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CHAPTER 14

ENVIRONMENTAL HOTSPOTS OF KARNATAKA

CONTENTS

Introduction

Methodology used for the identification of Environmental Hotspots in Karnataka

Hotspots of Forest Ecosystem and Biodiversity

Hotspots of Coastal and Marine Ecosystem

Hotspots of Freshwater Ecosystem

Hotspots of Agro-Ecosystem and allied activities

Hotspots of Urban Ecosystem

Hotspots of developmental Activities (Mining and quarrying activities):

Hotspots of natural disasters

Description about some selected Environmental Hotspots in Karnataka

Hotspot number 1: Kudremukh forest complex

Hotspot Number 2: Talacauvery wildlife sanctuary and its surrounding landscape

Hotspot number 3: Belandur and Varthur lakes, Bangalore

Hotspot number 4: Bellary mining area

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TABLES

Table-1: Hotspots of Forest ecosystem and Biodiversity

Table-2: Hotspots of Coastal and Marine Ecosystem

Table-3: Hotspots of fresh water ecosystem

Table-4: Hotspots of Agro-ecosystem (land degradation due to agricultural practices)

Table-5: Hotspots of Urban-ecosystem

Table -6: Hotspots of mining and quarrying activities

Table-7: Hotspots of natural disasters

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Chapter 14

ENVIRONMENTAL HOTSPOTS OF KARNATAKA

Introduction

14.1. Karnataka is a progressive and dynamic state in the southern part of India. It is endowed

with great diversity of climate, topography, soil, flora, fauna and various natural resources. As a

developing economy, Karnataka is heavily dependent on her natural resource wealth. However,

excessive use of natural resources for economic development has depleted the very resource base as

a result of which the present generations are confronted with some of the major environmental

challenges. The need for rapid economic growth to alleviate poverty and to improve the living

conditions of an ever increasing population has led to adoption of intensive agriculture, polluting

industries, inappropriate technologies, unplanned urbanization, faulty developmental policies, etc.

More often than not, these activities have had adverse impact on the key environmental resources

such as land, water, air, flora and fauna, etc. Quite often, environmental concerns get compromised

in the name of the so-called development process. However, as these concerns have become more

and more serious due to continued and unabated degradation of the natural resources to critical

limits, increasing attention is being paid to them by one and all.

14.2. Hotspots as a concept: Generally, many of us are quite familiar with the phrase

“biodiversity hotspot”. It was a term coined by the British biologist Norman Myers in 1988 for

“geographic region that exhibits exceptionally high proportion of endemic plants and experiences

serious levels of loss in natural habitat”. Subsequently, many ecologists, environmentalists and civil

society organizations started using the phrase “Hotspots” very often. It brings to mind a location,

activity or situation that is beyond the usual or out of the ordinary. Normally, it is used to draw

attention to particular situations of concern or interest.

14.3. Some of the commonly used hotspots in the field of environmental studies include hazard

hotspots, disease hotspots, accident hotspots, crime hotspots and so on. Other hotspots include

political and military conflict hotspots, sea surface temperature hotspots, coral bleaching hotspots,

geologic hotspots, cultural hotspots, skiing hotspots, tourist hotspots, scuba hotspots and so forth.

The commonality among all the hotspots is that they exhibit a high level of concentration of events

in a relatively small geographical area. Nature induced hotspots can, for example, be caused by

some natural phenomenon like earth quakes, landslides, drought, flood, fire, frost, cyclone, severe

storm, volcanic eruptions, etc. Societal hotspots can be caused by ethnic conflicts, trans-boundary

political differences over ownership of land or water, religious differences, etc.

14.4. Generally, the term “Hotspots” is referred to and used in both positive and negative senses

depending upon the situation or condition. The negative sense connotes that something unwanted or

unfavorable is likely to occur or is already in progress, whereas for the general public, the term

more than likely suggests a positive experience such as hotspots for dancing, fishing, vacationing or

some other exciting event/activity. However, in the world of the environmentalist, ‘hotspots’ refer

to negative changes and it is viewed as a concept that identifies a situation which, if left unattended,

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could prove harmful to both the environment and to the people who depend on it. Therefore,

Environmental hotspots can be defined as “locations or activities of interest to a group or

organization where human interactions with the environment are considered to be adverse to the

sustainability of an ecosystem or the human activities dependent on it”. Environmental hotspot is a

generic term and refers to a site or location which forms part of either terrestrial or aquatic

ecosystem, that is experiencing the most evident and dramatic changes. It is for the first time that a

new chapter on Environmental hotspots is included in the State of Environment Report Karnataka

(SoER-2015)

14.5. Environmental Performance Index (EPI) is an assessment that places countries on how well

they perform on high-priority environmental issues. It is a method of quantifying and numerically

marking the environmental performance of a state's policies. According to 2014 Environmental

Performance Index, India stood at 155th

position among 178 countries. Further, 2016 EPI has placed

India at 141st position among 180 countries. Now, we are in a compulsion to improve the

performance of our country and Karnataka in specific high-priority environmental issues, so as to

achieve the ultimate goal of sustainable development. The first and foremost strategy to achieve the

objective of sustainable development is to identify some of the environmental hotspots of various

ecosystems and find out the issues associated with the ongoing developmental activities.

