chapter 18: interest groups and public opinion

502

What Do You Think? We like to think thatwe control our own choices from the productswe buy to the candidates we vote for. Thischapter will make you aware of a variety of influ-ences upon people’s opinions and decisions.

To learn more about the influence ofinterest groups, view the Democracy

in Action Chapter 18 video lesson:

Interest Groups and Public Opinion

Chapter Overview Visit the United StatesGovernment: Democracy in Action Web site atgov.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 18—Overviewto preview chapter information.

GOVERNMENT

★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★ ★

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http://www.gov.glencoe.com

CHAPTER 18: INTEREST GROUPS AND PUBLIC OPINION 503

In addition to political parties, Americanshave historically formed a wide variety ofspecial-interest groups. An interest group is agroup of people who share common goals

and organize to influence government. MADD isone special-interest group in the United States.

Many early leaders in the United States be-lieved that interest groups could be harmful to thefunction of government. In The Federalist, No. 10 1

James Madison referred to “factions” as groups ofpeople united to promote special interests thatwere “adverse to the rights of other citizens, or tothe permanent and aggregate interests of thecommunity.” Madison explained that removingthe causes of factions was not as acceptable as re-moving their effects. He believed that the Consti-tution would be a sufficient safeguard against thepotential abuses of these interest groups.

Whether the Constitution has served toeliminate the harmful effects of interest groupsis still a current issue. Today Americans have or-ganized to pressure all levels of governmentthrough interest groups. These groups spendmuch time and money in organized efforts toinfluence officeholders to support laws that the groups feel will be beneficial. Are the activities of these groups “adverse to the rightsof other citizens,” as Madison believed theycould be? Or do interest groups serve an im-portant role in helping people interact withtheir government?

Power of Interest GroupsAlexis de Tocqueville, a French travelerin the United States in the early 1800s

and author of Democracy in America, recog-nized the Americans’ tendency toward groupmembership:

Interest Group OrganizationS e c t i o n 1S e c t i o n 1

MADD Issues GradesDALLAS, TEXAS, APRIL 2001

Mothers Against Drunk Driving (MADD), a

nonprofit organization with 600 chapters

nationwide, has announced its support of House

Bill H.R. 1509 and Senate Bill S. 866, both of which

would establish a “National Media Campaign to

Prevent Underage Drinking.” The bills would pro-

vide money to allow the Department of Health and

Human Services to identify the extent of underage

drinking and create a media campaign to communi-

cate to children and parents the dangers of underage

drinking. The campaign would include radio, televi-

sion, print, and Internet advertisements.

Reader’s Guide

Key Termsinterest group, public-interest group

Find Out■ Why are interest groups powerful agents in

influencing public policy?■ What are the main categories of interest

groups?

Understanding ConceptsCivic Participation Why do you think many peoplechoose not to participate in an interest group?

Demanding rights for the hearing impaired▲

See the following footnoted materials in the Reference Handbook:1. The Federalist, No. 10, pages 812–814.

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“In no country of the world has the princi-ple of association been more successfullyused, or applied to a greater multitude ofobjects, than in America. . . . In the UnitedStates associations are established to pro-mote the public safety, commerce, industry,morality, and religion.”—Alexis de Tocqueville, 1835

Defining Interest Groups Political partiesnominate candidates for office and try to win elec-tions to gain control of the government. Interestgroups may support candidates who favor theirideas, but they do not nominate candidates for of-fice. Instead, interest groups try to influence gov-ernment officials to support certain policies.

Another difference between interest groupsand political parties is that interest groups usuallyare concerned with only a few issues or specificproblems. They do not try to gain members withdifferent points of view. Political parties, on theother hand, are broad-based organizations. Theymust attract the support of many opposing groupsto win elections. They also must consider conflict-ing issues and problems that affect all Americans,not just certain groups.

Finally, most interest groups are organized onthe basis of common values, rather than on geo-graphic location. Political parties elect officials

from geographic areas to represent the interests ofpeople in those areas. National interest groupsunite people with common attitudes from everyregion of the country.

The Purpose of Interest Groups Interestgroups help bridge the gap between the citizen andthe government. Through interest groups, citizenscommunicate their “wants,” or policy goals, to gov-ernment leaders—the president, Congress, citycouncil, or state legislators. When lawmakers beginto address the vital concerns of an interest group,its members swing into action.

Political Power Interest groups follow the oldprinciple, “There is strength in numbers.” By rep-resenting more than one individual, an interestgroup has a stronger bargaining position withleaders in government, but only proportionally.Officials in a small community, for example, willlisten to a 100-member group of citizens organizedinto a “Local Safety Association,” while a large citywould not.

On the state and national levels, an interestgroup draws from the financial resources and ex-pertise of its many members. Organized andequipped with sufficient resources, an interestgroup can exert influence far beyond the power ofits individual members.

Civics Park supporters demon-strate all over the country every yearto raise funds for habitat restora-tion, recycling programs, trail build-ing, and interpretive displayfortification. Analyze why public rallies sometimes swaylawmakers’ opinions more effectively than individual, face-to-face persuasion.

Pleading for Parks

National Parksand ConservationAssociation logo

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Leadership and MembershipInterest group leaders strengthen the politi-cal power of the group by unifying its mem-

bers. They keep members informed of the group’sactivities through newsletters, mailings, and tele-phone calls. They act as speakers for their group andtry to improve its image in the media. They plan the group’s strategy, raise money to run the organi-zation, and oversee all financial decisions of thegroup.

Why do people belong to interest groups? First,a group may help promote an individual’s econom-ic self-interests. For example, a labor union worksto gain higher wages and other benefits for itsmembers. Business groups try to get the govern-ment to pass laws and make decisions that will helpthem increase profits. A senior citizens’ group, suchas the American Association of Retired Persons(AARP), works for higher Social Security benefits.

A second reason for joining a group centers onan individual’s beliefs, values, or attitudes. Manycitizens believe in certain ideas or political princi-ples that they wish to see passed into law. For ex-ample, the Sierra Club and the Farm Bureau bothwork to conserve natural resources and protect theenvironment from pollution. Members want lawspassed requiring clean air and water.

Other reasons are nonpolitical. A person whojoins a farm organization may simply like the com-pany of other farmers. This social function alsohelps create group unity, a vital element in attain-ing the group’s political goals.

Many people, however, do not belong to anyinterest group. Studies have shown that people on lower socioeconomic levels are less likely tojoin such groups. Studies of business organiza-tions and other interest groups also show thatmembership tends to come from upper incomelevels. So, while the opportunity to join togetherto influence government is a right of all, the peo-ple who might benefit most do not often exercisethat right.

Business and Labor GroupsNearly all Americans have economic inter-ests and concerns about taxes, food prices,

housing, inflation, unemployment, and so forth.As a result, many interest groups are concerned

with economic issues. These business and labor interest groups seek to convince lawmakers ofpolicies that they feel will strengthen the economy.

Business-Related Interest Groups Busi-ness interest groups are among the oldest andlargest in the United States. The National Associa-tion of Manufacturers (NAM) works to lower indi-vidual and corporate taxes and limit governmentregulation of business. Another business group—the United States Chamber of Commerce—tendsto speak for smaller businesses. A third group is theBusiness Roundtable, composed of executivesfrom almost 150 of the country’s largest and mostpowerful corporations.

Labor-Related Interest Groups The largestand most powerful labor organization today is the AFL-CIO. Among the many unions in theAFL-CIO are the United Auto Workers (UAW),United Mine Workers (UMW), and the Interna-tional Brotherhood of Teamsters. A separate organization called The Committee on PoliticalEducation (COPE) directs the AFL-CIO’s politicalactivities. COPE’s major goals include fund-rais-ing, voter registration drives, and support for political candidates.

