chapter 15 acids and bases - center for nonlinear...
TRANSCRIPT
Chapter 15Acids and
Bases
2008, Prentice Hall
Chemistry: A Molecular Approach, 1st Ed.Nivaldo Tro
Roy KennedyMassachusetts Bay Community College
Wellesley Hills, MA
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 2
Stomach Acid & Heartburn• the cells that line your stomach produce
hydrochloric acidto kill unwanted bacteriato help break down foodto activate enzymes that break down food
• if the stomach acid backs up into your esophagus, it irritates those tissues, resulting in heartburn
acid refluxGERD = gastroesophageal reflux disease = chronic leaking of stomach acid into the esophagus
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 3
Curing Heartburn
• mild cases of heartburn can be cured by neutralizing the acid in the esophagus
swallowing saliva which contains bicarbonate iontaking antacids that contain hydroxide ions and/or carbonate ions
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 4
Properties of Acids• sour taste• react with “active” metals
i.e., Al, Zn, Fe, but not Cu, Ag, or Au2 Al + 6 HCl → 2 AlCl3 + 3 H2
corrosive
• react with carbonates, producing CO2marble, baking soda, chalk, limestone
CaCO3 + 2 HCl → CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O• change color of vegetable dyes
blue litmus turns red
• react with bases to form ionic salts
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 5
Common AcidsChemical Name Formula Uses Strength
Nitric Acid HNO3 explosive, fertilizer, dye, glue Strong
Sulfuric Acid H2SO4 explosive, fertilizer, dye, glue,
batteries Strong
Hydrochloric Acid HCl metal cleaning, food prep, ore refining, stomach acid Strong
Phosphoric Acid H3PO4 fertilizer, plastics & rubber,
food preservation Moderate
Acetic Acid HC2H3O2plastics & rubber, food preservation, Vinegar Weak
Hydrofluoric Acid HF metal cleaning, glass etching Weak
Carbonic Acid H2CO3 soda water Weak
Boric Acid H3BO3 eye wash Weak
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 6
Structures of Acids
• binary acids have acid hydrogens attached to a nonmetal atom
HCl, HF
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 7
Structure of Acids• oxy acids have acid hydrogens attached to
an oxygen atomH2SO4, HNO3
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 8
Structure of Acids• carboxylic acids have
COOH groupHC2H3O2, H3C6H5O7
• only the first H in the formula is acidic
the H is on the COOH
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 9
Properties of Bases• also known as alkalis• taste bitter
alkaloids = plant product that is alkalineoften poisonous
• solutions feel slippery• change color of vegetable dyes
different color than acidred litmus turns blue
• react with acids to form ionic saltsneutralization
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 10
Common BasesChemical
Name Formula Common Name Uses Strength
sodium hydroxide NaOH lye,
caustic soda soap, plastic,
petrol refining Strong
potassium hydroxide KOH caustic potash soap, cotton,
electroplating Strong
calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2 slaked lime cement Strong
sodium bicarbonate NaHCO3 baking soda cooking, antacid Weak
magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2
milk of magnesia antacid Weak
ammonium hydroxide
NH4OH, {NH3(aq)}
ammonia water
detergent, fertilizer,
explosives, fibers Weak
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 11
Structure of Bases
• most ionic bases contain OH ionsNaOH, Ca(OH)2
• some contain CO32- ions
CaCO3 NaHCO3
• molecular bases contain structures that react with H+
mostly amine groups
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 12
Indicators• chemicals which change color depending on
the acidity/basicity• many vegetable dyes are indicators
anthocyanins• litmus
from Spanish mossred in acid, blue in base
• phenolphthaleinfound in laxativesred in base, colorless in acid
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 13
Arrhenius Theory• bases dissociate in water to produce OH- ions and
cationsionic substances dissociate in water
NaOH(aq) → Na+(aq) + OH–(aq)• acids ionize in water to produce H+ ions and anions
because molecular acids are not made of ions, they cannot dissociate they must be pulled apart, or ionized, by the water
HCl(aq) → H+(aq) + Cl–(aq)in formula, ionizable H written in front
HC2H3O2(aq) → H+(aq) + C2H3O2–(aq)
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 14
Arrhenius Theory
HCl ionizes in water,producing H+ and Cl– ions
NaOH dissociates in water,producing Na+ and OH– ions
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 15
Hydronium Ion• the H+ ions produced by the acid are so reactive they
cannot exist in waterH+ ions are protons!!
• instead, they react with a water molecule(s) to produce complex ions, mainly hydronium ion, H3O+
H+ + H2O → H3O+
there are also minor amounts of H+ with multiple water molecules, H(H2O)n
+
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 16
Arrhenius Acid-Base Reactions
• the H+ from the acid combines with the OH-
from the base to make a molecule of H2Oit is often helpful to think of H2O as H-OH
• the cation from the base combines with the anion from the acid to make a salt
acid + base → salt + waterHCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)
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Problems with Arrhenius Theory• does not explain why molecular substances, like
NH3, dissolve in water to form basic solutions –even though they do not contain OH– ions
• does not explain how some ionic compounds, like Na2CO3 or Na2O, dissolve in water to form basic solutions – even though they do not contain OH–
ions• does not explain why molecular substances, like
CO2, dissolve in water to form acidic solutions –even though they do not contain H+ ions
• does not explain acid-base reactions that take place outside aqueous solution
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 18
Brønsted-Lowry Theory• in a Brønsted-Lowry Acid-Base reaction, an
H+ is transferreddoes not have to take place in aqueous solutionbroader definition than Arrhenius
• acid is H donor, base is H acceptorbase structure must contain an atom with an unshared pair of electrons
• in an acid-base reaction, the acid molecule gives an H+ to the base molecule
H–A + :B ⇔ :A– + H–B+
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 19
Brønsted-Lowry Acids• Brønsted-Lowry acids are H+ donors
any material that has H can potentially be a Brønsted-Lowry acidbecause of the molecular structure, often one H in the molecule is easier to transfer than others
• HCl(aq) is acidic because HCl transfers an H+ to H2O, forming H3O+ ions
water acts as base, accepting H+
HCl(aq) + H2O(l) → Cl–(aq) + H3O+(aq)acid base
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 20
Brønsted-Lowry Bases• Brønsted-Lowry bases are H+ acceptors
any material that has atoms with lone pairs can potentially be a Brønsted-Lowry basebecause of the molecular structure, often one atom in the molecule is more willing to accept H+ transfer than others
• NH3(aq) is basic because NH3 accepts an H+
from H2O, forming OH–(aq)water acts as acid, donating H+
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) ⇔ NH4+(aq) + OH–(aq)
base acid
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 21
Amphoteric Substances• amphoteric substances can act as either an
acid or a basehave both transferable H and atom with lone pair
• water acts as base, accepting H+ from HClHCl(aq) + H2O(l) → Cl–(aq) + H3O+(aq)
• water acts as acid, donating H+ to NH3
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) ⇔ NH4+(aq) + OH–(aq)
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 22
Brønsted-Lowry Acid-Base Reactions
• one of the advantages of Brønsted-Lowry theory is that it allows reactions to be reversible
H–A + :B ⇔ :A– + H–B+
• the original base has an extra H+ after the reaction – so it will act as an acid in the reverse process
• and the original acid has a lone pair of electrons after the reaction – so it will act as a base in the reverse process
:A– + H–B+ ⇔ H–A + :B
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 23
Conjugate Pairs• In a Brønsted-Lowry Acid-Base reaction, the
original base becomes an acid in the reverse reaction, and the original acid becomes a base in the reverse process
• each reactant and the product it becomes is called a conjugate pair
• the original base becomes the conjugate acid; and the original acid becomes the conjugate base
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 24
Brønsted-Lowry Acid-Base Reactions
H–A + :B ⇔ :A– + H–B+
acid base conjugate conjugatebase acid
HCHO2 + H2O ⇔ CHO2– + H3O+
acid base conjugate conjugatebase acid
H2O + NH3 ⇔ HO– + NH4+
acid base conjugate conjugatebase acid
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 25
Conjugate PairsIn the reaction H2O + NH3 ⇔ HO– + NH4
+
H2O and HO– constitute an Acid/Conjugate Base pair