Identification of environmental hotspots will ultimately help us in understanding the key

environmental issues and problems faced by some of the representative but critical ecosystems

and/or ongoing developmental activities, so as to incite the concern of the public towards the

protection and conservation of many such similar critical ecosystems and/or development activities.

Therefore, this chapter is primarily aimed at sensitization of various stakeholders towards some of

the important locations, its values and the existing environmental issues, etc.

Methodology used for the identification of Environmental Hotspots in Karnataka

14.6. This chapter draws on extensive inputs from a variety of sources. The methodology adopted

in identifying, delineating and describing the environmental hotspots of Karnataka is through

review of literature from published research articles, reports, books and other documents.

Therefore, secondary data became major source of information for writing this chapter. Semi-

structured interviews with scientists, environmentalists, officials/bureaucrats and civil society

organizations are also used as one of the methods to identify and delineate environmental hotspots.

Field visits are also one of the methods adopted to write this chapter.

Classification and categorization of Environmental Hotspots of Karnataka 14.7. The natural resource environment of Karnataka includes forest cover and biodiversity,

agricultural land use, livestock and fisheries, coastal and marine resources, fresh water resources,

reserves of mineral ores and their exploitation, urban environment, etc. Some of the locations/areas

within these natural resource environments are facing serious threats compared to other

locations/areas of the ecosystem and are in different stages of degradation. Therefore, there is

urgent need to identify such locations where the natural resource environments are in critical stage

and need our attention to restore their status. The list of locations that are identified as

environmental hotspots is not comprehensive but only indicative and underscores the importance of

many such locations which are crucial for the maintenance of ecosystem balance and sustenance of

life on local or regional scale.

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Hotspots of Forest Ecosystem and Biodiversity 14.8. The forest ecosystem of Karnataka is very unique and highly diverse. Different forest

ecosystems are the result of the interplay of topographic, climatic and edaphic differences

influenced by altitude and the distance from the sea. Forests account for the second largest land use

after agriculture and it is a repository of rich biodiversity at the level of gene, species and

ecosystem. Karnataka being one of the rich biodiversity states of India is endowed with some of the

most magnificent forests in the country (Prajapati R.C, 2010). The major vegetation types of the

state include West coast tropical evergreen forest, West coast semi-evergreen forest, Southern moist

mixed deciduous forest, Southern dry mixed deciduous forest, Dry teak forest, Southern thorn

scrub, Dry deciduous scrub, Moist teak forest, Hardwickia forest, Nilgiri Subtropical Hill forest,

Dry grasslands, Mangrove scrubs, etc. (FSI, 2015).

14.9. Karnataka has two distinct physiographic regions viz. the “Malnad” or Hilly region

comprising the Western Ghats and the “Maidan” or the plain region comprising the inland plateau

of varying height. The Western Ghats is one of the biologically richest regions of the world and is

recognized as one of the 34 biodiversity hotspots of the world and also as one of the 18-mega bio-

diversity hotspots of the world (Meyer, 1988).The Western Ghats forests are a fragile ecosystem

and cover about 60% of forest area of Karnataka. There are about 325 globally threatened species in

the Western Ghats of Karnataka (Prajapati R.C, 2010).The region is rich in species of birds,

butterflies, amphibians, reptiles and is it is home to many rare, endangered and threatened species in

the sub-continent. Therefore, the Western Ghats is recognized as the ‘hotspot’ of natural evolution.

The Western Ghats area of Kodagu, Hassan, Chikmagalur, Mangalore and Udupi districts are

considered as hotspots for amphibians. Frogs such as Ansonia ornate are known only from the

Brahmagiris (Coorg) and Naravi forest of Kudremukh National Park (Dakshin Kannada). The

Kemphole in Hassan district is also a hotspot for amphibians and a large number of species, such as

Bufo brevirostris, Ramanella marmorata, Nanobatrachus kempholeyensis and Nyctibatrachus

sylvaticus are restricted to this locality. The major threats to the amphibian diversity of the region

include agriculture expansion and stream impoundment.