Agricultural Groups Three major interest groups represent al-most 6 million American farmers. The

largest of these groups is the American Farm Bu-reau Federation, which speaks for the larger, moresuccessful farmers and is closely associated withthe federal Department of Agriculture.

The National Farmers’ Union (NFU) draws itsmembership from smaller farmers and favorshigher price supports for crops and livestock. Thegroup has also supported laws protecting migrantfarm workers. The oldest farm group is the Patronsof Husbandry, known as the Grange. Although thisgroup is more of a social organization than an in-terest group, it has been very outspoken in advo-cating price supports for crops.

Just as important are commodity associationsrepresenting groups such as dairy farmers andpotato growers. Congressional subcommitteesdealing with agriculture are organized aroundcommodity lines.


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Other Interest GroupsBesides purely economic interest groups,there are countless other kinds of interest

groups. These range from professional and envi-ronmental organizations to governmental andpublic interest groups.

Professional Associations The AmericanBar Association (ABA) and the American MedicalAssociation (AMA) are two examples of interestgroups that include members of specific profes-sions. Basically, these two groups influence the licensing and training of lawyers and doctors. Pro-fessional associations also represent bankers,teachers, college professors, police officers, andhundreds of other professions. While these associ-ations are concerned primarily with the standardsof their professions, they also seek to influencegovernment policy on issues that are important to them.

Environmental Interest Groups Concernsabout the environment and the impact of environ-mental regulation of private property have led to

the founding of several hundred interest groups,both liberal and conservative. Their goals rangefrom conserving resources to protecting wildlife tohelping farmers and ranchers manage their land.These groups include the American Farm Bureau,the Sierra Club, the National Wildlife Federation,the Paragon Foundation, and Friends of the Earth.

Public-Interest Groups Groups concernedabout the public interest seek policy goals that they believe will benefit American society. Thesepublic-interest groups are not concerned withfurthering the interests of a narrow group of peo-ple. Instead, they claim to work for the interests ofall Americans. For example, Ralph Nader’s PublicCitizen, Inc., devotes itself to consumer and publicsafety issues affecting the general population.Common Cause, founded in 1970, is a public-in-terest group that has tried to reform various aspects of the American political system.

Interest Groups in Government Organiza-tions and leaders within American governmentmay also act as interest groups. Two powerful or-ganizations today are the National Conference of

Contributing to Interest Groups

Membership dues to labor organizations, tradeand professional associations, and certainother groups that influence government may

be deductible expenses on your federal income taxreturn. To a lesser extent, contributions made byyou to such organizations may also be tax de-ductible. In addition, some expenses that resultfrom volunteer work you do for such groups may betax deductible.

The federal tax code allows deduction of cashcontributions and other donations to groups thatare tax-exempt organizations. Generally, these are nonprofit organizations that exist primarily foreducational, charitable, scientific, or religious pur-poses. However, such groups are allowed to do alimited amount of lobbying.

On the other hand,groups that devote a substantial portion of theiractivities to influencing thegovernment do not qualifyas tax-exempt organiza-tions, and contributions tosuch groups usually arenot tax deductible. If youwant to know the tax sta-tus of a group, the Internal Revenue Service Publi-cation 78 lists all tax-exempt organizations.

Research Find out the tax status of a nonprofitorganization in your community. Is the organizationtax exempt? Why do you think it qualifies or doesnot qualify as a tax-exempt organization?

A C T I V I T YA C T I V I T Yarticipating

I N G O V E R N M E N T articipating

I N G O V E R N M E N T

IRS Publication 78on the Web

506

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State Legislators and the National Gov-ernors’Association. State and local gov-ernment officials may seek to influencemembers of Congress or the executivebranch because they want a greatershare of federal aid. Interest groups suchas the National Association of Counties,the Council of State Governments, orthe National League of Cities seek sup-port for policies to benefit cities andstates.

Additional Groups Thousands ofinterest groups have been formed forother reasons. Any list would be inade-quate to illustrate the diverse interests.Some are formed to promote a particu-lar cause. Some groups seek to influencepublic policy while others organize intogroups to support the aims of large segments ofthe population and to protect civil rights.

Foreign governments and private interests offoreign nations also seek to influence government inthe United States. Foreign-interest groups may seekmilitary aid, economic aid, or favorable trade agree-ments. They may make political donations in an ef-fort to sway political decisions. All foreign agentsmust register with the United States government.

The possible influence of foreign donations onthe 1996 presidential election was one target of

Protecting Consumers

congressional hearings on campaign finance in1997. Committee members, led by committeechairperson Senator Fred Thompson, heard alle-gations concerning instances of individuals buyingaccess to top leaders, money laundering of cam-paign donations, and attempts by foreign nationalsto influence the 1996 elections. Both the Democra-tic National Committee and the Republican Na-tional Committee returned some questionabledonations—most of them solicited by agents whohad connections to interests in Asia.

Civic Participation Ralph Nader’s Public Citizen, Inc.,is a consumer advocacy group. Its activities have resultedin a number of consumer protection laws. What difficul-ties might an activist like Nader face in influencinglawmakers?

Civic Participation Create a promotionalbrochure describing an interest group that youwould like to see formed to address some in-terest or concern that you have. Include a de-scription of the concern or interest, goals ofthe group, the kinds of people likely to bemembers of the group, and the methods yourgroup would use to attain its goals.

Checking for Understanding1. Main Idea Use a Venn

diagram like the one to the right to compare the goals of an interest group and a political party.

2. Define interest group, public-interest group.3. Identify factions.4. Why are interest groups more effective in influenc-

ing the government than are individual citizens?5. List six categories of interest groups.6. What are three reasons why citizens join interest

groups?

Critical Thinking7. Analyzing Information Do interest groups help

make representative government truly “govern-ment by the people”? Explain.


Sect ion 1 AssessmentSect ion 1 Assessment

Interest Group

Political Partyboth

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Most interest groups use a variety ofmethods to try to influence publicpolicy. Representatives of the groupcontact government officials directly

in Washington, D.C., or a state capital. Interest orpressure groups may also use television, radio,magazine, and newspaper advertising to createpublic support for their policies. They may evenresort to court action or seek a constitutionalamendment to achieve their goals.

The Work of LobbyistsMost interest groups try to influence gov-ernment policy by making direct contact

with lawmakers or other government leaders. Thisprocess of direct contact is called lobbying be-cause of the practice of approaching senators andrepresentatives in the outer room or lobby of acapitol. The representatives of interest groupswho do this kind of work are called lobbyists.Lobbying is one of the most widely used and ef-fective techniques available to interest groups.

Who Are Lobbyists? In 1995 Congress re-defined lobbyists to mean anyone who was em-ployed or retained by a client, made more thanone contact on behalf of the client, and spentmore than 20 percent of his or her time servingthe client. Why was such a specific definitionnecessary? The new Lobbying Disclosure Act of1995 was intended to close loopholes in the1946 Federal Regulation of Lobbying Act thathad enabled most lobbyists to avoid registeringwith Congress. Before the new legislation onlyabout 6,000 of the more than 13,600 lobbyistswere registered. Unregistered lobbyists avoidedthe close scrutiny needed to prevent illegal in-fluence upon members of Congress.