NH3 and NH4+ constitute a
Base/Conjugate Acid pair
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 26
Ex 15.1a – Identify the Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases and Their Conjugates in the Reaction
H2SO4 + H2O ⇔ HSO4– + H3O+
acid base conjugate conjugatebase acid
H2SO4 + H2O ⇔ HSO4– + H3O+
When the H2SO4 becomes HSO4−, it lost an H+ − so
H2SO4 must be the acid and HSO4− its conjugate base
When the H2O becomes H3O+, it accepted an H+ − so H2O must be the base and H3O+ its conjugate acid
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 27
Ex 15.1b – Identify the Brønsted-Lowry Acids and Bases and Their Conjugates in the Reaction
HCO3– + H2O ⇔ H2CO3 + HO–
base acid conjugate conjugateacid base
HCO3– + H2O ⇔ H2CO3 + HO–
When the HCO3− becomes H2CO3, it accepted an H+ −
so HCO3− must be the base and H2CO3 its conjugate acid
When the H2O becomes OH−, it donated an H+ − so H2O must be the acid and OH− its conjugate base
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 28
Practice – Write the formula for the conjugate acid of the following
H2O
NH3
CO32−
H2PO41−
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 29
Practice – Write the formula for the conjugate acid of the following
H2O H3O+
NH3 NH4+
CO32− HCO3
−
H2PO41− H3PO4
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 30
Practice – Write the formula for the conjugate base of the following
H2O
NH3
CO32−
H2PO41−
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 31
Practice – Write the formula for the conjugate base of the following
H2O HO−
NH3 NH2−
CO32− since CO3
2− does not have an H, it cannot be an acid
H2PO41− HPO4
2−
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 32
Arrow Conventions• chemists commonly use two kinds
of arrows in reactions to indicate the degree of completion of the reactions
• a single arrow indicates all the reactant molecules are converted to product molecules at the end
• a double arrow indicates the reaction stops when only some of the reactant molecules have been converted into products
⇔ in these notes
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 33
Strong or Weak• a strong acid is a strong electrolyte
practically all the acid molecules ionize, →• a strong base is a strong electrolyte
practically all the base molecules form OH– ions, either through dissociation or reaction with water, →
• a weak acid is a weak electrolyteonly a small percentage of the molecules ionize, ⇔
• a weak base is a weak electrolyteonly a small percentage of the base molecules form OH– ions, either through dissociation or reaction with water, ⇔
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 34
Strong Acids• The stronger the acid, the
more willing it is to donate Huse water as the standard base
• strong acids donate practically all their H’s
100% ionized in waterstrong electrolyte
• [H3O+] = [strong acid]
HCl → H+ + Cl-
HCl + H2O→ H3O+ + Cl-
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 35
Weak Acids• weak acids donate a small
fraction of their H’smost of the weak acid molecules do not donate H to watermuch less than 1% ionized in water
• [H3O+] << [weak acid]
HF ⇔ H+ + F-
HF + H2O ⇔ H3O+ + F-
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 36
Polyprotic Acids• often acid molecules have more than one ionizable H –
these are called polyprotic acidsthe ionizable H’s may have different acid strengths or be equal1 H = monoprotic, 2 H = diprotic, 3 H = triprotic
HCl = monoprotic, H2SO4 = diprotic, H3PO4 = triprotic
• polyprotic acids ionize in stepseach ionizable H removed sequentially
• removing of the first H automatically makes removal of the second H harder
H2SO4 is a stronger acid than HSO4−
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 37
Acids Conjugate BasesHClO4 ClO4
-1 H2SO4 HSO4
-1 HI I-1
HBr Br-1 HCl Cl-1
HNO3 NO3-1
H3O+1 H2O HSO4
-1 SO4-2
H2SO3 HSO3-1
H3PO4 H2PO4-1
HNO2 NO2-1
HF F-1 HC2H3O2 C2H3O2
-1 H2CO3 HCO3
-1 H2S HS-1
NH4+1 NH3
HCN CN-1 HCO3
-1 CO3-2
HS-1 S-2 H2O OH-1
CH3-C(O)-CH3 CH3-C(O)-CH2-1
NH3 NH2-1
CH4 CH3-1
OH-1 O-2
Incr
easi
ng A
cidi
ty
Increasing Basicity
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 38
Strengths of Acids & Bases• commonly, acid or base strength is measured by
determining the equilibrium constant of a substance’s reaction with water
HAcid + H2O ⇔ Acid-1 + H3O+1
Base: + H2O ⇔ HBase+1 + OH-1
• the farther the equilibrium position lies to the products, the stronger the acid or base
• the position of equilibrium depends on the strength of attraction between the base form and the H+
stronger attraction means stronger base or weaker acid
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 39
General Trends in Acidity• the stronger an acid is at donating H, the
weaker the conjugate base is at accepting H• higher oxidation number = stronger oxyacid
H2SO4 > H2SO3; HNO3 > HNO2
• cation stronger acid than neutral molecule; neutral stronger acid than anion
H3O+1 > H2O > OH-1; NH4+1 > NH3 > NH2
-1
base trend opposite
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 40
Acid Ionization Constant, Ka
• acid strength measured by the size of the equilibrium constant when react with H2O
HAcid + H2O ⇔ Acid-1 + H3O+1
• the equilibrium constant is called the acid ionization constant, Ka
larger Ka = stronger acid
[HAcid]]O[H][Acid 1
31
a
+− ×=K
41
Name Formula Ka1 Ka2 Ka3 Benzoic C6H5COOH 6.14 x 10-5
Propanoic CH3CH2COOH 1.34 x 10-5 Formic HCOOH 1.77 x 10-5 Acetic CH3COOH 1.75 x 10-5
Chloroacetic ClCH2COOH 1.36 x 10-5 Trichloroacetic Cl3C-COOH 1.29 x 10-4
Oxalic HOOC-COOH 5.90 x 10-2 6.40 x 10-5 Nitric HNO3 strong
Nitrous HNO2 4.6 x 10-4 Phosphoric H3PO4 7.52 x 10-3 6.23 x 10-8 2.2 x 10-13
Phosphorous H3PO3 1.00 x 10-2 2.6 x 10-7 Arsenic H3AsO4 6.0 x 10-3 1.05 x 10-7 3.0 x 10-12
Arsenious H3AsO3 6.0 x 10-10 3.0 x 10-14 very small Perchloric HClO4 > 108
Chloric HClO3 5 x 102 Chlorous HClO2 1.1 x 10-2
Hypochlorous HClO 3.0 x 10-8 Boric H3BO3 5.83 x 10-10
Carbonic H2CO3 4.45 x 10-7 4.7 x 10-11
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 43
Autoionization of Water• Water is actually an extremely weak electrolyte
therefore there must be a few ions present• about 1 out of every 10 million water molecules
form ions through a process called autoionization
H2O ⇔ H+ + OH–
H2O + H2O ⇔ H3O+ + OH–
• all aqueous solutions contain both H3O+ and OH–
the concentration of H3O+ and OH– are equal in water[H3O+] = [OH–] = 10-7M @ 25°C
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 44
Ion Product of Water• the product of the H3O+ and OH–
concentrations is always the same number• the number is called the ion product of
water and has the symbol Kw• [H3O+] x [OH–] = Kw = 1 x 10-14 @ 25°C
if you measure one of the concentrations, you can calculate the other
• as [H3O+] increases the [OH–] must decrease so the product stays constant
inversely proportional
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 45
Acidic and Basic Solutions• all aqueous solutions contain both H3O+ and
OH– ions• neutral solutions have equal [H3O+] and [OH–]
[H3O+] = [OH–] = 1 x 10-7
• acidic solutions have a larger [H3O+] than [OH–][H3O+] > 1 x 10-7; [OH–] < 1 x 10-7
• basic solutions have a larger [OH–] than [H3O+][H3O+] < 1 x 10-7; [OH–] > 1 x 10-7
Example 15.2b – Calculate the [OH−] at 25°C when the [H3O+] = 1.5 x 10-9 M, and determine if the solution is
acidic, basic, or neutral
The units are correct. The fact that the [H3O+] < [OH−] means the solution is basic
[H3O+] = 1.5 x 10-9 M
[OH−]
Check:
Solution:
Concept Plan:
Relationships:
Given:
Find:
[H3O+] [OH−]
]-][OHOH[ 3w+=K
]OH[]-OH[
]-OH][OH[
3
w
3w
+
+
=
=K
KM 107.6
105.1100.1]-[OH 6
9
14−
−
−×=
××
=
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 47
Complete the Table[H+] vs. [OH-]
OH-H+ H+ H+ H+ H+
OH-OH-OH-OH-
[OH-]
[H+] 100 10-1 10-3 10-5 10-7 10-9 10-11 10-13 10-14
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 48
Complete the Table[H+] vs. [OH-]
OH-H+ H+ H+ H+ H+
OH-OH-OH-OH-
[OH-]10-14 10-13 10-11 10-9 10-7 10-5 10-3 10-1 100
[H+] 100 10-1 10-3 10-5 10-7 10-9 10-11 10-13 10-14
even though it may look like it, neither H+ nor OH- will ever be 0the sizes of the H+ and OH- are not to scale
because the divisions are powers of 10 rather than units
Acid Base
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 49
pH• the acidity/basicity of a solution is often
expressed as pH• pH = -log[H3O+], [H3O+] = 10-pH
exponent on 10 with a positive signpHwater = -log[10-7] = 7need to know the [H+] concentration to find pH
• pH < 7 is acidic; pH > 7 is basic, pH = 7 is neutral
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 50
Sig. Figs. & Logs• when you take the log of a number written in scientific
notation, the digit(s) before the decimal point come from the exponent on 10, and the digits after the decimal point come from the decimal part of the number
log(2.0 x 106) = log(106) + log(2.0)= 6 + 0.30303… = 6.30303...