14.10. Orchids are highly evolved and specialized group of plants, found in the Western Ghats as

epiphytes on tree trunks and also as terrestrial on marshy soils. Karnataka has 176 species of

orchids from 49 genera; most of them are endangered and are brought under the Wildlife

(Protection) Act 1972. The “Hotspots” of orchids in Western Ghats of Karnataka include

Tadianamol in Kodagu (61 species reported, 6 are endemic), Bababudangiri hills in Chikmagalur

(41 species reported, 18 are endemic) and Dandeli in Uttara Kannada district (37 species reported,

23 are endemic).Western Ghats region remains valuable source of bamboo/cane and Kodagu region

of the Western Ghats area is recognized as hotspot for cane species. The endangered Wroughton’s

Free Tailed Bat (Otomops wroughtoni) survives in the Barapede Cave located between Krishnapur

and Talewadi near Bhimgad wildlife sanctuary amidst the Western Ghats forests in Belagavi

district. Other places where the species has been found are in Meghalaya and Cambodia.

14.11. The Deccan plateau forms the eastern plains of Karnataka. The eastern plains form two-

thirds of the geographical area of Karnataka and the total forest area in this region accounts for only

seven per cent of the geographical area. Some endemic species of the eastern plains region include

Brachystelma ciliatum, Brachystelma kolarensis from Kolar district, Brachystelma elenaduensis

from Tumkur district and Schizachyrium sudhanshuii from Raichur district. The dry deciduous

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forests and scrub forests of Devarayana Durga in Tumkur district are rich in medicinal plants, birds

and tree species. Decentralized network of conservation sites for individual species as well as

communities of plants and animals need to be identified in all the dry districts and granted the status

of “Heritage Sites”. Development of ‘Gunduthope’- tree genetic diversity conservation site - is also

one such option in the eastern plains.

14.12. The state of Karnataka is passing through one of the most critical periods as far as water

availability is concerned. Forest fragmentation, diversion of the streams, creation of more

monoculture plantations rather than species rich forests, mining, etc. have resulted in decline of the

water-holding capacity of the forests. The swamp forests of the Western Ghats are considered

special habitats having high water-conservation values and therefore should be accorded top

priority. Karikanamman forest of Honavar taluk, a sacred forest with good growth of Dipterocarpus

indicus and Yana forest of Kumta taluk are considered important for their watershed and cultural

values as well as their importance as the refugia for the endemic palm Corypha umbraculifera.

Relics of primary forests are still present along the Karnataka Western Ghats. Such places are of

immense biodiversity and ecological value. These forests, despite their diminished extent, are still

important sources of perennial water courses. All these relics and their surrounding forests need to

be identified on the ground, based on their species composition, mapped and conserved as

“Heritage Sites”. The Karikallani Gudda-Katlekan-Malemane forests of Siddapur in Uttara

Kannada, with the Dipterocarpus species, Semecarpus kattalekanensis, Myristica fatua and the

endangered Lion-tailed Macaque is one such potential Heritage Site. Similarly, riparian forests are

extremely important in terms of biodiversity, nutrient supply to the river, protection of rivers from

siltation and proper flow of streams into the river. Therefore, the forests on the banks of all the

rivers should be protected from any further development pressures.

14.13. Over the years, the forests of the Western Ghats had been selectively logged. Large tracts of

forests were also converted to agricultural land for monoculture plantations of tea, coffee, rubber,

oil palm, teak, eucalyptus, building reservoirs, roads and railways. Over 20% of the original forest

cover remains more or less in pristine condition and the remaining are subject to varying degrees of

human pressure like large scale illegal collection of fuel wood and non-timber forest produce

(NTFPs), grazing, forest fires, mass tourism and other developmental works (Prajapati R.C, 2010).

Therefore, in order to protect, preserve and conserve forest resources, there is need to develop trust

and partnership between the forest department and the local people through various local level

institutions such as village forest committees (VFC), eco-development committees (EDC) and other

user groups under the ambit of joint forest planning and management (JFPM) model. Involvement

of local communities and their organizations in the management of forest and other biodiversity

resources is very crucial for the establishment of sustainable forest management system.

14.14. According to EMPRI 2004, there are two kinds of hotspots found in the forest ecosystem,

one is hotspots of hope and the other is hotspots of despair. Hotspots of hope are locations in the

forest ecosystem that are still rich in biodiversity and are excellent sites for focusing on-going and

future conservation efforts, whereas hotspots of despair are locations that are subjected to extensive

degradation and are therefore in need of urgent attention for restoration. Higher rates of human

population growth have put these eco-regions at a risk of extinction due to ever-increasing human

interference, fragmentation, deforestation, and expansion of agricultural lands in the forested

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landscapes. Some of the hotspots identified under the different habitats of forest ecosystem of

Karnataka are listed below:

Table-1: Hotspots of Forest ecosystem and Biodiversity, Karnataka

Sl.