Currently registered lobbyists must filesemiannual reports with the Clerk of theHouse and the Secretary of the Senate. Thesereports must disclose the issues or legislation

Affecting Public PolicyS e c t i o n 2S e c t i o n 2

Too Many Amendments?NEW YORK, NEW YORK, NOVEMBER 26, 1996

The present practice of turning causes into consti-

tutional amendments is a troubling development,

says political analyst John Leo. The Framers established

a difficult amendment process, Leo notes, because they

wanted amendments to be well-founded, necessary,

and rare. However, an explosion of proposals to change

the Constitution has come from interest groups who

use the process to call attention to

their cause, he says. Pro-

posed amendments

on school prayer, the

budget, an official

language, term limits,

flag burning, abortion,

victims’ rights, and campaign

finance are currently before

Congress. These are all impor-

tant issues, but few are legitimate

constitutional necessities, Leo

observes.

Balancingthe budget

508 CHAPTER 18: INTEREST GROUPS AND PUBLIC OPINION

Reader’s Guide

Key Termslobbying, lobbyist

Find Out■ By what methods do interest groups’ lobbyists

influence policymakers?■ How do political action committees influence

elections?

Understanding ConceptsPublic Policy Why do members of Congress relyon lobbyists to provide them with information?

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being addressed, the government branchesand agencies contacted, and an estimate of theamount of money paid by the client.

What kinds of people are lobbyists? Manylobbyists are former government officials.They usually have friends in Congress and theexecutive branch and know the intricacies ofWashington politics. Lobbying has indeed beenattractive to members of Congress:

“Tempted by the staggering fees that lobbyistscan command, lawmakers and their aidesare quitting in droves to cash in on theirconnections. For many, public service hasbecome a mere internship for a lucrative ca-reer as a hired gun for special interests.”—Time, March 3, 1986

Congress did ban former senators and representa-tives from becoming lobbyists within one year ofleaving office.

Many other lobbyists are lawyers or public relations experts. Understanding the governmentand how it works is vital for a lobbyist to be successful and effective.

Providing Useful Information One of alobbyist’s most important methods of persuasionis to provide policymakers with useful informationthat supports an interest group’s position. Lobby-ists often try to meet personally with members ofCongress or other government officials. Meetingsmay occur in a lawmaker’s office or home, or in amore casual location such as at a favorite restau-rant or on a golf course.

In order to gain support from members ofCongress, lobbyists provide legislators with pam-phlets, reports, statistics, and other kinds of infor-mation. House and Senate rules, however, restrictthe gifts lobbyists may give lawmakers. Senatorsand their staff cannot accept any gift (includingmeals and entertainment) of more than $50 froma lobbyist. The Senate and House also have $100limits on gifts from any single source.

How much do members of Congress rely oninformation presented by lobbyists? Legislators re-alize that lobbyists can be biased in presentingtheir cases. A lobbyist who intentionally misrepre-sents the facts, however, may lose access to the law-maker permanently.

Lobbyists also provide information by testify-ing before congressional committees. Usuallywhen Congress is considering a bill, lobbyists areinvited to testify. For example, lobbyists represent-ing the oil industry may testify before a committeeconsidering legislation to tax oil profits. Finally,when a bill comes to the floor in either house ofCongress, lobbyists continue to work hard to in-fluence lawmakers’ votes.

Drafting Bills Besides providing informationto lawmakers, lobbyists and interest groups mayactually help write bills. Many well-organized in-terest groups have research staffs that help mem-bers of Congress draft proposed laws. Studies haveshown that interest groups and their lobbyistsdraft parts of or entire bills for almost 50 percentof all legislation.

Interest Groups Seek SupportInterest groups run publicity campaigns towin support for their policies. A wide range

of techniques is available to interest groups in theireffort to influence policy makers.


Perception Is Everything WhenLynne Cheney, wife of Vice President DickCheney, decided to work for AmericanExpress, she was criticized by some forcreating a potential conflict of interest: shewas being paid by a corporation that wouldbe lobbying her husband’s administration tovote in its favor on tax and banking issues.Charles Lewis of Washington’s Center forPublic Integrity commented, “It’s a perceptionissue, not a legal one. It doesn’t look so goodif she is out there [chatting] with the captainsof industry who are benefiting from herstature while her husband is deciding policythat might affect these companies.”

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Media Campaigns Interest or pressure groupsuse the mass media—television, newspapers, mag-azines, and radio—to inform the public and to cre-ate support for their views. For example, whenCongress considered changes to the nation’shealth-care system in the 1990s, the American Col-lege of Surgeons used advertising to explain its po-sition on patient choice. Environmentalists haverun television and magazine ads to dramatize pol-lution and the hazards it poses.

Letter Writing Many interest groups urge theirmembers to write letters or e-mails to governmentofficials to demonstrate broad support for oragainst a public policy. For example, the NationalRifle Association can deliver hundreds of thou-sands of letters from its members. While membersof Congress know that the NRA is a powerfulorganization representing many voters, they mustalso take into account the views of other groups.These campaigns make officials aware of an issue,but they do not always produce results.

Limitations The public’s perception of interestgroups is that they are financially and politicallypowerful. How important are these groups in de-termining public policy?

Interest groups do provide representation forAmericans in addition to the representation theyhave in Congress. They allow Americans to be rep-resented according to their economic, social, or oc-cupational interests. Pressure groups also act aswatchdogs and protest government policies thatharm their members.

Several factors limit the effectiveness of inter-est groups. Different interest groups compete forpower and influence, keeping any single groupfrom controlling lawmakers and other public offi-cials. Generally, the larger the group, the more diverse are the interests of its members. This diver-sity has meant that nationally organized interestgroups may be unable to adopt broad policy goals.As a result, smaller interest groups or those thatunite people who have narrower aims have beenmost effective in shaping policy.


Critical Thinking The number of PACs has grown tremendously since the early 1970s when campaign reforms were passed, but it has leveled off in recent years. How many PACs existed in 1974? In 1994?

Sources: Statistical Abstract of the United States,2002; Federal Election Commission, 2001.

PAC

s (i

n m

illi

on

s)

0

1

2

3

4

5

Year’94’90’86’82’78’74 ’00’98

$137.15

$139.68

$15.52

$158.32

$128.69

Trade Membership/Health

LaborCorporate

OtherNonconnected

Total Spending byType of PAC

1999–2000 (in millions)

Number of PACsTotal PAC Spending

’99–0

0

’95–9

6

’91–9

2

’87–8

8

’83–8

4

’97–9

8

’93–9

4

’89–9

0

’85–8

6

’81–8

2

Do

llars

(in

mil

lio

ns)

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

Contributions by PACsContributions by PACs

508-513 CH18S2-860053 12/6/04 4:56 PM Page 510

While large interest groups have membershipthat provides an impressive financial base, mostorganizations struggle to pay small staffs. In recentyears, however, the greatest concern about thepower of interest groups has been their financialcontributions to political campaigns.

The Rise of Political Action Committees

Lobbying is just one method interest groupsuse to influence lawmakers. These groups

also provide a large percentage of the funds used incandidates’ election campaigns. Most of these fundscome from political action committees (PACs), ororganizations specifically designed to collect moneyand provide financial support for a political candi-date. A Washington lobbyist admitted,“I won’t eventake a client now unless he’s willing to set up a polit-ical action committee and participate in the [cam-paign contribution] process.”

How PACs Began Before 1974, wealthy indi-viduals gave large sums to finance political campaigns. Then the federal gov-ernment passed laws to reformcampaign finance. The new lawslimited the amounts that indi-viduals could contribute to fed-eral candidates. While federal lawprevented corporations andlabor unions from making directcontributions to any federal can-didate, it permitted their politicalaction committees to do so.