• since the part of the scientific notation number that determines the significant figures is the decimal part, the sig figs are the digits after the decimal point in the log
log(2.0 x 106) = 6.30
51
pH• the lower the pH, the more acidic the solution; the
higher the pH, the more basic the solution1 pH unit corresponds to a factor of 10 difference in acidity
• normal range 0 to 14pH 0 is [H+] = 1 M, pH 14 is [OH–] = 1 MpH can be negative (very acidic) or larger than 14 (very alkaline)
52
pH of Common Substances
141.0 M NaOH10.5 to 11.5household ammonia
10.5milk of magnesia (sat’d Mg(OH)2)7.6 to 8.0egg whites7.3 to 7.4human blood
5.6unpolluted rainwater3.2 to 4.0cherries2.9 to 3.3apples2.8 to 3.0plums2.0 to 4.0soft drinks2.2 to 2.4lemons1.0 to 3.0stomach acid
1.00.1 M HCl0.01.0 M HClpHSubstance
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 53
Example 15.3b – Calculate the pH at 25°C when the [OH−] = 1.3 x 10-2 M, and determine if the solution is
acidic, basic, or neutral
pH is unitless. The fact that the pH > 7 means the solution is basic
[OH−] = 1.3 x 10-2 M
pH
Check:
Solution:
Concept Plan:
Relationships:
Given:
Find:
]-][OHOH[ 3w+=K
2
14
3
3w
103.1100.1]OH[
]-OH][OH[
−
−+
+
××
=
=K M 107.7]O[H 133
−+ ×=
[H3O+][OH−] pH
]OH[log pH 3- +=
( )12.11 pH
107.7log- pH 13
=×= −
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 55
pOH• another way of expressing the acidity/basicity of
a solution is pOH• pOH = -log[OH−], [OH−] = 10-pOH
pOHwater = -log[10-7] = 7need to know the [OH−] concentration to find pOH
• pOH < 7 is basic; pOH > 7 is acidic, pOH = 7 is neutral
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 56
pH and pOHComplete the Table
OH-H+ H+ H+ H+ H+
OH-OH-OH-OH-
[OH-]10-14 10-13 10-11 10-9 10-7 10-5 10-3 10-1 100
[H+] 100 10-1 10-3 10-5 10-7 10-9 10-11 10-13 10-14
pH
pOH
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 57
pH and pOHComplete the Table
OH-H+ H+ H+ H+ H+
OH-OH-OH-OH-
[OH-]10-14 10-13 10-11 10-9 10-7 10-5 10-3 10-1 100
[H+] 100 10-1 10-3 10-5 10-7 10-9 10-11 10-13 10-14
pH 0 1 3 5 7 9 11 13 14
pOH 14 13 11 9 7 5 3 1 0
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 58
Relationship between pH and pOH• the sum of the pH and pOH of a solution = 14.00
at 25°Ccan use pOH to find pH of a solution
( )( ) ( )( )( ) ( )( )
14.00pOHpH00.14]-[OHlog]OH[log
100.1log]-][OHOH[log
100.1]-][OHOH[
3
143
14w3
=+=−+−
×−=−
×==
+
−+
−+ K
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 59
pK• a way of expressing the strength of an acid or
base is pK• pKa = -log(Ka), Ka = 10-pKa
• pKb = -log(Kb), Kb = 10-pKb
• the stronger the acid, the smaller the pKalarger Ka = smaller pKa
because it is the –log
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 60
Finding the pH of a Strong Acid• there are two sources of H3O+ in an aqueous
solution of a strong acid – the acid and the water• for the strong acid, the contribution of the water
to the total [H3O+] is negligibleshifts the Kw equilibrium to the left so far that [H3O+]water is too small to be significant
except in very dilute solutions, generally < 1 x 10-4 M
• for a monoprotic strong acid [H3O+] = [HAcid]for polyprotic acids, the other ionizations can generally be ignored
• 0.10 M HCl has [H3O+] = 0.10 M and pH = 1.00
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 61
Finding the pH of a Weak Acid• there are also two sources of H3O+ in and
aqueous solution of a weak acid – the acid and the water
• however, finding the [H3O+] is complicated by the fact that the acid only undergoes partial ionization
• calculating the [H3O+] requires solving an equilibrium problem for the reaction that defines the acidity of the acid
HAcid + H2O ⇔ Acid− + H3O+
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 62
[NO2-]
equilibriumchangeinitial
[H3O+][HNO2]
Ex 15.6 Find the pH of 0.200 M HNO2(aq) solution @ 25°C
Enter the initial concentrations –assuming the [H3O+] from water is ≈ 0
Construct an ICE table for the reaction
Write the reaction for the acid with water
since no products initially, Qc = 0, and the reaction is proceeding forward
HNO2 + H2O ⇔ NO2− + H3O+
0[NO2
-]
equilibriumchange
≈ 00.200initial[H3O+][HNO2]
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 63
0[NO2
-]
equilibriumchange
00.200initial[H3O+][HNO2]
Ex 15.6 Find the pH of 0.200 M HNO2(aq) solution @ 25°C
substitute into the equilibrium constant expression
sum the columns to find the equilibrium concentrations in terms of x
represent the change in the concentrations in terms of x
+x+x−x0.200 −x x x
[ ]( )( )
( )xxxK
−×== −
+
12
3-2
a 1000.2HNO]OH][[NO
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 64
Ex 15.6 Find the pH of 0.200 M HNO2(aq) solution @ 25°C
[ ][ ][ ]
( )( )( )x
xxK−×
== −
+
12
3-2
a 1000.2HNOOHNO
since Ka is very small, approximate the [HNO2]eq = [HNO2]initand solve for x
determine the value of Ka from Table 15.5
[ ][ ][ ]
( )( )( )1
2
3-2
a 1000.2HNOOHNO
−
+
×==
xxK
1
24
1000.2106.4 −
−
×=×
x
( )( )3
14
106.9
1000.2106.4−
−−
×=
××=
x
x
Ka for HNO2 = 4.6 x 10-4
x+x0
[NO2-]
x0.200equilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.200initial
[H3O+][HNO2]
0.200 −x
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 65
Ex 15.6 Find the pH of 0.200 M HNO2(aq) solution @ 25°C
Ka for HNO2 = 4.6 x 10-4
x+x0
[NO2-]
x0.200equilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.200initial
[H3O+][HNO2]check if the approximation is valid by seeing if x < 5% of [HNO2]init
%5%8.4%1001000.2
106.91
3<=×
××
−
−
the approximation is valid
x = 9.6 x 10-3
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 66
Ex 15.6 Find the pH of 0.200 M HNO2(aq) solution @ 25°C
Ka for HNO2 = 4.6 x 10-4
x+x0
[NO2-]
x0.200-xequilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.200initial
[H3O+][HNO2]
x = 9.6 x 10-3
substitute x into the equilibrium concentration definitions and solve
[ ] ( ) M 190.0106.9200.0200.0HNO 32 =×−=−= −x
[ ] [ ] M 106.9OHNO 33
-2
−+ ×=== x
0.0096
+x0
[NO2-]
0.00960.190equilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.200initial
[H3O+][HNO2]
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 67
Ex 15.6 Find the pH of 0.200 M HNO2(aq) solution @ 25°C
Ka for HNO2 = 4.6 x 10-4
substitute [H3O+] into the formula for pH and solve
0.0096
+x0
[NO2-]
0.00960.190equilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.200initial
[H3O+][HNO2]
( )( ) 02.2106.9log
OH-logpH3
3
=×−=
=−
+
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 68
Ex 15.6 Find the pH of 0.200 M HNO2(aq) solution @ 25°C
Ka for HNO2 = 4.6 x 10-4
0.0096
+x0
[NO2-]
0.00960.190equilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.200initial
[H3O+][HNO2]check by substituting the equilibrium concentrations back into the equilibrium constant expression and comparing the calculated Ka to the given Ka [ ][ ]
[ ]( )
( )4
23
2
3-2
a
109.4190.0106.9
HNOOHNO
−−
+
×=×
=
==Kthough not exact, the answer is reasonably close
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 69
Practice - What is the pH of a 0.012 M solution of nicotinic acid, HC6H4NO2? (Ka = 1.4 x 10-5 @ 25°C)
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 70
Practice - What is the pH of a 0.012 M solution of nicotinic acid, HC6H4NO2?
