique to modern times.

Plato (4th century B.C.) wrote about how the people of Greece turned their country into a "skeleton of a body wasted bydisease".

"The problems that overwhelm us today are precisely those we failed to solve decades ago." M.K. Tolba (1990’s), formerExecutive Director of the United Nations Environment Programme.

Some of earliest scientific studies of environmental damage were carried out in the eighteenth century by French and Britishcolonial administrators who often were trained administrators.

• Stephen Hales (British) -- suggested conservation of green plants preserved rainfall (1764). • Pierre Poiver (French) -- developed forest reserves on island of Mauritius (1769).

B. Pragmatic Resource ConservationGeorge Perkin Marsh -- Man and Nature (1864) • Warned of ecological damage from destruction of forest

resources • Establishment of National Forest Reserves (1873) Utilitarian ConservationTheodore Roosevelt and Gifford Pinchot (circa 1905) • Framework for national forest, park, and refuge system. • Pinchot promoted the conservation of natural resources to provide for the "greatest good, for the greatest number (ofpeople) for the longest time". • "The first principle of conservation is development and use of the natural resources now existing on this continent for thebenefit of the people who live here now. There may be just as much waste in neglecting the development and use ofcertain natural resources as there is in their destruction". (Pinchot) [forest service approach]

C. Moral and Aesthetic Nature Preservation

Preserving nature on the basis of moral and aesthetic values has been termed biocentric preservation "The world, we are told, was made for man. A presumption that is totally unsupported by the facts...Nature's object in making animals and plants might possibly be first of all the happiness of each one of them. ... Why ought man to value himself as more than an infinitely small unit of the one great unit of creation?" John Muir, geologist, author and first president of theSierra Club.

• Nature deserves to exist for its own sake • National Park Service (est. 1916) approach • Often at odds with Utilitarian Conservation approach of the Forest Service.

D. Modern Environmentalism

Modern industrial expansion and development of domestic and defense-related chemicals during and after the Second WorldWar created a new set of environmental problems.

Rachel Carson , Silent Spring (1962), wrote about chemical pollution and the threats posed to humans and other species.

Her warnings awakened the public and engendered a movement of environmentalism, extending previous concerns to includeboth environmental resources and pollution.

Techniques of modern environmentalism include: • Activists • Litigation • Intervention in regulatory process • Use of mass media • Promotion of scientific research

Environmental agenda has expanded to include issues such as:

• human population growth • atomic weapons testing • atomic power • fossil fuel extraction and use • recycling • air and water pollution • and others. . .

E. Global Concerns

The movement of global environmentalism recognizes that we must be concerned with the life support systems of the whole planet.

Leaders of this movement have been central in bringing global issues to the forefront of the public's attention. The 1992 U.N "Earth Summit" was an excellent example of international cooperation and awareness of the need for global environmentalism.

Current Conditions:

A Marvelous Planet

We are fortunate to live in a beautiful, prolific, agreeable world. It willtake care and hard work to keep it this way.

We should ask ourselves: what is our proper place in nature? What oughtwe do and what can we do to protect the irreplaceable habitat thatproduced and supports us?

The following are some of the central questions of environmental science:

Environmental Dilemmas

• Human population growth - 6 billion now; as many as 25 billion within next century - Can we support on a sustainable basis this many people? • Food shortages and famines • Water deficits and contamination • Fuel and energy use • Destruction of tropical forests, coral reefs, wetlands, etc. - Loss of biological variety and abundance • Toxic air and water pollutants • Hazardous wastes

These and other similarly serious problems illustrate the importance of environmental science and environmental education foreveryone.

Signs of Hope

In spite of the seemingly overwhelming problems, progress has been made in many areas that provide signs of hope for thefuture of our global environment.

North/South: A Divided World

We live in a world of haves and have-nots; a few of us live in increasing luxury while many others lack the basic necessities fora decent, healthy, productive life.

World Bank Estimates:

• 20% of human population lives in acute poverty (70% of them are women and children).

• Poor forced to meet short-term survival needs at expense of long-term sustainability.

Generally, "environmental quality" is perceived as access to adequate diet and housing, basic sanitation, clean water, education,and medical care.

In this case, then, the richest countries in the world have the best environmental quality.

Rich and Poor Countries

Average Indicators for Quality of Life:

Indicator: 10 Poorest: 10 Richest: GNP/capita $170 $29,946 Life expectancy 47.4 yr 77.9 yr Infant mortality 114/1,000 5.7/1,000 Child deaths (<5 yrs) 194/1,000 7.5/1,000 Safe drinking water 42% close to 100% Female literacy 38% 97% Birth Rate 45.2/1,000 11.4/1,000

10 poorest: Mozambique, Tanzania, Ethiopia, Congo, Malawi, Rwanda, Chad, Sierra Leone, Nepal, and Niger.10 richest: Switzerland, Luxembourg, Japan, Finland, Norway, Sweden, Iceland, U.S., Denmark,

and Canada.