Laws Governing PACs Atthe beginning of this period thegovernment set rules regulatingpolitical action committees. Themain federal laws governingPACs are the Federal ElectionCampaign Act (FECA) of 1971;the amendments to it passed in1974, 1976, and 1979; and theRevenue Act of 1971. Underthese laws a PAC must registerwith the government 6 monthsbefore an election. It must raise


Influence of PACs Recently Americans have questioned theimplications of huge financial contributions by PACs to legislators.According to the cartoonist, where do legislators’ loyalties lie?

The Power of Money

money from at least 50 contributors and give to atleast 5 candidates in a federal election. PACs mustalso follow strict accounting rules.

PACs can give $5,000 directly to each candi-date per election. The government, however, hasnot limited the total amount a PAC can spend on acandidate’s campaign as long as the PAC does notwork directly with the candidate.

In 1976 the Supreme Court ruled that any independent group may give money to a politicalcandidate as long as the group does not have legalties to that candidate. PAC spending climbed from$52.9 million in the 1975–76 election cycle to about$579 million in 1999–2000. PACs provided about$42 million to Senate candidates and $123 millionto House candidates.

Federal Election Commission The FederalElection Commission (FEC) issues regulations andadvisory opinions that control PAC activities. In1975, for example, the FEC ruled that corporationscan use their own money to administer their PACsand may also use payroll deductions to raise moneyfrom employees of a PAC. The FEC’s decision stim-ulated the growth of PACs among business interests.

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In the decade after the ruling, the number of cor-porate PACs increased by more than 1,000 percent.

Supreme Court Decisions The SupremeCourt has also affected the growth and operation ofPACs. For example, in the case of Buckley v. Valeo 1

(1976) the Court ruled that different divisions ofa corporation or different union locals can set upas many PACs as they wish. In 1996 the Court held that national, state, and local committeespending in support of federal candidates was aform of free speech. There could be no spendinglimit. Spending for federal campaigns soared tomore than $1.6 billion.

PACs and the Groups They ServePACs can be classified into two categories,according to the groups they serve. They are

either affiliated or independent.

Affiliated PACs PACs tied to corporations,labor unions, trade groups, or health organizationsare called affiliated PACs. Comprising about 70

percent of all PACs, they raise funds through vol-untary contributions from corporate executives,union officials, workers, and stockholders. Exam-ples of affiliated PACs are the Sun Oil Corpora-tion’s SunPAC, the Realtors’ Political ActionCommittee, and the Cattlemen’s Action LegislativeFund (CALF).

Nonconnected PACs Groups interested in aparticular cause such as free trade may set up PACsthat are not connected to any existing interestgroup. Some nonconnected PACs are organizedprimarily to participate in elections. These non-connected or independent PACs make up about 25percent of all PACs. Examples of such PACs andtheir varied interests include Americans for FreeInternational Trade, Council for a Livable World,The House Leadership Fund, National AbortionRights Action League PAC, National Right to LifePAC, and Republicans for Choice.

Nonconnected PACs raise money largelythrough direct-mail appeals to people across thenation. They are very successful and usually raisemore money than business or labor PACs. Inde-pendent PACs, however, spend less on candidatesand elections than do the affiliated PACs becausemassive direct-mail fund-raising is very costly.


See the following footnoted materials in the Reference Handbook:1. Buckley v. Valeo case summary, page 755.

David Laughery

Making a DifferenceMaking a Difference Pennsylvania teacher DavidLaughery believes that people of any age can

make a difference if they maketheir voices heard. “My studentsfirst made their voices heardwhen they decided to . . . lobbyfor the adoption of a citywide hel-met ordinance,” Laughery said.

The students in Laughery’sclass joined five other classes to develop a plan to lobby theirtownship’s Board of Supervisors.Students gathered statistics onbike-related injuries and deaths.

Armed with their researchdata and a prepared speech, thestudents presented their recom-mendation to their local township

board. The board agreed to review their request for a helmetlaw in the Hershey, Pennsylvania,community.

Just a few weeks later, Penn-sylvania state legislators passeda statewide helmet law. Students’efforts at a local level were nolonger needed. However, the students believed they had per-formed a valuable service by educating the people of their community about the importanceof a bike helmet law. “For the firsttime in their lives, these kids realized that they, too, are citizenswho not only have rights, but alsoresponsibilities,” Laughery said.

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Most of the money raised must be used to paypostage and staff workers and to buy mailing listsof potential contributors.

Strategies for InfluencePolitical action committees generally followtwo strategies to influence public policy.

They use their money to gain access to lawmakersand to directly influence election outcomes.

Trading Support for Access Interestgroups can promise campaign support for legisla-tors who favor their policies, or they can threatento withhold support. (Campaign contributionswere exempted from the 1995 Lobbying DisclosureAct restricting gifts to members of Congress.) Lossof a sizable contribution could affect a candidate’schances of winning. Other interest groups withcomparable political strength who support oppo-site goals, however, might back the candidate.

Interest groups, especially PACs, raise much ofthe money used in political campaigns. They real-ize that making a campaign contribution does notguarantee that a candidate, if elected, will alwaysvote the way they wish. Such groups, however,know that campaign contributions will at least as-sure access to the officials they help elect.

Busy lawmakers are more likely to set asidetime in their crowded schedules to meet with agroup that has given money than to meet with a group that has not. As a result, PACs may give

donations to lawmakers who do not always sup-port the views of the PACs.

PACs generally support incumbents, or thosegovernment officials already in office. In recentelections 88 percent of corporate and trade PACdonations went to incumbents in House campaignsand more than 65 percent to incumbents in Senateelections.

Influencing Elections The decision to sup-port incumbents has the expected result. Incum-bents in both the House and Senate have a goodchance of winning reelection. In some cases thetask of challenging an incumbent for a seat in Con-gress is so difficult that there are no challengers.Joan Claybrook, president of Public Citizen, Inc.,an interest group Ralph Nader founded, said,“That these PACs feel compelled to contribute tolawmakers who have no opponent shows that whatis being sought is access and influence.”

How Much Influence Some members ofCongress acknowledge the power of the PACs.Representative Barney Frank once said, “We arethe only human beings in the world who are ex-pected to take thousands of dollars from perfectstrangers and not be affected by it.” Other mem-bers of Congress disagree. Representative DanGlickman has claimed, “I do not think any mem-ber of Congress votes because of how a PAC giveshim money on El Salvador, or the MX missiles, or. . . broader, abstract national issues.”

Public Policy Members of Congress rely onlobbyists to provide them with information.Write a job description for a professional lob-byist. Include the skills and experience re-quired for the position and the list of dutiesthe position will involve.

Checking for Understanding1. Main Idea Use a graphic organizer like the one

below to list two methods lobbyists and PACsuse to influence public policy.

2. Define lobbying, lobbyist. 3. Identify political action committee.4. What kinds of backgrounds do people who

become lobbyists often have?

Critical Thinking5. Making Generalizations What qualities of a lob-

byist would make that person successful in furthering the goals of democratic government?



Lobbyists PACs

1.2.

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Every elected official wants to know whatthe public is thinking. “What I want,”Abraham Lincoln once declared, “is to getdone what the people desire to have done,

and the question for me is how to find that out ex-actly.” Lincoln did not have television. Today thepresident watches the same news as everyone else.To a large extent the media in the United Statesboth reflect and direct what the American peopleare thinking about.