Enter the initial concentrations –assuming the [H3O+] from water is ≈ 0
Construct an ICE table for the reaction
Write the reaction for the acid with water
HC6H4NO2 + H2O ⇔ C6H4NO2− + H3O+
0[A-]
equilibriumchange
≈ 00.012initial[H3O+][HA]
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 71
0[A-]
equilibriumchange
00.012initial[H3O+][HA]
Practice - What is the pH of a 0.012 M solution of nicotinic acid, HC6H4NO2?
substitute into the equilibrium constant expression
sum the columns to find the equilibrium concentrations in terms of x
represent the change in the concentrations in terms of x
+x+x−x0.012 −x x x
[ ]( )( )
( )xxxK
−×== −
+
2246
3-246
a 102.1NOHHC]OH][NOH[C
HC6H4NO2 + H2O ⇔ C6H4NO2− + H3O+
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 72
[ ][ ][ ]
( )( )( )x
xxK−×
== −
+
23
-
a 102.1HAOHA
since Ka is very small, approximate the [HA]eq = [HA]init and solve for x
determine the value of Ka
[ ][ ][ ]
( )( )( )2
3-
a 102.1HAOHA
−
+
×==
xxK
2
25
102.1104.1 −
−
×=×
x
( )( )4
25
101.4
102.1104.1−
−−
×=
××=
x
x
x+x0
[A2-]
x0.012equilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.012initial
[H3O+][HA]
0.012 −x
Practice - What is the pH of a 0.012 M solution of nicotinic acid, HC6H4NO2? Ka = 1.4 x 10-5 @ 25°C
HC6H4NO2 + H2O ⇔ C6H4NO2− + H3O+
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 73
Practice - What is the pH of a 0.012 M solution of nicotinic acid, HC6H4NO2? Ka = 1.4 x 10-5 @ 25°C
Ka for HC6H4NO2 = 1.4 x 10-5
check if the approximation is valid by seeing if x < 5% of [HC6H4NO2]init
%5%4.3%100102.1101.4
2
4<=×
××
−
−
the approximation is valid
x = 4.1 x 10-4
x+x0
[A2-]
x0.012equilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.012initial
[H3O+][HA]
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 74
Practice - What is the pH of a 0.012 M solution of nicotinic acid, HC6H4NO2? Ka = 1.4 x 10-5 @ 25°C
x = 4.1 x 10-4
substitute x into the equilibrium concentration definitions and solve
[ ] ( ) M 012.0101.4012.0012.0NOHHC 4246 =×−=−= −x
[ ] [ ] M 101.4OHNOHC 43
-246
−+ ×=== x
x+x0
[A2-]
x0.012-xequilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.012initial
[H3O+][HA]
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 75
Practice - What is the pH of a 0.012 M solution of nicotinic acid, HC6H4NO2? Ka = 1.4 x 10-5 @ 25°C
substitute [H3O+] into the formula for pH and solve
( )( ) 39.3101.4log
OH-logpH4
3
=×−=
=−
+
0.00041
+x0
[A2-]
0.000410.012equilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.012initial
[H3O+][HA]
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 76
Practice - What is the pH of a 0.012 M solution of nicotinic acid, HC6H4NO2? Ka = 1.4 x 10-5 @ 25°C
check by substituting the equilibrium concentrations back into the equilibrium constant expression and comparing the calculated Ka to the given Ka
the values match
0.00041
+x0
[A2-]
0.000410.012equilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.012initial
[H3O+][HA]
[ ]( )( )
52
24
246
3-246
a
104.1102.1101.4
NOHHC]OH][NOH[C
−−
−
+
×=××
=
=K
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 77
0[ClO2
-]
equilibriumchange
≈ 00.100initial[H3O+][HClO2]
Ex 15.7 Find the pH of 0.100 M HClO2(aq) solution @ 25°C
Enter the initial concentrations –assuming the [H3O+] from water is ≈ 0
Construct an ICE table for the reaction
Write the reaction for the acid with water HClO2 + H2O ⇔ ClO2
− + H3O+
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 78
Ex 15.7 Find the pH of 0.100 M HClO2(aq) solution @ 25°C
substitute into the equilibrium constant expression
sum the columns to find the equilibrium concentrations in terms of x
represent the change in the concentrations in terms of x
[ ]( )( )
( )xxxK
−×== −
+
12
3-2
a 1000.1HClO]OH][[ClO
x
+x0
[ClO2-]
x0.100-xequilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.100initial
[H3O+][HClO2]
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 79
Ex 15.7 Find the pH of 0.100 M HClO2(aq) solution @ 25°C
since Ka is very small, approximate the [HClO2]eq = [HClO2]initand solve for x
determine the value of Ka from Table 15.5
[ ][ ][ ]
( )( )( )1
2
3-2
a 1000.1HClOOHClO
−
+
×==
xxK
1
22
1000.1101.1 −
−
×=×
x
( )( )2
12
103.3
1000.1101.1−
−−
×=
××=
x
x
Ka for HClO2 = 1.1 x 10-2
x
+x0
[ClO2-]
x0.100-xequilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.100initial
[H3O+][HClO2]
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 80
Ex 15.7 Find the pH of 0.100 M HClO2(aq) solution @ 25°C
Ka for HClO2 = 1.1 x 10-2
check if the approximation is valid by seeing if x < 5% of [HNO2]init
%5%33%1001000.1
103.31
2>=×
××
−
−
the approximation is invalid
x = 3.3 x 10-2
x
+x0
[ClO2-]
x0.100-xequilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.100initial
[H3O+][HClO2]
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 81
Ex 15.7 Find the pH of 0.100 M HClO2(aq) solution @ 25°C
[ ][ ][ ]
( )( )( )x
xxK−×
== −
+
12
3-2
a 1000.1HClOOHClO
( )xx
−×=× −
−1
22
1000.1101.1
( )
0.039-or 028.0)1(2
)0011.0)(1(4011.0011.0
0011.0011.002
2
=
−−±−=
−+=
x
x
xx
Ka for HClO2 = 1.1 x 10-2
if the approximation is invalid, solve for xusing the quadratic formula
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 82
Ex 15.7 Find the pH of 0.100 M HClO2(aq) solution @ 25°C
Ka for HClO2 = 1.1 x 10-2
x = 0.028
substitute x into the equilibrium concentration definitions and solve
[ ] ( ) M 072.0028.0100.0100.0HClO2 =−=−= x
[ ] [ ] M 028.0OHClO 3-2 === + x
x
+x0
[ClO2-]
x0.100-xequilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.100initial
[H3O+][HClO2]
0.028
+x0
[ClO2-]
0.0280.072equilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.100initial
[H3O+][HClO2]
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 83
Ex 15.7 Find the pH of 0.100 M HClO2(aq) solution @ 25°C
Ka for HClO2 = 1.1 x 10-2
substitute [H3O+] into the formula for pH and solve
( )( ) 55.1028.0log
OH-logpH 3
=−== +
0.028
+x0
[ClO2-]
0.0280.072equilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.100initial
[H3O+][HClO2]
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 84
Ex 15.7 Find the pH of 0.100 M HClO2(aq) solution @ 25°C
Ka for HClO2 = 1.1 x 10-2
check by substituting the equilibrium concentrations back into the equilibrium constant expression and comparing the calculated Ka to the given Ka [ ][ ]
[ ]( )( )
22
2
3-2
a
101.1072.0028.0
HClOOHClO
−
+
×==
==Kthe answer matches
0.028
+x0
[ClO2-]
0.0280.072equilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.100initial
[H3O+][HClO2]
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 85
Ex 15.8 - What is the Ka of a weak acid if a 0.100 M solution has a pH of 4.25?
Use the pH to find the equilibrium [H3O+]
Enter the initial concentrations and [H3O+]equil
Construct an ICE table for the reaction
Write the reaction for the acid with water
HA + H2O ⇔ A− + H3O+
[A-]
equilibriumchangeinitial
[H3O+][HA]
M 106.51010]OH[ 525.4-pH3
−−+ ×===
0[A-]
5.6E-05equilibriumchange
≈ 00.100initial[H3O+][HA]
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 86
0[A-]
equilibrium
change00.100initial
[H3O+][HA]
Ex 15.8 - What is the Ka of a weak acid if a 0.100 M solution has a pH of 4.25?
if the difference is insignificant, [HA]equil = [HA]initial
substitute into the Kaexpression and compute Ka
fill in the rest of the table using the [H3O+] as a guide
+5.6E-05+5.6E-05−5.6E-05
0.100 −5.6E-05
5.6E-05 5.6E-05
[ ]( )( )
( )8
a
553
-
a
101.3100.0
106.5106.5HA
]OH][[A
−
−−+
×=
××==
K
K
HA + H2O ⇔ A− + H3O+
0.100
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 87
Percent Ionization• another way to measure the strength of an acid is
to determine the percentage of acid molecules that ionize when dissolved in water – this is called the percent ionization
the higher the percent ionization, the stronger the acid
• since [ionized acid]equil = [H3O+]equil
%100acid ofmolarity initialacid ionized ofmolarity IonizationPercent ×=
%100[HA]
]O[HIonizationPercent
init
equil3 ×=+
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 88
Ex 15.9 - What is the percent ionization of a 2.5 M HNO2 solution?