No Habitat Environmental issues/ Threats Hotspots

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Hotspots of Coastal and Marine Ecosystem

14.15. The Karnataka coast stretches for about 320 kilometers bordered by Goa in the north, Kerala

in the south, Arabian Sea in the west and a vast picturesque Western Ghats in the east. Coastal

1 Evergreen

Forests

Mining (Un-reclaimed Abandoned

Mining site)

Kudremukh National Park

Mini Hydel Project Brahmagiri Wildlife Sanctuary, Bagamandala,

Kodagu district

Unregulated Tourism and Homestay Talacauvery & Pushpagiri Wildlife Sanctuary,

Kodagu district

Roads Bisle Ghat of Kodagu district and Agumbe Ghat

of Udupi/Shimoga district

Petroleum Pipeline Charmadi Ghat, Belthangady, Dakshina

Kannada

2 Semi evergreen

Forests

Deforestation of fruit Bats conserved

Sacred Grove

Kolli Bavali Vana (Durgaparameswari Temple

private area) area of Belthangady, Dakshina

Kannada

3 Dry deciduous

forests

Roads Devarayana Durga RF, Tumkur district

Hydro-electric project Barapede Cave, Talewadi (Belgaum) for

Wroughton's Free Tailed Bat (Otomops

wroughtoni)

4 Scrub Forest Habitat loss Mydenahalli, Sirsa, Tumkur district

Habitat destruction Sandur valley, Bellary district

5 Grasslands Monoculture of exotic tree species,

Rannebennur Sanctuary, Haveri district

Forest fire on montane grasslands Kudremukh NP, Brahmagiri WLS and BRT

Hills

6 Sacred Groves No Protection,

Nallur Sacred Groove, Devanahalli, Bangalore

rural

Decline of Sacred Kans Sorab Taluk, Shimoga district

Encroachments Devarakadu, Kodagu district

7 Riparian Forests Fragmentation of Riparian

Vegetation

Aghanashini River bank, Sirsi, Uttara Kannada

district

Forest Fragmentation &

Encroachment

Sharavathi river bank, Siddapur, Uttara

Kannada district

8 Myristica swamp

forest

Ignorance about the biological and

ecological value of Myristica

swamps and Encroachment

Malemane village, Hemgar village, Kudgund

village and Hukli village of Siddapur and

Kyadigi ranges, Halsolli hamlet in Mahime

village of Gersoppa range, Harigar village and

Unchalli village of Amenalli range of Uttara

Kannada district.

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Karnataka comprises three districts: Uttara Kannada in the north with a 160-kilometre long

coastline, Udupi in the center with a coastline stretching over 98 kilometers and Dakshina Kannada

in the south with a 62-kilometer long coastline. This region, also known as Karavali, is very

dynamic representing varied and highly productive ecosystems such as mangroves, coral reefs and

sand dunes. This is one of the better developed geographical areas of the state with a high degree of

economic development and density of population. However, in recent decades, human activities

have posed major threat to coastal and marine ecosystem and its biodiversity.

14.16. Major environmental issues facing the coastal and marine ecosystem of Karnataka include

occupational pressure (human settlements), non-compliance of the provisions of Coastal Regulation

Zone notification, urban effluents and garbage dumping, unplanned mass tourism, water pollution,

destruction and degradation of coral reef due to anthropogenic activity, destruction of mangroves,

coastal erosion, erosion and accretion of shoreline due to port/harbor, marine projects like Barge

mounted projects, unsustainable marine fishery, siltation, shell mining, aquaculture, sand mining

and industrial pollution of estuary, saline water intrusion into urban settlement areas, naval base

activities at the islands, etc.

14.17. Occupational pressures: The settlements in the coastal region consist of 22 urban

agglomerations and 1044 villages. The occupational pressures of the region can be attributed to

agricultural activities, aquaculture, fish landing and processing, port maintenance, mining for lime

shell, bauxite and silica sand and coir retting.

14.18. Non-compliance of Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) notifications: Population increase

has been the main reason for CRZ violations in residential areas near the seashore where mostly

fishermen used to live once and now people from all walks of life prefer to live leading to over-

crowding. Besides, urban encroachments are very common. There has been a high level change in

land use pattern within CRZ, where the sand dunes and agriculture lands are being converted into

commercial complexes in urban areas and residential settlements in semi urban and rural areas.

Systematic planning for rehabilitation along with strict action on violation of CRZ notification is

necessary to improve the situation.

14.19. Coastal erosion: Due to expanding economic activities along the coast and severe wave

action, erosion takes place all along the coast during the monsoon. Developmental activities such as

construction of fish landing jetties, ports and harbors, etc, also trigger coastal erosion. For example,

in Belambar, the jetty is constructed in the center of the beach causing erosion on both sides. About

60 kilometers of beach (19 percent of the total length of shoreline) is confronted with appreciable or

severe erosion. The most affected locations are Gangavali river mouth and areas near Honnavar,

Shirali, Kundapur kodi, Hangarkatta and Bengre. Erosion/bank collapse in the tidal reaches of

rivers is also severe and extends at least to about 12 kilometers. This has been noticed in Manjuguni

and Karikodi villages, Pavinakureva and Mavinakurve islands, Bhatkal port area, Kollur and Haladi

rivers, Seethanadi near Mabukal and Ullal side of Netravathi river bank.