The Nature of Public OpinionMost Americans have opinions or prefer-ences about many matters that affect their

lives. These range from preferences about the bestbaseball players to favorite television programs.Few such opinions, however, have much effect ongovernment. Yet one form of opinion, public opin-ion, has an enormous influence on government.Public opinion includes the ideas and attitudes asignificant number of Americans hold about gov-ernment and political issues. Three factors charac-terize the nature of public opinion.

Diversity Public opinion is varied. In a nationas vast as the United States, it is unlikely that allcitizens will think the same way about any politi-cal issue. Because of the diversity of American so-ciety, different groups of people hold differentopinions on almost every issue.

Communication People’s ideas and atti-tudes must in some way be expressed and com-municated to government. Unless Americansmake their opinions on important issues clear,public officials will not know what people arethinking. Accordingly, officials will not be able to weigh public opinion when making decisions. Interest groups communicate theopinions of many individuals. Officials also relyon opinion polls and private letters and e-mails to know what people are thinking.

Shaping Public OpinionS e c t i o n 3S e c t i o n 3

Channel One Is Big LOS ANGELES, CALIFORNIA, JULY 2001

On the air for over a

decade, Channel One

News, owned by Primedia,

provides 12,000 schools

across America with televi-

sions, video recorders, and

satellite dishes. In exchange,

each school contracts to

show the 12 minute Chan-

nel One News program to

students. Approximately

eight million students view

the show daily, roughly the

same amount who watch ABC, CBS, CNN, and NBC

news combined. The show is not without its detrac-

tors, however. Some parent organizations have argued

that students are a captive audience and only 60

percent of the show’s air time is devoted to news, with

too much emphasis on commercials.

Channel One Newscorrespondent


Reader’s Guide

Key Termspublic opinion, peer group, mass media, political culture

Find Out■ What are the patterns of political ideology in

the United States?■ Which of the forces in political socialization are

most influential?

Understanding ConceptsCultural Pluralism By what process does Ameri-can democracy begin with diverse opinions andend with acceptable public policy?

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Significant Numbers The phrase “a signifi-cant number of Americans” in the definition ofpublic opinion means that enough people musthold a particular opinion to make government of-ficials listen to them. For example, perhaps themost important reason why President LyndonJohnson decided not to run for reelection in 1968was that so many people opposed his conduct ofthe Vietnam War.

Political SocializationPersonal background and life experiencesexert important influences on opinion for-

mation. Individuals learn their political beliefs andattitudes from their family, school, friends, andcoworkers in a process called political socializa-tion. This process begins early in life and contin-ues through adulthood.

Family and Home Influence Political so-cialization begins within the family. Children learnmany of their early political opinions from theirparents. In most cases, the political party of theparents becomes the party of their children. Astudy of high school seniors showed that only asmall minority differed in party loyalty from theirparents. As adults, more than two-thirds of all vot-ers continue to favor the political party their par-ents supported.

Schools School also plays an important part inthe political socialization process. In the UnitedStates, all students learn about their nation, its his-tory, and its political system. Democratic valuesare also learned in school clubs and through schoolrules and regulations.

Peer Groups An individual’s close friends, reli-gious group, clubs, and work groups—called peergroups—are yet another factor in the political so-cialization process. A person’s peer groups ofteninfluence and shape opinions. For example, amember of a labor union whose closest friends be-long to the same union is likely to have politicalopinions similar to theirs.

Social Characteristics Economic and socialstatus is another aspect of political socialization.Whether a person is young or old, rich or poor,

rural or urban, Easterner or Southerner, AfricanAmerican or white, male or female may affect per-sonal political opinions.

The Mass Media Television, radio, newspa-pers, magazines, recordings, movies, and books—the mass media—play an important role inpolitical socialization. The media, especially televi-sion, provide political information and imagesthat can directly influence political attitudes. Forexample, broadcasts of a rally against a SupremeCourt decision or a riot outside an American em-bassy can help shape viewers’ opinions.

Movies, recordings, novels, and television en-tertainment can also affect opinions. Showing po-lice as heroes or as criminals, for example, canshape attitudes toward authority. The way themedia depict different groups of people such aswomen, African Americans, Asian Americans, His-panics, or immigrants can help discredit stereo-types—or create them.

Other Influences Government leaders alsoplay an important role in political socialization. Thepresident especially has a tremendous influence on


Diverse Opinions Americans’ differing opinionson political issues spring from the diversity ofAmericans themselves. This diversity is reflectedduring a Native American festival in Delta, Utah.How do you think this diversity affects publicopinion?

Polarity of Public Opinion

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not realize that this socializationhas a direct effect upon theirfeelings of political efficacy. Po-litical efficacy refers to an indi-vidual’s feelings of effectivenessin politics. Some people are so-cialized to believe that they can-not impact the “system.” Otherpeople are socialized to trust thattheir actions can be effective andlead to changes important tothem. Feelings of political effica-cy are vital in a democracy.Without citizen participation,democracies would be unable torealize the concept of govern-ment “of the people, by the peo-ple, and for the people.”

Political CultureEvery nation in the worldhas a political culture, a

set of basic values and beliefsabout a nation and its govern-

ment that most citizens share. For example, a beliefin liberty and freedom is one of the key elements ofAmerican political culture. Ralph Waldo Emersonexpressed this value when he wrote:

“The office of America is to liberate, toabolish kingcraft, priestcraft, castle,monopoly, to pull down the gallows, toburn up the bloody statute-book, to take in the immigrant, to open the doors of thesea and the fields of the earth.”—Ralph Waldo Emerson

Additional examples of widely shared politicalvalues include support for the Constitution andBill of Rights, commitment to the idea of politicalequality, belief in the virtue of private property,and an emphasis on individual achievement. TheAmerican political culture helps shape publicopinion in the United States in two ways.

A Context for Opinion The political culturesets the general boundaries within which citizensdevelop and express their opinions. Public opinionon any issue or problem almost always fits within


Influential Actions Students support the G.R.E.A.T. (Gang Re-sistance Education and Training) program in central Texas andrally against drugs and crime. How do rallies, such as this one,help shape public opinion?

people’s opinions. The news media provide almostcontinuous reports on the president’s activities andpolicy proposals.

Like the president, members of Congress try to influence opinions. They frequently go back to their home states or home districts and talk to their constituents. Many legislators send newslet-ters or write personal letters to voters. They also ap-pear on television programs and give newspaperinterviews on timely issues. Lawmakers who comeacross as sincere, personable, and intelligent are par-ticularly effective in influencing opinions on majorissues. At state and local levels, lawmakers also usethe media to gain public support for their views.

At the same time, interest groups try to shapepublic opinion. If an interest group can winenough support, public opinion may pressure leg-islators to accept the group’s goals. Churches andother religious organizations also affect people’spolitical opinions.

Political Efficacy Most individuals are un-aware that political socialization occurs in theirlives because it is a slow process that happens overtheir lifetimes. Simultaneously, many people do

Rallying for Support

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the limits the political culture sets. For example,Americans will disagree over just how much thefederal government should regulate the airline in-dustry. Very few Americans, however, would urgethat government eliminate regulations altogetheror that it take over and run the industry.

Screening Information A nation’s politicalculture also influences how its citizens interpretwhat they see and hear every day. Put another way,an American and a Russian citizen might interpretthe same event quite differently. If shown a photo ofpeople in line outside a grocery store, the Russianmight attribute it to a food shortage. The Americancitizen would likely think there was a sale.