Sum the columns to define the Equilibrium Concentrations
Define the Change in Concentration in terms of x
Enter the Initial Concentrations
Construct an ICE table for the reaction
Write the reaction for the acid with water
HNO2 + H2O ⇔ NO2− + H3O+
[NO2-]
equilibriumchangeinitial
[H3O+][HNO2]0
[NO2-]
equilibriumchange
≈ 02.5initial[H3O+][HNO2]
+x+x−x2.5 − x x x
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 89
since Ka is very small, approximate the [HNO2]eq = [HNO2]initand solve for x
determine the value of Ka from Table 15.5
[ ][ ][ ]
( )( )( )5.2HNO
OHNO
2
3-2
axxK ==
+ 5.2106.4
24 x
=× −
( )( )2
4
104.3
5.2106.4−
−
×=
×=
x
x
Ka for HNO2 = 4.6 x 10-4
x
+x0
[NO2-]
x2.5-x ≈2.5equilibrium+x-xchange≈ 02.5initial
[H3O+][HNO2]
Ex 15.9 - What is the percent ionization of a 2.5 M HNO2 solution?
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 90
Ex 15.9 - What is the percent ionization of a 2.5 M HNO2 solution?
HNO2 + H2O ⇔ NO2− + H3O+
0.034
+x0
[NO2-]
0.0342.5equilibrium+x-xchange≈ 02.5initial
[H3O+][HNO2]
2.5 − x x x
substitute x into the Equilibrium Concentration definitions and solve
[ ] ( ) M 5.2034.05.25.2HNO2 =−=−= x
[ ] [ ] M 034.0OHNO 3-2 === + x
x = 3.4 x 10-2
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 91
Ex 15.9 - What is the percent ionization of a 2.5 M HNO2 solution?
HNO2 + H2O ⇔ NO2− + H3O+
0.034
+x0
[NO2-]
0.0342.5equilibrium+x-xchange≈ 02.5initial
[H3O+][HNO2]Apply the Definition and Compute the Percent Ionization
%4.1%1005.2104.3
%100][HNO
]O[HIonizationPercent
2init2
equil3
=××
=
×=
−
+since the percent ionization is < 5%, the “x is small” approximation is valid
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 92
Relationship Between [H3O+]equilibrium & [HA]initial
• increasing the initial concentration of acid results in increased H3O+
concentration at equilibrium• increasing the initial concentration
of acid results in decreased percent ionization
• this means that the increase in H3O+
concentration is slower than the increase in acid concentration
%100[HA]
]O[H
IonizationPercent
init
equil3 ×=+
93
Why doesn’t the increase in H3O+
keep up with the increase in HA?• the reaction for ionization of a weak acid is:
HA(aq) + H2O(l) ⇔ A−(aq) + H3O+
(aq)
• according to Le Châtelier’s Principle, if we reduce the concentrations of all the (aq) components, the equilibrium should shift to the right to increase the total number of dissolved particles
we can reduce the (aq) concentrations by using a more dilute initial acid concentration
• the result will be a larger [H3O+] in the dilute solution compared to the initial acid concentration
• this will result in a larger percent ionization
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 94
Finding the pH of Mixtures of Acids• generally, you can ignore the contribution of the
weaker acid to the [H3O+]equil
• for a mixture of a strong acid with a weak acid, the complete ionization of the strong acid provides more than enough [H3O+] to shift the weak acid equilibrium to the left so far that the weak acid’s added [H3O+] is negligible
• for mixtures of weak acids, generally only need to consider the stronger for the same reasons
as long as one is significantly stronger than the other, and their concentrations are similar
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 95
Ex 15.10 Find the pH of a mixture of 0.150 M HF(aq) solution and 0.100 M HClO2(aq)
Enter the initial concentrations –assuming the [H3O+] from water is ≈ 0
If the Kas are sufficiently different, use the strongest acid to construct an ICE table for the reaction
Write the reactions for the acids with water and determine their Kas
HF + H2O ⇔ F− + H3O+ Ka = 3.5 x 10-4
0[F-]
equilibriumchange
≈ 00.150initial[H3O+][HF]
HClO + H2O ⇔ ClO− + H3O+ Ka = 2.9 x 10-8
H2O + H2O ⇔ OH− + H3O+ Kw = 1.0 x 10-14
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 96
0[F-]
equilibriumchange
00.150initial[H3O+][HF]
Ex 15.10 Find the pH of a mixture of 0.150 M HF(aq) solution and 0.100 M HClO2(aq)
substitute into the equilibrium constant expression
sum the columns to find the equilibrium concentrations in terms of x
represent the change in the concentrations in terms of x
+x+x−x0.150 −x x x
[ ]( )( )
( )xxxK
−×== −
+
13
-
a 1050.1HF]OH][[F
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 97
Ex 15.10 Find the pH of a mixture of 0.150 M HF(aq) solution and 0.100 M HClO2(aq)
[ ][ ][ ]
( )( )( )x
xxK−
==+
150.0HFOHF 3
-
a
since Ka is very small, approximate the [HF]eq = [HF]init and solve for x
determine the value of Ka for HF
[ ][ ][ ]
( )( )( )150.0HF
OHF 3-
axxK ==
+
1
24
1050.1105.3 −
−
×=×
x
( )( )3
14
102.7
1050.1105.3−
−−
×=
××=
x
x
Ka for HF = 3.5 x 10-4
x+x0
[F-]
x0.150equilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.150initial
[H3O+][HF]
0.150 −x
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 98
Ex 15.10 Find the pH of a mixture of 0.150 M HF(aq) solution and 0.100 M HClO2(aq)
Ka for HF = 3.5 x 10-4
x+x0
[F-]
x0.150equilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.150initial
[H3O+][HF]check if the approximation is valid by seeing if x < 5% of [HF]init
%5%8.4%1001050.1102.7
1
3<=×
××
−
−
the approximation is valid
x = 7.2 x 10-3
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 99
Ex 15.10 Find the pH of a mixture of 0.150 M HF(aq) solution and 0.100 M HClO2(aq)
Ka for HF = 3.5 x 10-4
x+x0
[F-]
x0.150-xequilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.150initial
[H3O+][HF]
x = 7.2 x 10-3
substitute x into the equilibrium concentration definitions and solve
[ ] ( ) M 143.0102.7150.0150.0HF 3 =×−=−= −x
[ ] [ ] M 102.7OHF 33
- −+ ×=== x
0.0072
+x0
[F-]
0.00720.143equilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.150initial
[H3O+][HF]
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 100
Ex 15.10 Find the pH of a mixture of 0.150 M HF(aq) solution and 0.100 M HClO2(aq)
Ka for HF = 3.5 x 10-4
substitute [H3O+] into the formula for pH and solve
( )( ) 14.2102.7log
OH-logpH3
3
=×−=
=−
+
0.0072
+x0
[F-]
0.00720.143equilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.150initial
[H3O+][HF]
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 101
Ex 15.10 Find the pH of a mixture of 0.150 M HF(aq) solution and 0.100 M HClO2(aq)
Ka for HF = 3.5 x 10-4
check by substituting the equilibrium concentrations back into the equilibrium constant expression and comparing the calculated Ka to the given Ka [ ][ ]
[ ]( )
( )4
23
3-
a
106.3143.0102.7
HFOHF
−−
+
×=×
=
==Kthough not exact, the answer is reasonably close
0.0072
+x0
[F-]
0.00720.143equilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.150initial
[H3O+][HF]
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 102
NaOH → Na+ + OH-
Strong Bases• the stronger the base, the more
willing it is to accept Huse water as the standard acid
• for strong bases, practically all molecules are dissociated into OH– or accept H’s
strong electrolytemulti-OH strong bases completely dissociated
• [HO–] = [strong base] x (# OH)
Example 15.11b – Calculate the pH at 25°C of a 0.0015 M Sr(OH)2 solution and determine if the solution is acidic,
basic, or neutral
pH is unitless. The fact that the pH > 7 means the solution is basic
[Sr(OH)2] = 1.5 x 10-3 M
pH
Check:
Solution:
Concept Plan:
Relationships:
Given:
Find:
]-][OHOH[ 3w+=K
3
14
3
3w
100.3100.1]OH[
]-OH][OH[
−
−+
+
××
=
=K M 103.3]O[H 123
−+ ×=
]OH[log pH 3- +=
( )11.48 pH
103.3log- pH 12
=×= −
[H3O+][OH−] pH[Sr(OH)2]
[OH−]=2[Sr(OH)2]
[OH−] = 2(0.0015)= 0.0030 M
Example 15.11b (alternative) – Calculate the pH at 25°C of a 0.0015 M Sr(OH)2 solution and determine if the
solution is acidic, basic, or neutral
pH is unitless. The fact that the pH > 7 means the solution is basic
[Sr(OH)2] = 1.5 x 10-3 M
pH
Check:
Solution:
Concept Plan:
Relationships:
Given:
Find:
]--log[OHpOH = 4.001 pOHpH =+
( )2.52 pOH
100.3log- pOH 3
=×= −
pOH[OH−] pH[Sr(OH)2]
[OH−]=2[Sr(OH)2]
[OH−] = 2(0.0015)= 0.0030 M