14.20. Erosion and accretion of shoreline due to port/harbor: Karnataka Coast, which was a

busiest shipping lane on the Arabian Sea, is dotted with one major port at Mangalore, nine minor

ports at Karwar, Belekeri, Tadri, Honavar, Bhatkal, Kundapur, Hangarkatta, Malpe, old Mangalore

Port and New Mangalore Port. Besides, there are 110 fish landing centers and 150 fishing villages

along the coastline. One single major intervention in the coastal zone is the project Sea Bird, where

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an area of around 32 square kilometers is being developed with several structures. Dredging for

port development has led to noteworthy changes in the configuration of the seabed, which

ultimately modifies the pattern of ocean currents, waves and water quality.

14.21. Pollution: The coastal and marine ecosystem of Karnataka is seriously endangered due to

the problem of pollution. Haphazard dumping of fish wastes near fish landing centers, processing of

fish catch and a large number of ice factories cause water pollution. Improper solid waste disposal

and inadequate treatment of sewage contribute to the water pollution. Effluents from factories and

untreated domestic sewage are discharged into the estuaries and coastal waters, causing deleterious

effect on the biota and other aquatic life. Further, dumping of city wastes in the coastal estuaries

constitutes a great threat to their ecology and human health. Pollution from various chemicals, oil

spills, heavy metals, radio-active materials, domestic and municipal waste, bacterial contamination,

etc, need to be routinely monitored along the marine and coastal areas.

14.22. Damage to Estuaries and Mangroves: Some of the important estuaries of coastal

Karnataka are Netravati-Gurpur, Gangolli, Hangarkatta, Sharavathi, Aganashini, Gangavali and

Kalinadi. Sand bars have developed in most of the estuaries. Sand mining, shell mining, destruction

of mangroves and aquaculture are the four major damages to the estuaries in all three districts.

Estuarine beds have been encroached at many places for the purpose of sand and shell mining.

Ecologically sensitive coastline habitats include mangroves, coral reefs, sea grass, seaweeds, etc.

Honnavara-estuarine mangroves ecosystem and Kundapur-estuarine ecosystem form important

mangrove areas of Karnataka. There are a number of barrier spits at Tannirbavi, Sasithitlu,

Udyavara, Hoode, Hangarkatta and Kirimanjeswara formed due to migration of coastal rivers.

Mangrove forests ('Kandla-vana') of the backwaters are considered high ranking productive

ecosystem of the world. Yet most mangroves have been destroyed.

14.23. Unplanned mass tourism: There are ninety (90) beaches with varying aesthetic potential in

Karnataka. Among these, the beaches at Someshwara-Ullal, Malpe, St. Mary’s Island, Belekeri and

Karwar are excellent with potential for international tourism. However, twenty-two beaches are

classified as unfit for use due to coastal erosion, human settlements and activities linked to

ports/harbors, industries and fisheries. Karnataka is blessed with pristine coastal stretch. Netrani

Island of Uttara Kannada is known for coral reefs. St. Mary’s Island, a few kilometers from Udupi

has basalt rock formations. Sunny beaches at places like Malpe, Murdeshwara, Maravanthe,

Gokarna and Kumta have spectacular mountains to the east. Unplanned mass tourism in these areas

has become a major threat.

14.24. Saline water intrusion: The intrusion of saline water in wells up to a distance of one

kilometer from coastline in sandy areas and up to 500 meters from the tidal tract of estuaries in

alluvial areas during summer also poses problems for drinking water availability. The coastal

alluvial aquifers are highly permeable and are in hydraulic continuity with sea/ estuarine water.

Therefore, indiscriminate pumping from wells here leads to salinity intrusion. The intrusion of

saline water into groundwater aquifers and the ingression of seawater to the rivers/estuaries are

adversely affecting the availability of potable water, especially during dry season. Increased

pumping of water required by port and other affiliated industries in the coastal sandy areas has led

to the landward movement of saline water.

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14.25. Inventory and evaluation of the status of resources and environmental quality have enabled

the identification of different hotspots with respect to major environmental issues of the coastal and

marine ecosystem. These are tabulated in Table-2.

Table-2: Hotspots of Coastal and Marine Ecosystem, Karnataka.

Sl. No Habitat Environmental issues/ Threats Hotspots

1 Beach Urban Effluents and Garbage

dumping

Shirali/Alvekodi area of Bhatkal taluk, Uttara Kannada

district, Urban centers of Mangalore and Udupi.

Occupational pressure Someswar, Pavanje (Mangalore) and Mulur, Tekkatte,

Uliargoli, Kapu, Hejamadi, Tonse (Udupi).

Unplanned mass tourism Bailur/Murdeshwar area of Bhatkal taluk, Uttara

Kannada district

Water Pollution Baikampadi Industrial estate Panambur & Urban centers

of Mangalore, Udupi and Karwar etc.