Ideology and Public PolicyAn ideology is a set of basic beliefs aboutlife, culture, government, and society. One’s

political ideology provides the framework forlooking at government and public policy. Howev-er, Americans tend to determine their positionsissue by issue rather than follow a strict ideology.Polls show that many people express inconsistentopinions on issues. For example, most people favorlower taxes, but they also want better schools andincreased government services. American politicalvalues tend to fall into two broad but distinct pat-terns of opinions toward government and publicpolicies—liberal and conservative.

Liberal Ideology A liberal believes the govern-ment should actively promote health, education,and justice. Liberals are willing to curtail economicfreedom to increase equality, for example, by regu-lating business to protect consumers. In social mat-ters, however, liberals believe the governmentshould not restrict most individual freedoms.

Conservative Ideology A conservative be-lieves in limiting the role of government, except insupporting traditional moral values. Conservativesbelieve private individuals, not the government,should solve social problems. They oppose govern-ment limitations on businesses and believe freemarkets ensure the best economic outcomes.

Moderates and Libertarians Moderates fallsomewhere between liberals and conservatives. Forexample, a moderate may want the government toregulate business and support traditional values.Libertarians support both economic and socialfreedoms—free markets and unrestricted speech.

Sect ion 3 Re v iewSect ion 3 Re v iewSect ion 3 AssessmentSect ion 3 Assessment

Cultural Pluralism Use library resources orthe Internet to find examples of situations inwhich public opinion has caused an elected official to change his or her position on anissue. Present your findings in the form of aposter to your classmates.


below to contrast liberal and conservative ideologies.

2. Define public opinion, peer group, mass media,political culture.

3. Identify political socialization, political efficacy,liberal, conservative, moderate.

4. What five social characteristics can influence the opinions a person holds?

Critical Thinking5. Demonstrating Reasoned Judgment Do you

think that the mass media have too much influ-ence on American public opinion? Explain why orwhy not.


Student Web Activity Visit the United StatesGovernment: Democracy in Action Web site atgov.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 18–Student Web Activities for an activity about shaping public opinion.

GOVERNMENT

Social Policy Economic Policy

LiberalsConservatives

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518

Background of the CaseThe ESA requires federal agencies to ensure

that any action they undertake is not likely to hurtan endangered species or adversely modify thespecies’ critical habitat. During a drought in 1992,the federal Fish and Wildlife Service decided to cut off irrigation water normally sent to farmers andranchers in Oregon and California to protect two en-dangered species of fish, the Lost River Sucker andthe Shortnose Sucker. The federal agencies had determined that lowering water levels in federalreservoirs to provide irrigation water used by farmsand ranches could possibly hurt the fish. The lack of water for irrigation caused farmers’ crops to dieand forced ranchers to sell their cattle because theycould not feed or water them, resulting in losses of $75 million. Two ranchers and irrigation districtsfiled suit under the ESA against the federal govern-ment. A court of appeals ruled that only people whowanted to preserve an endangered species fell within

the “zone of interests” protected by the ESA, andtherefore were allowed, or had “standing,” to filesuit under the ESA. The ranchers appealed to theSupreme Court.

The Constitutional IssueThe Supreme Court is sometimes called upon

to interpret the meaning of federal laws such as theESA. In this instance, a key argument centered onthe meaning of the citizen suit provision of the ESA.The provision stated “any person may commence acivil suit” challenging the way the Secretary of theInterior carries out the law. Since the ESA was cre-ated to protect endangered species, did the phrasemean that only people who wanted to use the lawto preserve endangered species came within the“zone of interest” protected by the law and couldstart lawsuits? Or did it mean people who hadrecreational or commercial interests also fell withinthe reach of the law and could therefore sue?

Questions to Consider1. What two requirements did the ESA put on

federal agency actions?2. On what grounds were ranchers using the ESA

allowed to sue the federal government?3. Why did the court of appeals rule that the

ranchers could not sue under the ESA?4. What specific question was the Supreme Court

asked to resolve?

You Be the JudgeWhat could be the long-term consequences of

letting the ranchers sue the government under theESA? In your opinion, do all persons have an equalinterest in the environment? Does the ESA permitlawsuits from those who say they have lost moneyor property because the government has gone too far in protecting endangered species? Explainyour decision.

Debating the CaseDebating the Case

Since the passage of the En-dangered Species Act (ESA)in 1973, environmental

groups have used the law to file suits to stop actions they believed threat-ened the environment. Would the ESA also allow lawsuits by those who believed the government was doing too much to protect the environment?The Supreme Court faced this issue in the case of Bennett et al. v. Spear et al.

Bennett et al. v.Spear et al., 1996

CASES TO DEBATE

Fish withoutwater

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Americans express their opinions at theballot box. In between elections, officialswant to know what the public is think-ing. The methods of accessing and the

technology for tabulating public opinion havechanged and expanded over the years.

Traditional MethodsIn the past elected officials relied on severalmethods of gauging public opinion. Read-

ing newspapers, meeting leaders of interest groups,and talking with voters helped them to determinethe public mood.

Political Party Organizations Throughmuch of American history, local and state partyorganizations were a reliable source of informa-tion about the public’s attitudes. Party leaderswere in close touch with voters in their hometowns, cities, counties, and states. National lead-ers, in turn, communicated regularly with Repub-lican and Democratic Party bosses in such citiesas New York, Chicago, Philadelphia, and Detroit.When the two major parties did not respond toissues quickly, support for third parties increased,registering public disapproval. In the early 1900s,however, political reforms designed to curb theabuses of the big city party organizations beganto weaken the role of parties in daily politicallife. As a result, their ability to provide reliableinformation on voters’ attitudes declined.

Interest Groups Elected officials have always tried to stay in touch with the leaders ofvarious interest groups. These groups also seeksuch contact to make sure public officials knowthe opinions of their members. Interest groups,however, often represent the attitudes of a vocal minority concerned with specific issuessuch as gun control, health care, or auto safety.They are not a good measure of broader pub-lic opinion.

Measuring Public OpinionS e c t i o n 4S e c t i o n 4


What Do Polls Show?WASHINGTON, D.C., JULY 2000

Apoll is usually con-

ducted by asking

1,000 or more people a

question or series of

questions. Their answers

are compiled and as-

sessed, providing insight

into public attitudes and

opinions. For example, a

recent study by the Pew

Research Center for the

People and the Press on issues of national importance

revealed that the greatest concern among Americans

was “crime/violence.” This was cited by 15 percent of

those surveyed (down from 32 percent in a similar

1994 poll). The second most important issue was

“moral decline/decline of family values”at 14 percent.

Such information can be used by elected officials to

align legislation with public concerns.

Burglary in progress

Reader’s Guide

Key Termsbiased sample, universe, representative sample,random sampling, sampling error, cluster sample

Find Out■ By what methods is public opinion measured?■ Why is the phrasing of the questions in an

opinion poll so important?

Understanding ConceptsCultural Pluralism In conducting a national poll,why is it important to have a variety of racial, ethnic,and religious groups represented in the sample?

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The Mass Media The mass media can be ameasure of public attitudes because it speaks to abroad audience. The audience, by its response,helps determine the content of media information.For example, if a news program gets higher audi-ence ratings because of coverage of a certain issue,it is an indication of public interest in that issue. Toknow what the public is thinking about, politicianskeep an eye on newspaper headlines, magazinecover stories, editorials, radio talk shows, and tele-vision newscasts.

These sources of information, however, maygive a distorted view of public opinion for severalreasons. The mass media’s focus on news that hasvisual appeal or shock value, such as stories aboutviolent crime, distorts the public perception of re-ality. People who watch television news as theironly source of news, for example, tend to be morepessimistic about the nation than those who alsouse other sources for information. People whowrite letters to the editor and call radio talk showstend to have stronger opinions than those of thegeneral audience.