11.482.52-14.00pHpOH-14.00 pH
===
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 105
Practice - Calculate the pH of a 0.0010 M Ba(OH)2 solution and determine if it is
acidic, basic, or neutral
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 106
Practice - Calculate the pH of a 0.0010 M Ba(OH)2 solution and determine if it is
acidic, basic, or neutral
[H3O+] = 1.00 x 10-14
2.0 x 10-3 = 5.0 x 10-12M
pH > 7 therefore basic
Ba(OH)2 = Ba2+ + 2 OH- therefore [OH-] = 2 x 0.0010 = 0.0020 = 2.0 x 10-3 M
pH = -log [H3O+] = -log (5.0 x 10-12)pH = 11.30
Kw = [H3O+][OH−]
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 107
Weak Bases• in weak bases, only a small
fraction of molecules accept H’sweak electrolytemost of the weak base molecules do not take H from watermuch less than 1% ionization in water
• [HO–] << [weak base]• finding the pH of a weak base
solution is similar to finding the pH of a weak acid
NH3 + H2O ⇔ NH4+ + OH-
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 108
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 109
Structure of Amines
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 110
[NH4+]
equilibriumchangeinitial
[OH−][NH3]
Ex 15.12 Find the pH of 0.100 M NH3(aq) solution
Enter the initial concentrations –assuming the [OH−] from water is ≈ 0
Construct an ICE table for the reaction
Write the reaction for the base with water
since no products initially, Qc = 0, and the reaction is proceeding forward
NH3 + H2O ⇔ NH4+ + OH−
0[NH4
+]
equilibriumchange
≈ 00.100initial[OH−][NH3]
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 111
0[NH4
+]
equilibriumchange
00.100initial[OH−][NH3]
Ex 15.12 Find the pH of 0.100 M NH3(aq) solution
substitute into the equilibrium constant expression
sum the columns to find the equilibrium concentrations in terms of x
represent the change in the concentrations in terms of x
+x+x−x0.100 −x x x
[ ]( )( )
( )xxxK
−×== −
−+
13
4b 1000.1NH
]OH][[NH
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 112
Ex 15.12 Find the pH of 0.100 M NH3(aq) solution
[ ][ ][ ]
( )( )( )x
xxK−×
== −
−+
13
4b 1000.1NH
OHNH
since Kb is very small, approximate the [NH3]eq = [NH3]initand solve for x
determine the value of Kb from Table 15.8
[ ][ ][ ]
( )( )( )1
3
4b 1000.1NH
OHNH−
−+
×==
xxK
1
25
1000.11076.1 −
−
×=×
x
( )( )3
15
1033.1
1000.11076.1−
−−
×=
××=
x
x
Kb for NH3 = 1.76 x 10-5
x+x0
[NH4+]
x0.100equilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.100initial
[OH−][NH3]
0.100 −x
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 113
Ex 15.12 Find the pH of 0.100 M NH3(aq) solution
Kb for NH3 = 1.76 x 10-5
x+x0
[NH4+]
x0.100equilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.100initial
[OH−][NH3]check if the approximation is valid by seeing if x < 5% of [NH3]init
%5%33.1%1001000.11033.1
1
3<=×
××
−
−
the approximation is valid
x = 1.33 x 10-3
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 114
Ex 15.12 Find the pH of 0.100 M NH3(aq) solution
substitute x into the equilibrium concentration definitions and solve
[ ] ( ) M 099.01033.1100.0100.0NH 33 =×−=−= −x
M 1033.1][OH]NH[ 3-4
−+ ×=== x
Kb for NH3 = 1.76 x 10-5
x+x0
[NH4+]
x0.100 −xequilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.100initial
[OH−][NH3]
x = 1.33 x 10-3
1.33E-3
+x0
[NH4+]
1.33E-30.099equilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.100initial
[OH−][NH3]
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 115
Ex 15.12 Find the pH of 0.100 M NH3(aq) solution
substitute [H3O+] into the formula for pH and solve
use the [OH-] to find the [H3O+] using Kw
( )( ) 124.111052.7log
OH-logpH12
3
=×−=
=−
+
Kb for NH3 = 1.76 x 10-5
1.33E-3
+x0
[NH4+]
1.33E-30.099equilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.100initial
[OH−][NH3]
12-3
3-
14-
3
-3w
107.52]O[H101.33101.00]O[H
]][OHO[H
×=××
=
=
+
+
+K
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 116
Ex 15.12 Find the pH of 0.100 M NH3(aq) solution
use pOH to find pH
use the [OH-] to find the pOH
( )( )
876.21033.1log
OH-logpOH3
=×−=
=−
−
Kb for NH3 = 1.76 x 10-5
1.33E-3
+x0
[NH4+]
1.33E-30.099equilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.100initial
[OH−][NH3]
11.1242.876-14.00
pOH -14.00pH
==
=
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 117
Ex 15.12 Find the pH of 0.100 M NH3(aq) solutionKb for NH3 = 1.76 x 10-5
1.33E-3
+x0
[NH4+]
1.33E-30.099equilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.100initial
[OH−][NH3]check by substituting the equilibrium concentrations back into the equilibrium constant expression and comparing the calculated Kb to the given Kb
[ ][ ][ ]
( )( )
523
3
4b
108.1099.0
1033.1
NHOHNH
−−
−+
×=×
=
=Kthough not exact, the answer is reasonably close
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 118
Practice – Find the pH of a 0.0015 M morphine solution, Kb = 1.6 x 10-6
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 119
Practice – Find the pH of a 0.0015 M morphine solution
Enter the initial concentrations –assuming the [OH−] from water is ≈ 0
Construct an ICE table for the reaction
Write the reaction for the base with water
since no products initially, Qc = 0, and the reaction is proceeding forward
B + H2O ⇔ BH+ + OH−
0[BH+]
equilibriumchange
≈ 00.0015initial[OH−][B]
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 120
0[BH+]
equilibriumchange
00.0015initial[OH−][B]
Practice – Find the pH of a 0.0015 M morphine solution
substitute into the equilibrium constant expression
sum the columns to find the equilibrium concentrations in terms of x
represent the change in the concentrations in terms of x
+x+x−x0.0015 −x x x
[ ]( )( )
( )xxxK
−×== −
−+
3b 105.1B]OH][[BH
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 121
Practice – Find the pH of a 0.0015 M morphine solution
[ ][ ][ ]
( )( )( )x
xxK−×
== −
−+
3b 105.1BOHBH
since Kb is very small, approximate the [B]eq = [B]init and solve for x
determine the value of Kb
[ ][ ][ ]
( )( )( )3b 105.1B
OHBH−
−+
×==
xxK
1
26
105.1106.1 −
−
×=×
x
( )( )5
36
109.4
105.1106.1−
−−
×=
××=
x
x
Kb for Morphine = 1.6 x 10-6
x+x0
[BH+]
x0.0015equilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.0015initial
[OH−][B]
0.0015 −x
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 122
Practice – Find the pH of a 0.0015 M morphine solution
check if the approximation is valid by seeing if x < 5% of [B]init
%5%3.3%100105.1109.4
3
5<=×
××
−
−
the approximation is valid
x = 4.9 x 10-5
Kb for Morphine = 1.6 x 10-6
x+x0
[BH+]
x0.0015equilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.0015initial
[OH−][B]
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 123
Practice – Find the pH of a 0.0015 M morphine solution
substitute x into the equilibrium concentration definitions and solve
[ ] ( ) M 0015.0109.40015.00015.0Morphine 5 =×−=−= −x
M 109.4][OH]BH[ 5- −+ ×=== x
x = 4.9 x 10-5
Kb for Morphine = 1.6 x 10-6
x+x0
[BH+]
x0.0015 −xequilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.0015initial
[OH−][B]
4.9E-5
+x0
[BH+]
4.9E-50.0015equilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.0015initial
[OH−][B]
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 124
Practice – Find the pH of a 0.0015 M morphine solution
substitute [H3O+] into the formula for pH and solve
use the [OH-] to find the [H3O+] using Kw
( )( ) 69.9100.2log
OH-logpH10
3
=×−=
=−
+
10-3
5-
14-
3
-3w
100.2]O[H109.4101.00]O[H
]][OHO[H
×=××
=
=
+
+
+K
Kb for Morphine = 1.6 x 10-6
4.9E-5
+x0
[BH+]
4.9E-50.0015equilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.0015initial
[OH−][B]
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 125
Practice – Find the pH of a 0.0015 M morphine solution
use pOH to find pH
use the [OH-] to find the pOH
( )( )
31.4109.4log
OH-logpOH5
=×−=
=−
−
69.94.31-14.00
pOH -14.00pH
==
=
Kb for Morphine = 1.6 x 10-6
4.9E-5
+x0
[BH+]
4.9E-50.0015equilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.0015initial
[OH−][B]
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 126