Destruction and degradation of coral

reef due to anthropogenic activity.

Netrani Island, main land off Murdeshwar

Noncompliance of the provisions of

Coastal Regulation Zone

Talapady, Ullal, Mangalore-panambur, Bengre,

Someswar, Kapu-Malpe, Kundapur-Gangoli,

Marvanthe, Baindur-Shirali, Bhatkal-murdeswar,

Honavar-Dhareswar, Kumta, Gokarna, Ankola and

Karwar

Destruction of Mangroves Gangavali area of Kumta taluk, Uttara Kannada

Erosion and accretion of shoreline due

to port/harbor

Tadri, Bhatkal & Honnavar of Uttara Kannada district.

Costal erosion Ullal, Tannirbavi, Bengre & Sasithlu (Mangalore),

Udyavara & Hoode Kundapur kodi (Udupi), Devbag

(north of Kali River), Pavinakurve (north of Sharavathi

River), Hangarkatta, Kirimanjeswara, honava, Shirli,

manjuguni, Karikodi etc.

2 Sea side Barge mounted projects Tanner Bhavi area of Mangalore taluk, Dakshina

Kannada district

Unregulated mass tourism Binga (Karwar), Kumta (Aghanashini), Honavar

(Sharavathi), Heregutti (Ankola) for water pollution

Unsustainable marine fishery Off Dakshina Kannada coast

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3 Estuary Siltation, Shell Mining, Aquaculture,

Sand Mining and Industrial Pollution

Estuarine zones of Nethravathi, Gurupur, Aghanashini

and kali rivers; Honavar area of Uttara Kannada,

Kundapur area of Udupi and Mulki area of Dakshina

Kannada and Port areas of New Mangalore and Karwar

4 Mangrove Forest Clearing & destruction of mangroves Mangrove forests areas of Mulki, Mangalore taluk of

Dakshina Kannada district and Kundapur taluk of Udupi

district.

5 Urban Settlement

areas

Saline water intrusion Nethravathi, Pavanje and Kali rivers and near-shore

aquifers in Udupi

6 Island Naval base activities Netrani Island & Anjadiv Island.

Hotspots of Freshwater Ecosystem

14.26. Karnataka is blessed with many rivers, streams and wetlands. Karnataka’s freshwater

resources are the most important resources among its natural endowments, which sustain her

economy and human settlement patterns. The fresh water ecosystem includes the river system,

ground water and wetlands. Karnataka accounts for about six percent of the country's surface water

resources. There are seven river basins formed by the Cauvery, Krishna, Godavari, North Pennar,

South Pennar, Palar and the west flowing rivers. Rivers Krishna and Godavari originate in

Maharashtra state, whereas Cauvery, Palar and Pennar originate from within the state. The west-

flowing rivers originate in the Western Ghats and drain finally into the Arabian Sea. Karnataka

accounts for about 6% of the country’s surface water resources and around 60% of this is provided

by the west flowing rivers while the remaining comes from the east flowing rivers.

14.27. Fresh water resources mainly constitute surface and groundwater, rainfall being the basic

source. Rivers and streams form the major surface water resource of Karnataka. Further, Karnataka

is bestowed with several reservoirs/barrages, lakes and backwater lagoons. Major reservoirs of the

state are Tungabhadra, Supa, Kadra, Karanja, Alamatti, Hidkal, Narayanapura, Linganamakki,

Chakra, etc. River degradation is a serious threat to the freshwater ecosystem and is primarily

caused by industrial effluents, agricultural run-offs, loss of forest and tree cover, siltation from

sediment loads, pollution from human and animal waste and withdrawal of water for agricultural

and industrial use. Siltation of major rivers and streams has resulted in the disappearance of deep

pools meant for spawning of Mahsheer fish. To prevent siltation of rivers and ponds, tree planting

in the degraded and blank areas in the catchment should be taken up on priority basis.

14.28. Pollution is a major and serious threat to the fresh water ecosystem. Under the National

Water Quality Monitoring Programme, the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) has been

monitoring the water quality of rivers in India in collaboration with State Pollution Control Boards.