Letter Writing One time-honored form of ex-pressing opinion in a democracy is to write lettersto elected officials. The first major letter-writingcampaign convinced George Washington to seek asecond term as president in 1792. Letter writing in-creases in times of national crisis or major govern-ment decisions. The president may even requestletters from the public to indicate support for anew policy or to provide the White House withammunition for a battle with Congress. In thesame way, lawmakers may ask their supporters towrite to the president.

Today interest groups often stage massive let-ter-writing campaigns using computerized mail-ings to generate thousands of letters on an issue.Officials, however, may give such letters much lessattention than they do more personal ones fromindividual constituents.

Electronic Access Members of Congress andthe White House may now be reached by e-mail orby fax. This allows citizens to react almost imme-diately to events and government decisions. An-other way to respond quickly to speeches, pressconferences, and other events is by telephone ortelegram.


Straw Polls Unscientific attempts to measurepublic opinion are made through straw polls. Somenewspapers, as well as radio and television stations,still use straw polls. Newspapers may print “ballots”in the paper and ask people to “vote”and mail their“ballots” to the editor. Television and radio stationsask questions—“Should the mayor run for reelec-tion?”—and give the audience telephone numbersto call for yes or no answers. Members of Congressoften send their constituents questionnaires.

Straw polls are not very reliable indicators ofpublic opinion because they do not ensure that thegroup, or sample, of people giving opinions accu-rately represents the larger population. Straw pollsalways have a biased sample—the people who respond to them are self-selected. They choose to respond.

Scientific PollingAlmost everyone involved in politics todayuses scientific polls to measure public opin-

ion. Scientific polling involves three basic steps: (1)selecting a sample of the group to be questioned;(2) presenting carefully worded questions to theindividuals in the sample; and (3) interpreting theresults.

Sample Populations In conducting polls, thegroup of people that are to be studied is called theuniverse. A universe might be all the seniors in ahigh school, all the people in the state of Texas, orall women in the United States. Since it is not pos-sible to actually interview every person in Texas orevery woman in the United States, pollsters ques-tion a representative sample, a small group ofpeople typical of the universe.

Most pollsters are able to use samples of only1,200 to 1,500 adults to accurately measure theopinions of all adults in the United States—over208 million people. Such a small group is a repre-sentative sample because pollsters use randomsampling, a technique in which everyone in theuniverse has an equal chance of being selected.

Sampling Error A sampling error is a mea-surement of how much the sample results may differ from the sample universe. Sampling errordecreases as the sample size becomes larger. Mostnational polls use 1,200 to 1,500 people; this


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number represents the characteristics of any sizepopulation, with an error of only plus or minus 3percent. If a poll says that 65 percent of Americansfavor tougher pollution laws, with a 3 percent sampling error, between 62 and 68 percent of theentire population favor such laws.

Knowing the sampling error is importantwhen poll data is interpreted. During the 1976presidential race, for example, one poll said JimmyCarter was behind Gerald Ford 48 percent to 49percent. With a sampling error of 3 percent, Cartercould have been ahead. As it turned out, Carterwon the election.

Sampling Procedures How do pollstersdraw random samples of the whole nation? Thereare various ways that they accomplish this. Onemethod, a cluster sample, organizes, or clusters,people by geographical divisions. The clusters maybe counties, congressional districts,or census tracts (regions establishedby the Census Bureau).

At times pollsters adjust orweight the results of a poll to over-come defects in sampling. Pollstersmay adjust a poll to take into ac-count variations in race, gender,age, or education. For example, ifpollsters found that not enoughAmericans over the age of 65 had been interviewed, they might give extra weight to the opinions of the senior citizens who were interviewed.

Poll Questions The way a ques-tion is phrased can greatly influencepeople’s responses and, in turn, pollresults. In 1971 the Gallup Poll askedwhether people favored a proposal“to bring home all American troopsfrom Vietnam before the end of theyear.” Two-thirds of those polled an-swered yes. Then the Gallup Pollasked the question differently: “Doyou agree or disagree with a proposalto withdraw all U.S. troops by theend of the year regardless of whathappens there [in Vietnam] after U.S.troops leave?” When the question

was worded this way, less than half of the respon-dants agreed with the proposal, a significant differ-ence from the first response.

Mail and Phone Polls In recent years manypublic opinion polls have been conducted by mailor by telephone, largely because interviewing peo-ple in their homes is expensive. Although the mailquestionnaire method is cheaper and more conve-nient than personal interviews, it has two disad-vantages. One is that relatively few questionnairesare returned—usually only about 10 to 15 percent.Second, pollsters cannot control respondents’careless or confusing replies.

Telephone interviews are now used in many na-tional polls. To be reliable a telephone poll, likeother polls, should select a representative sample ofthe population. Most pollsters use a method calledrandom digit dialing. They select an area code and


Critical Thinking Public opinion of the United States president can change very quickly, both positively and negatively. Which presidents had higher approval ratings at the end of their terms than at the beginning?

Sources: The Roper Center for Public Opinion Research; Gallup Poll, 2004.

Perc

en

t o

f A

pp

roval

0

5

15

25

35

45

55

65

75

85

Clinto

n

G.W. B

ush

G. Bush

Reagan

Carte

rFo

rd

Nixon

Johnso

n

Kenned

y

Eisen

hower

Trum

an

F. Roose

velt

Presidential Approval RatingsSince 1940

Presidential Approval RatingsSince 1940

519-525 CH18S4-860053 12/10/04 12:45 PM Page 521

the first three local digits. Then a computer ran-domly chooses and dials the last four digits. Al-though telephone polls are more reliable than mailquestionnaires, problems do exist. Pollsters may failto reach the person being called. In addition, somepeople refuse to answer the questions or are con-fused by or are inattentive to the interviewer.

Interpreting Results Scientific polling hasimproved since its first use in the 1930s. Pollingis never completely accurate, however, becausepollsters can never be sure that the people they areinterviewing are being honest. Still, major pollingorganizations have learned how to take polls thatare usually reliable within a few percentage points.

Serious problems occurred, however, duringthe elections of 2000 and 2002. In these electionyears, the Voter News Service (VNS), a pollingservice created by six major news organizations,experienced a great deal of difficulty forecastingaccurate election results. The flawed data gatheredby the VNS during exit polling for the 2000 presi-dential election resulted in extensive confusionabout whether Al Gore or George W. Bush hadwon the state of Florida on Election Day. The VNStried to redesign its data collection technique forthe 2002 congressional elections, but it again failedto provide accurate exit polling data for the mediaservices tracking the results of the election.

Public Opinion and DemocracyThe Framers of the Constitution sought tocreate a representative democracy that

would meet two goals. The first was to provide forpopular rule—to give the people an active voice ingovernment. The people were to have control overthe lawmakers who represented them.

The Framers’ second goal was to insulate gov-ernment from the shifting whims of ill-informedpublic opinion. The Framers would have under-stood modern journalist Walter Lippmann, whosaid that the people

“. . . can elect the government. They can re-move it. They can approve or disapprove itsperformance. But they cannot administerthe government. They cannot themselvesperform. . . . A mass cannot govern.”—Walter Lippmann

The system the Framers created has workedwell. Research shows that the government is re-sponsive to public opinion—to the wishes of thepeople. At the same time, public opinion is not theonly influence on public policy. Interest groups, po-litical parties, the mass media, other institutions ofgovernment, and the ideas of activists and publicofficials themselves also help shape public policy.