Practice – Find the pH of a 0.0015 M morphine solution
check by substituting the equilibrium concentrations back into the equilibrium constant expression and comparing the calculated Kb to the given Kb
[ ][ ][ ]
( )( )
625
b
106.10015.0
109.4
BOHBH
−−
−+
×=×
=
=Kthe answer matches the given Kb
Kb for Morphine = 1.6 x 10-6
4.9E-5
+x0
[BH+]
4.9E-50.0015equilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.0015initial
[OH−][B]
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 127
Acid-Base Properties of Salts• salts are water soluble ionic compounds• salts that contain the cation of a strong base and an
anion that is the conjugate base of a weak acid are basic
NaHCO3 solutions are basicNa+ is the cation of the strong base NaOHHCO3
− is the conjugate base of the weak acid H2CO3
• salts that contain cations that are the conjugate acid of a weak base and an anion of a strong acid are acidic
NH4Cl solutions are acidicNH4
+ is the conjugate acid of the weak base NH3
Cl− is the anion of the strong acid HCl
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 128
Anions as Weak Bases• every anion can be thought of as the conjugate base of an
acid• therefore, every anion can potentially be a base
A−(aq) + H2O(l) ⇔ HA(aq) + OH−(aq)• the stronger the acid is, the weaker the conjugate base is
an anion that is the conjugate base of a strong acid is pH neutralCl−(aq) + H2O(l) ← HCl(aq) + OH−(aq)
since HCl is a strong acid, this equilibrium lies practically completely to the left
an anion that is the conjugate base of a weak acid is basicF−(aq) + H2O(l) ⇔ HF(aq) + OH−(aq)
since HF is a weak acid, the position of this equilibrium favors the right
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 129
Ex 15.13 - Use the Table to Determine if the Given Anion Is Basic or Neutral
a) NO3−
the conjugate base of a strong acid, therefore neutral
b) NO2−
the conjugate base of a weak acid, therefore basic
130
Relationship between Ka of an Acid and Kb of Its Conjugate Base
• many reference books only give tables of Ka values because Kb values can be found from them
][A]OHA][H[ )(OH ) HA()O( H)(A
[HA]]O][HA[ )(O H )(A )O( H)HA(
3b2
3a32
−
+−−
+−+−
=+⇔+
=+⇔+
Kaqaqlaq
Kaqaqlaqwhen you add equations, you multiply the K’s
)(OH )(OH )O(H 2 32 aqaql −+ +⇔
w3ba
3ba
]OH][OH[]A[
]OH][HA[]HA[
]OH][A[
KKK
KK
==×
×=×
−+
−
−+−
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 131
Ex 15.14 Find the pH of 0.100 M NaCHO2(aq) solution
Write the reaction for the anion with water
Enter the initial concentrations –assuming the [OH−] from water is ≈ 0
Construct an ICE table for the reaction
Na+ is the cation of a strong base – pH neutral. The CHO2
−
is the anion of a weak acid – pH basic
CHO2− + H2O ⇔ HCHO2 + OH−
0
[HCHO2]
equilibriumchange
≈ 00.100initial[OH−][CHO2
−]
132
0.100 −x
Ex 15.14 Find the pH of 0.100 M NaCHO2(aq) solution
Calculate the value of Kb from the value of Ka of the weak acid from Table 15.5substitute into the equilibrium constant expression
sum the columns to find the equilibrium concentrations in terms of x
represent the change in the concentrations in terms of x
+x+x−xx x
[ ]( )( )
( )xxxK
−×== −−
−
12
2b 1000.1CHO
]OH][[HCHO
0
[HCHO2]
equilibriumchange
≈ 00.100initial[OH−][CHO2
−]
114
14
b
wba
106.5108.1100.1 −
−
−
×=××
=
=×
K
KKK
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 133
Ex 15.14 Find the pH of 0.100 M NaCHO2(aq) solution
since Kb is very small, approximate the [CHO2
−]eq = [CHO2−]init
and solve for x
1
211
1000.1106.5 −
−
×=×
x
( )( )6
111
104.21000.1106.5
−
−−
×=××=
xx
Kb for CHO2− = 5.6 x 10-11
x+x0
[HCHO2]
x0.100equilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.100initial
[OH−][CHO2−]
0.100 −x
[ ]( )( )
( )xxxK
−×== −−
−
12
2b 1000.1CHO
]OH][[HCHO[ ]
( )( )( )1
2
2b 1000.1CHO
]OH][[HCHO−−
−
×==
xxK
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 134
Ex 15.14 Find the pH of 0.100 M NaCHO2(aq) solution
check if the approximation is valid by seeing if x < 5% of [CHO2
−]init
%5%0024.0%1001000.1104.2
1
6<=×
××
−
−
the approximation is valid
x = 2.4 x 10-6
Kb for CHO2− = 5.6 x 10-11
x+x0
[HCHO2]
x0.100equilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.100initial
[OH−][CHO2−]
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 135
Ex 15.14 Find the pH of 0.100 M NaCHO2(aq) solution
substitute x into the equilibrium concentration definitions and solve
[ ] ( ) M 100.0104.2100.0100.0CHO 62 =×−=−= −− x
M 104.2][OH]HCHO[ 6-2
−×=== x
x = 2.4 x 10-6
Kb for CHO2− = 5.6 x 10-11
x+x0
[HCHO2]
x0.100 −xequilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.100initial
[OH−][CHO2−]
2.4E-6
+x0
[HCHO2]
2.4E-60.100equilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.100initial
[OH−][CHO2−]
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 136
Ex 15.14 Find the pH of 0.100 M NaCHO2(aq) solution
substitute [H3O+] into the formula for pH and solve
use the [OH-] to find the [H3O+] using Kw
( )( ) 38.8102.4log
OH-logpH9
3
=×−==
−
+
9-3
6-
14-
3
-3w
102.4]O[H104.2101.00]O[H
]][OHO[H
×=××
=
=
+
+
+K
Kb for CHO2− = 5.6 x 10-11
2.4E-6
+x0
[HCHO2]
2.4E-60.100equilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.100initial
[OH−][CHO2−]
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 137
Ex 15.14 Find the pH of 0.100 M NaCHO2(aq) solution
use pOH to find pH
use the [OH-] to find the pOH
( )( )
62.5104.2logOH-logpOH
6
=×−=
=−
−
38.85.62-14.00
pOH -14.00pH
==
=
Kb for CHO2− = 5.6 x 10-11
2.4E-6
+x0
[HCHO2]
2.4E-60.100equilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.100initial
[OH−][CHO2−]
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 138
Ex 15.14 Find the pH of 0.100 M NaCHO2(aq) solution
check by substituting the equilibrium concentrations back into the equilibrium constant expression and comparing the calculated Kb to the given Kb
[ ][ ][ ]
( )( )
1126
2
2b
108.5100.0104.2
CHOOHHCHO
−−
−
−
×=×
=
=Kthough not exact, the answer is reasonably close
Kb for CHO2− = 5.6 x 10-11
2.4E-6
+x0
[HCHO2]
2.4E-60.100equilibrium+x-xchange≈ 00.100initial
[OH−][CHO2−]
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 139
Polyatomic Cations as Weak Acids• some cations can be thought of as the conjugate acid
of a baseothers are the counterions of a strong base
• therefore, some cation can potentially be an acidMH+(aq) + H2O(l) ⇔ MOH(aq) + H3O+(aq)
• the stronger the base is, the weaker the conjugate acid is
a cation that is the counterion of a strong base is pH neutrala cation that is the conjugate acid of a weak base is acidic
NH4+(aq) + H2O(l) ⇔ NH3(aq) + H3O+(aq)
since NH3 is a weak base, the position of this equilibrium favors the right
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 140
Metal Cations as Weak Acids• cations of small, highly charged metals are weakly
acidicalkali metal cations and alkali earth metal cations pH neutralcations are hydrated
Al(H2O)63+(aq) + H2O(l) ⇔ Al(H2O)5(OH)2+ (aq) + H3O+(aq)
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 141
Ex 15.15 - Determine if the Given Cation Is Acidic or Neutral
a) C5N5NH2+
the conjugate acid of a weak base, therefore acidic
b) Ca2+
the counterion of a strong base, therefore neutralc) Cr3+
a highly charged metal ion, therefore acidic
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 142
Classifying Salt Solutions asAcidic, Basic, or Neutral
• if the salt cation is the counterion of a strong base and the anion is the conjugate base of a strong acid, it will form a neutral solution
NaCl Ca(NO3)2 KBr• if the salt cation is the counterion of a strong
base and the anion is the conjugate base of a weak acid, it will form a basic solution
NaF Ca(C2H3O2)2 KNO2
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 143
Classifying Salt Solutions asAcidic, Basic, or Neutral
• if the salt cation is the conjugate acid of a weak base and the anion is the conjugate base of a strong acid, it will form an acidic solution
NH4Cl • if the salt cation is a highly charged metal ion