In its February 2015 report, based on water quality data for the years 2009-12, the CPCB identified

and declared 15 rivers of Karnataka as polluted with respect to the water quality criteria of Bio

chemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and classified them as priority class IV (BOD between 6-10

mg/l) and class V (having BOD between 3-6 mg/l). The prescribed level of BOD for unpolluted

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rivers is less than 1 mg/L. The 15 polluted rivers of Karnataka are Arkavathy, Bhadra, Bhima,

Cauvery, Ghataprabha, Kabini, Kagina, Kali, Krishna, Lakshmantirtha, Malaprabha, Manjira,

Shimsha, Tungabhadra and Tunga. The stretches of rivers that do not meet the criteria are identified

as polluted stretches and categorized in five priority classes from class I to class V. Twenty-five

rivers in Karnataka were monitored at 61 locations and among them 38 locations do not meet the

Water Quality Criteria with respect to BOD. CPCB has identified 24 urban towns and cities of

Karnataka located along the polluted stretches of rivers. Further, Bangalore has been identified as

one of the 35 metropolitan cities in India which is located along polluted river stretches. The water

quality data of Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB, 2015) clearly shows that organic pollution

as indicated by BOD continues to be the major water quality issue. This is mainly due to discharge

of untreated domestic wastewater from the urban centers. Contamination of Bhadra River due to the

discharge of effluents by Mysore Paper Mills, Bhadravathi has led to sharp decline in the fish

population up to 2 kilometer range from the source of pollution. Coffee planters of Kodagu and

Chikmagalur also discharge their pollutants after pulping the coffee berries into the nearby streams.

Therefore, discharge of factory effluents and untreated domestic sewage into rivers, reservoirs and

tanks is a serious threat to the fresh water resources of Karnataka. Currently, urban centers are

discharging large quantities of domestic wastewater into the rivers, streams and lakes in an

untreated form, which becomes the prime cause for the organic and bacterial pollution of freshwater

ecosystem. Further, as most of the existing waste-water collection and treatment systems are either

of low capacity or dysfunctional, water bodies such as Bellandur, Varthur and Ulsoor are

completely polluted and virtually lifeless.

14.29. Karnataka state is subjected to repetitive droughts. Variations in annual rainfall across agro-

climatic zones in the state are too wide, ranging from 585 millimeters in the northern dry zone to

3,893 millimeters in the coastal zone. More than 75 percent of the land in majority of the districts in

the state is rain-fed. Ground water is another important freshwater resource which helps in meeting

the requirements of irrigation, domestic and industrial uses. Groundwater is the major source of

drinking water in the state of Karnataka. Further, in rural areas over 90 percent of the drinking

water supply schemes are based on ground water. But, groundwater levels are fast receding in the

state with 34 taluks considered as critical due to over exploitation. Excessive fluorides, superfluous

arsenic, growing concentration of chlorides, TDS, nitrates and iron in ground water have become a

matter of great concern.

14.30. The environmental concerns pertaining to fresh water resources relate to management of the

resources in terms of both quantity and quality. Rapid growth in population has led to decline in the

per capita availability of fresh water. The water requirements of fast growing urban centers and the

agricultural sector are expected to double by 2025. With such predicted water stress, anticipatory

policy measures have to be taken up urgently. Some of the hotspots of fresh water

ecosystem/resource of Karnataka are given in the table below.

Table-3: Hotspots of fresh water ecosystem, Karnataka

Sl.

No Habitats

Environmental issues/

Threats Hotspots

14

1

River/Streams

Forest Encroachment and Monoculture

plantation.

Aghanashini River, Kumta taluk of Uttara

Kannada district and Sharavati River, Sagar taluk

of Shimoga district and Honavar taluk of Uttara

Kannada district.

River Diversion Scheme Netravati River of Dakshina Kannada

Flow of untreated sewages, Dumping of

wastes and washing of vehicles

Tunga river, Harihar taluk of Davanagere district

Polluted river stretch with respect to

Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)

parameter

Halli reservoir to Kanakapura town (Arkavathy

river), Holehunnur to Bhadravathy (Bhadra

river), Ghanapur to Yadgir (Bhima river),

Ranganathitte to Sathyamangalam Bridge

(Cauvery river), Gokak to Chigadolli

(Ghataprabha river), Nanjanagud to Hejjige

(Kabini river), Shahabad to Hongunta (Kagina

river), Hasan maad area of West Coast Paper Mill

to Bommanahalli Reservoir (Kali river),

Yadurwadi to Tintini Bridge (Krishna river),

Kattemalavadi to Hunsur (Lakshmantirtha river),

Khanapur to Dharwad (Malaprabha river), Bidar

to Hussainnagar (Manjira river), Yediyar to

Halagur (Shimsha river), Harihar to Korlahalli

(Tungabhadra river), Shivamoga to Kudli (Tunga

river).

Town and cities located along the polluted

river stretch.

Bengaluru, Bhadravathi, Chikkodi, Kopa,

Jevargi, Srirangapatna, Basavanapura, Dandeli,

Chikkaiahnachatra, Ugarkhurd,

Chikkaiahnachatra, Bhankoor, Chikkodi, Bidar,

Narayanpura, Undavadi, M.K Hubli, Kadrolli,

Nittur, Chambol, Thattekere, Mallur, Ullanur,

Harihar and Shimoga

Mini-Hydel projects Shivannasamudram area of Cauvery river

Sand mining and Industrial pollution Kali river, Karwar taluk of Uttara Kannada

district

Salinity and waterlogging West flowing rivers: Nethravathi and Gurupura

river of Dakshina Kannada. Pavanje and Kali

river of Uttara Kannada district.