Cultural Pluralism Find a public opinion poll ina newspaper or newsmagazine. Analyze the pollby focusing on the following questions: Howmany people were contacted? Does the poll include a random or representative sampling?What is the sampling error? Are the questionspresented in an unbiased, effective way? Present your answers in an analytical report.


below to identify two goals the Framers of theConstitution wanted to meet by creating a representative democracy.

2. Define biased sample, universe, representativesample, random sampling, sampling error, cluster sample.

3. Identify straw poll, sample.4. Identify seven sources that public officials use to

determine public opinion.5. List reasons that poll results may not accurately

reflect public opinion.

Critical Thinking6. Demonstrating Reasoned Judgment Why do

politicians pay closer attention to the results ofpolls conducted through personal interviewsrather than through the mail?


RepresentativeDemocracy

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Interpreting Opinion Polls

523

Application ActivityApplication Activity

error of plus or minus 4.5 percent. We can there-fore assume that the poll is fairly accurate.

It is important that questions be phrased nei-ther to encourage nor discourage a given answer.Note that by giving interviewees options (help,hurt, or not affect your family financially), thepollsters avoid suggesting an answer.

When you state the results of the poll in sen-tence form, indicate how the poll data reflectsAmericans’ thoughts about the poll topic.

Practicing the Skill

Use what you have learned about analyzingpoll data to examine the data about the poll resultsabove and to answer the questions that follow.1. What is this poll about?2. What was the size of the polling sample and

what was the margin of error?3. State the results of the poll in sentence form.4. Compose a nonbiased question to poll

Americans on their approval or disapproval of Congress’s work.

Well-designed public opinion polls give us accurate “snapshots”of how Americansare thinking at a given time. Knowing

how to read data from a public opinion poll will help you to understand what your fellowcitizens are thinking.

Learning the Skill

To analyze a poll, follow these steps:• Look at the title and the date of the poll to

determine a context for what you read.• Note who was interviewed. Ask: How large

was the sample? Sample sizes should be aslarge as possible for higher reliability.

• Ask: What was the sampling error? Marginsof error are critically important for deter-mining whether differences shown in thepoll are significant.

• Note what questions were asked and wheth-er they are phrased in an unbiased way.

• State the results in sentence form.

In your opinion, if the federal budget isbalanced in five years, will this help youand your family financially, hurt youand your family financially, or not affectyou and your family too much?

This poll was conducted in February 1997.The sample was 1,228 Americans, with a margin of

Application ActivityApplication Activity

The Glencoe SkillbuilderInteractive Workbook, Level 2provides instruction and practicein key social studies skills.

Select an issue of concern to you anddecide what you want to know about it. De-velop a nonbiased question to poll opinionson that issue. Randomly select a samplegroup from the population you have decid-ed to poll. Record your answers. Presentyour results in a chart. Include your samplesize and a brief summary.

A Balanced BudgetIn your opinion, if the federal budget isbalanced in five years, will this help youand your family financially, hurt youand your family financially, or not affectyou and your family too much?

Help . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33%Hurt . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19%Not much affect . . . .40%Don’t know . . . . . . . . .8%

519-525 CH18S4-860053 12/3/04 6:04 AM Page 523

Reviewing Key TermsMatch the following terms with each of the descrip-tions provided:

interest group political culturepeer group universelobbyist sampling errorrandom sampling mass mediapublic opinion representative sample

1. representative of an interest group2. everyone in the group sampled has an equal

chance of being selected3. close friends, church, social, or work groups 4. people who share common policy goals and or-

ganize to influence government5. basic values and beliefs about a nation and its

government that most citizens share6. small group of people typical of the universe7. the ideas and attitudes a significant number of

Americans hold about certain issues8. television, radio, newspapers, movies, books9. measurement of how much the sample results

may differ from the universe being sampled10. group of people from which samples are taken

for polls or statistical measurements

Recalling Facts1. Identify three reasons or concerns that cause

people to join interest groups.2. How do interest groups try to influence public

opinion to support their policies?3. What seven forces influence a person’s politi-

cal socialization?4. What is the relationship between political cul-

ture and public opinion?5. For what reasons may the results of scientific

polls not be accurate?

Understanding Concepts1. Civic Participation Analyze how an interest

group can influence local government.2. Cultural Pluralism Explain the relationship be-

tween voting, public opinion, and public policy.

Critical Thinking1. Understanding Cause and Effect Studies have

shown that people in lower socioeconomic lev-els are less likely to contribute to, lead in, oreven join special-interest groups. Why do youthink that this is so?

Assessment and ActivitiesChapter 18Chapter 18

Self-Check Quiz Visit the United States Government:Democracy in Action Web site at gov.glencoe.com andclick on Chapter 18–Self-Check Quizzes to preparefor the chapter test.

GOVERNMENT

• Who Groups of people who share common goals and organize to influence government.

• What Major categories of interest groups include business andlabor groups, agricultural groups, environmental groups, public-interest groups, government groups, and professional associations.

• How Most groups try to influence government policy by lobbying lawmakers, running publicity campaigns, and providing funds for candidates’ election campaigns.

Interest Groups

• What The ideas and attitudes a significant number of Americanshold about government and politics; factors such as family,schools, peer groups, economic and social status, the mass media,and government leaders shape one’s political beliefs.

• Who In America, most people fall into the categories of liberal, conservative, or moderate, depending on their basic beliefs about government and society.

• How Officials measure public opinion by meeting with leaders ofinterest groups and talking with voters, as well as through scientificpolling methods.

Public Opinion

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2. Making Comparisons Use a graphic organizer like the one below to compare the AFL-CIO with an envi-ronmental interest group in the areas of size, com-position of membership, and methods used to accomplish their goals.

Analyzing PrimarySourcesThe National Grange, also knownas the Patrons of Husbandry, isthe oldest agricultural interestgroup in the United States. The excerpt below is from the 2004 National Grange Blueprint for RuralAmerica, the organization’s politi-cal issues platform. Read the excerpt and answerthe questions that follow.

“America’s family farmers and ranchers face challenges regarding food security, contract agriculture, agribusinessconsolidations, trade negotiations and low prices. Federalfarm programs should encourage increased participation inthe agricultural sector by the largest number of individualsand families. . . . Instead, federal farm policies discourage in-novative farm practices. . . . The government depresses farmincome by selling surplus agricultural products and allowingimports of milk protein concentrates. All dairy farmers andall consumers deserve to benefit from regional dairy programsand continued financial assistance for moderate-sized dairyfarms. The U.S. faces hostile multilateral trade negotiationswhere the goal of our trading partners is to decrease U.S.farm income.”

1. Based on this excerpt, how is a farming interestgroup like the National Grange different from apolitical party?

2. What are the key issues the Grange promotes?Do you think their membership is based only incertain regions, or nationwide?

Interpreting Political Cartoons Activity

Applying Technology SkillsUsing E-mail Use library or Internetresources to research an interest group that youmight like to join. Locate an e-mail address for thegroup and compose a letter requesting informationabout the group—its purpose, activities, dues, andnumber of members. Produce a class pamphlet titled“Interest Groups to Join.”

Participating in Local GovernmentArrange an interview with apublic official in your local gov-ernment. Ask how that officialfinds out what issues are importantto the public, and how he or shemeasures public opinion on those issues. Present your findings in class.

Chapter 18Chapter 18

1. What do the oxen’s words suggest about politicians?2. What is about to happen in the cartoon?3. What does the choice of a wagon and oxen suggest about

the cartoonist’s viewpoint?

AFL-CIO Other

Size

Members

Methods

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chapter 18: interest groups and public opinion

Documents