and the anion is the conjugate base of a strong acid, it will form an acidic solution
Al(NO3)3
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 144
Classifying Salt Solutions asAcidic, Basic, or Neutral
• if the salt cation is the conjugate acid of a weak base and the anion is the conjugate base of a weak acid, the pH of the solution depends on the relative strengths of the acid and base
NH4F since HF is a stronger acid than NH4+, Ka of
NH4+ is larger than Kb of the F−; therefore the
solution will be acidic
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 145
Ex 15.16 - Determine whether a solution of the following salts is acidic, basic, or neutral
a) SrCl2Sr2+ is the counterion of a strong base, pH neutralCl− is the conjugate base of a strong acid, pH neutralsolution will be pH neutral
b) AlBr3Al3+ is a small, highly charged metal ion, weak acidCl− is the conjugate base of a strong acid, pH neutralsolution will be acidic
c) CH3NH3NO3CH3NH3
+ is the conjugate acid of a weak base, acidicNO3
− is the conjugate base of a strong acid, pH neutralsolution will be acidic
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 146
Ex 15.16 - Determine whether a solution of the following salts is acidic, basic, or neutral
d) NaCHO2
Na+ is the counterion of a strong base, pH neutralCHO2
− is the conjugate base of a weak acid, basicsolution will be basic
e) NH4FNH4
+ is the conjugate acid of a weak base, acidicF− is the conjugate base of a weak acid, basicKa(NH4
+) > Kb(F−); solution will be acidic
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 147
Polyprotic Acids• since polyprotic acids ionize in steps, each H has a
separate Ka• Ka1 > Ka2 > Ka3• generally, the difference in Ka values is great enough so
that the second ionization does not happen to a large enough extent to affect the pH
most pH problems just do first ionizationexcept H2SO4 ⇒ use [H2SO4] as the [H3O+] for the second ionization
• [A2-] = Ka2 as long as the second ionization is negligible
148
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 149
0[SO4
2 −]
equilibriumchange
0.01000.0100initial[H3O+][HSO4
−]
Ex 15.18 Find the pH of 0.0100 M H2SO4(aq) solution @ 25°C
Enter the initial concentrations –assuming the [HSO4
−] and [H3O+] is ≈ [H2SO4]
Construct an ICE table for the reaction
Write the reactions for the acid with water HSO4
− + H2O ⇔ SO42− + H3O+
H2SO4 + H2O ⇔ HSO4− + H3O+
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 150
Ex 15.18 Find the pH of 0.0100 M H2SO4(aq) solution @ 25°C
substitute into the equilibrium constant expression
sum the columns to find the equilibrium concentrations in terms of x
represent the change in the concentrations in terms of x
( )( )( )x
xxK−
+==
+
0100.00100.0
]HSO[]OH][[SO
-4
3-2
4a
x
+x0
[SO42 −]
0.0100 −x0.0100 −xequilibrium+x−xchange
0.01000.0100initial[H3O+][HSO4
−]
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 151
Ex 15.18 Find the pH of 0.0100 M H2SO4(aq) solution @ 25°C
( )( )
00012.0022.001000.1102.1102.1
0100.00100.0012.0
2
2224
−+=+×=×−×
−+
=
−−−
xxxxx
xxx
( )
0.0045or 027.0)1(2
)00012.0)(1(4022.0022.0 2
−=
−−±−=
x
x
Ka for HSO4− = 0.012
expand and solve for x using the quadratic formula
( )( )( )x
xxK−
+==
+
0100.00100.0
]HSO[]OH][[SO
-4
3-2
4a
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 152
Ex 15.18 Find the pH of 0.0100 M H2SO4(aq) solution @ 25°C
x = 0.0045
substitute x into the equilibrium concentration definitions and solve
( ) M 0055.00045.00100.00100.0]HSO[ 4 =−=−=− x( ) M 0145.00100.0]OH[ 3 =+=+ x
x
+x0
[SO42 −]
0.0100 −x0.0100 −xequilibrium+x−xchange
0.01000.0100initial[H3O+][HSO4
−]Ka for HSO4
− = 0.012
0.0045
+x0
[SO42 −]
0.01450.0055equilibrium+x−xchange
0.01000.0100initial[H3O+][HSO4
−]
M 0045.0]SO[ -24 == x
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 153
Ex 15.18 Find the pH of 0.0100 M H2SO4(aq) solution @ 25°C
substitute [H3O+] into the formula for pH and solve
( )( ) 839.10145.0log
OH-logpH 3=−=
= +
Ka for HSO4− = 0.012
0.0045
+x0
[SO42 −]
0.01450.0055equilibrium+x−xchange
0.01000.0100initial[H3O+][HSO4
−]
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 154
Ex 15.7 Find the pH of 0.100 M HClO2(aq) solution @ 25°C
check by substituting the equilibrium concentrations back into the equilibrium constant expression and comparing the calculated Ka to the given Ka [ ][ ]
[ ]( )( )
( )2
-4
3-2
4a
102.10055.0
0145.00045.0HSO
OHSO
−
+
×==
==Kthe answer matches
Ka for HSO4− = 0.012
0.0045
+x0
[SO42 −]
0.01450.0055equilibrium+x−xchange
0.01000.0100initial[H3O+][HSO4
−]
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 155
Strengths of Binary Acids
• the more δ+ H-X δ- polarized the bond, the more acidic the bond
• the stronger the H-X bond, the weaker the acid
• binary acid strength increases to the right across a period
H-C < H-N < H-O < H-F• binary acid strength increases down
the columnH-F < H-Cl < H-Br < H-I
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 156
Strengths of Oxyacids, H-O-Y
• the more electronegative the Y atom, the stronger the acid
helps weakens the H-O bond• the more oxygens attached to Y, the stronger the
acidfurther weakens and polarizes the H-O bond
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 157
Lewis Acid - Base Theory• electron sharing• electron donor = Lewis Base = nucleophile
must have a lone pair of electrons• electron acceptor = Lewis Acid = electrophile
electron deficient• when Lewis Base gives electrons from lone
pair to Lewis Acid, a covalent bond forms between the molecules
Nucleophile: + Electrophile ⇔ Nucleophile:Electrophile
• product called an adduct• other acid-base reactions also Lewis
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 158
Example - Complete the Following Lewis Acid-Base Reactions
Label the Nucleophile and ElectrophileOH
H C H⊕
+ OH-1 ⇔
OH
H C H
OH
OH
H C H⊕
+ OH-1 ⇔Electrophile Nucleophile
••••
••
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 159
Practice - Complete the Following Lewis Acid-Base Reactions
Label the Nucleophile and Electrophile
• BF3 + HF ⇔
• CaO + SO3 ⇔
• KI + I2 ⇔
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 160
Practice - Complete the Following Lewis Acid-Base Reactions
Label the Nucleophile and Electrophile
• BF3 + HF ⇔ H+1BF4-1
• CaO + SO3 ⇔ Ca+2SO4-2
• KI + I2 ⇔ KI3
F
B F
F
H F••••
•• +
F
B F
F
F-1
H+1NucElec
O
S O
O
••••
Ca+2 O -2•• •• +O
S O
O
O-2
Ca+2
ElecNuc
I IK+1 I -1••
••
•• •• +ElecNuc K+1 I I I -1
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 161
What Is Acid Rain?
• natural rain water has a pH of 5.6naturally slightly acidic due mainly to CO2
• rain water with a pH lower than 5.6 is called acid rain
• acid rain is linked to damage in ecosystems and structures
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 162
What Causes Acid Rain?• many natural and pollutant gases dissolved in the air
are nonmetal oxidesCO2, SO2, NO2
• nonmetal oxides are acidicCO2 + H2O ⇔ H2CO3
2 SO2 + O2 + 2 H2O ⇔ 2 H2SO4• processes that produce nonmetal oxide gases as waste
increase the acidity of the rainnatural – volcanoes and some bacterial actionman-made – combustion of fuel
• weather patterns may cause rain to be acidic in regions other than where the nonmetal oxide is produced
pH of Rain in Different Regions
Sources of SO2 from Utilities
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 165
Damage from Acid Rain• acids react with metals, and materials that contain
carbonates• acid rain damages bridges, cars, and other metallic
structures• acid rain damages buildings and other structures made
of limestone or cement• acidifying lakes affecting aquatic life • dissolving and leaching more minerals from soil
making it difficult for trees
Tro, Chemistry: A Molecular Approach 166
Acid Rain Legislation
• 1990 Clean Air Act attacks acid rainforce utilities to reduce SO2
• result is acid rain in northeast stabilized and beginning to be reduced
167
Damage from Acid Rain