Source: World Resources Institute 1998-99.

Fair share of resources?Many of the poorest countries are those which have the highest levels of cultural and biological diversity (i.e., have much naturalresources to protect).

The richest countries (highest "quality of life") consume the majority of resources and produce the majority of wastes.

The United States (4.5 % of world's population):

Consumes: Produces: 26% of all oil 50% of all toxic wastes 24% of aluminum 26% of nitrogen oxides 20% of copper 25% of sulfur oxides 19% of nickel 22% of chlorofluorocarbons 13% of steel 26% of carbon dioxide

Source: World Resources Institute 1998-99.

North/South Division

In large part the world is divided into North ("haves") and South ("have-nots").

Exceptions are countries like Australia and New Zealand ("haves"), and India, China, and Baltics ("have nots").

Political Economies

• First World: industrialized, market-oriented, democracies of Western Europe, Noth America, Japan, Australia, New Zealand, and their allies.

• Second World: originally included centrally planned, socialist countries, such as former Soviet Union and Eastern European allies, as well as several Asian socialist countries. Most are rapidly changing to market economies.

• Third World: nonaligned, nonindustrial, ex-colonial nations (eg., India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Iran, Syria, and many African countries) self-labeled during the 1960's as third world to show independence from other superpower groups. Typically used now to describe developing countries.

• Fourth World: poorest nations with neither market economies nor central planning, as well as the indigenous communities within wealthy countries.

Human Development

United Nations Human Development Index (HDI)

HDI is an annual report that ranks countries based on average life expectancy, % of literate adults, mean years of schooling, annual income per capita, infant mortality rates, daily calorie supply, child malnutrition and access to clean water.

• HDI ranges from 0 to 1. • The top 20 nations (HDI >0.92) 18 are in North America or Western Europe. • Of the bottom 20 nations (HDI <0.35), 18 are in Africa. The lowest HDI was Sierra Leone (0.19).

Developmental Discrepancies

Aggregate numbers such as the HDI hide many important issues.

• Gender inequities • Race disparities • Regional / Ethnic differences

Good News and Bad News

Over the past fifty years in nearly all areas around the world there have been significant improvements in the overall quality oflife as measured by HDI.

• Global Gross Domestic Product (GDP) increased 10-fold • Higher quality of life - 1960 -- 3/4 of population measured <0.5 HDI - 1999 -- <1/3 below 0.5 HDI • incomes have doubled in developing countries • malnutrition declined by almost one-third • child death rates declined by two-thirds • average life expectancy increased by 30% • significantly higher access to safe drinking water

Nonetheless, the gap between the richest and poorest people worldwide has also increased significantly.

• Income ratio between richest 20% and poorest 20% - 1960 -- 30:1 - 1999 -- 100:1

Sustainable Development

Gro Harlem Brundtland (Norway) UN Report: Our Common Future (1987). Current Director General of the WorldHealth Organization (WHO).

• "Sustainable development means meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs."

Can Development Be Truly Sustainable?

Relationship between sustainable ecology and sustainable economic growth must be recognized. While economic growthmakes possible a more comfortable lifestyle, it doesn't automatically result in a cleaner environment.

The 20:20 Compact for Human Development

(1995 UN Summit for Social Development in Copenhagen)

Goals: • universal primary education (male and female) • adult literacy doubled (females same as males) • eliminate severe malnutrition • availability of family planning services • safe drinking water and sanitation for all • credit for all

Estimated cost: $30-$40 billion per year

Suggested funding comes from the 20:20 formula:

• 20% of aid to developing countries to humanitarian needs (current: 7%) • 20% of developing countries' budgets devoted to human concerns.

Indigenous People

Indigenous homelands harbor more cultural and biological diversity than all the world's nature reserves. . .

Environmental Perspectives

"Answer me one question, are these the shadows of the things that will be or are they shadows of the things that may be only?"Question asked by Scrooge to the Ghost of Christmas Future after seeing the disparity between the rich and poor of London (Dickens, Christmas Carol)

What will be our environmental future and what can we do to shape it? Think about the following worldviews and tacticalpositions as you proceed through the rest of this course.

Pessimism and Outrage

We are faced by a number of very serious environmental problems. It is easy to assume a grim view of our future and approach environmental problems with pessimism and outrage.

Neo-Malthusian approach -- human nature will result in a dismal cycle of overpopulation, misery, vice and starvation.

Optimism

Science and technology have provided many benefits to humanity; they also have caused many difficulties.

Technological optimists believe that human ingenuity and enterprise will find cures for all our problems.