Krishna river basin districts of Bellary, Bijapur,

Raichur, Gulbarga, Dharwad, Belgaum,

Davanagere and Chitradurga.

Godavari river basin district: Chukinala river of

Bidar district.

Pollution of surface water due to Seepage of

fertilizer and pesticide into water bodies

Districts of Kolar, Bangalore, Mandya, Kodagu,

Chikmagalur, Hassan, Bellary, Koppal, Raichur,

Belgaum & Dharwad.

15

2 Lakes (wetlands) Flow of untreated sewages, Dumping of

wastes and Washing of vehicles

Bellandur, Varthur, Ulsoor, Agara, Nagavara,

Yeshvanthpur lakes of Bengaluru urban district.

3 Reservoir Urbanization Nalligudda, Bangalore rural district and Naregal,

Dharwad district.

Siltation in reservoir, river beds & estuaries Tungabhadra reservoir of Bellary district, Bhadra

& Linganmakki reservoir of Shimoga district,

Ghataprabha & Malaprabha reservoir of Belgaum

district.

4 Ground water 1. Inadequate water supply,

2. Declining groundwater level &

3. Poor water quality

Districts of Bellary, Bangalore, Bijapur, Tumkur,

Kolar and Chitradurga

1. Inadequate water supply &

2. Declining groundwater/low water table

Dharwad district, Davanagere district, Gadag

district, Gulbarga and Koppal district.

1. Inadequate water supply &

2. Poor water quality

Chamarajnagar and Haveri districts

Indiscriminate use of ground water & its

consequent health problems due to fluoride

and nitrate contamination.

Districts of Hubli, Dharwad, Belgaum and Kolar.

Ground water pollution Kolar district, Kunigal and CR Nagar area of

Tumkur district, Mandya district, Bangalore

Urban and rural district, Mandya district,

Chitadurga district, Bellary district, Bagalkot

district, Gadag district, Dharwad & Davanagere

districts.

Hotspots of Agro-Ecosystem and allied activities

14.31. With the ever growing population, demand for food, fodder, fuel, fiber and other cash crops

is also increasing. Efforts to meet the increased demand through intensification of crop production

has resulted in a situation where the agricultural activities and environmental conditions like soil,

water, air, flora, fauna and human health, etc. have interacted in adverse ways. Therefore

environmental hotspots of agro-ecosystem (i.e. agricultural-environmental hotspots) are locations

where agricultural practices and environmental conditions interact adversely to cause environmental

degradation. If the processes of degradation are allowed to continue, the hotspot will become hotter

and, if still left unattended, it could reach what is known as flashpoint. Such a situation is extremely

harmful both for agriculture and environment, and must be avoided at any cost.

16

14.32. Agriculture remains the mainstream and one of the dominant drivers of economic growth

for both India and Karnataka. The demands of a growing human population for food, medicine,

fiber, fodder, shelter and fuel, along with the need for economic development have resulted in

increased pressure or stress on the agro-ecosystem and its biodiversity throughout the country. In a

developing economy, the direct and indirect drivers of loss of biodiversity are high rate of human

population growth and high population density, increasing consumption, effects induced by

technological change and inadequate awareness of biodiversity values among the public and at the

decision-making levels, etc. Any reduction or negative impact on agro-biodiversity would make

farming communities vulnerable to future environmental changes and accentuate poverty.

14.33. Land is the most important basic natural resource. It is a dynamic and complex combination

of geology, topography, hydrology, soil, flora and fauna and influences every sphere of human

activity. Subsistence farming practices, accelerated soil and water erosion, erratic rainfall,

increasing population, and high density of livestock population have all contributed to

unsustainable land use that has led to degradation of this valuable resource. Land and forest

degradation has caused severe soil erosion in the maidan areas of Karnataka. Soil and water erosion

has caused soil fertility loss, thus reducing its productive capacity. The arid regions of the state

where rainfall is low are vulnerable to soil erosion. As per the estimates of the Government of

Karnataka, about half of arable land in the state needs protection. Most of the tanks have been silted

up to more than 30 percent of their capacities reducing their command area by 35 percent.

Salinization has become an acute problem in the command areas of the state. It is reported that

nearly 10 percent of the total irrigated area in the state is subjected to water logging, salinity and

alkalinity. Excessive chemical usage for agriculture is a problem in the cotton growing areas such

as Raichur and Gulbarga. The average fertilizer used for growing paddy and sugarcane usually

ranges between 80-150 kilograms/hectare.

14.34. Karnataka is very rich in domesticated biodiversity, both of crop plants and livestock. Small

scale conservation of indigenous crops, including tree crops such as mango, jackfruit, kokum,

gooseberry, tamarind, drumstick, etc. should be promoted for household food security. Women play

an important role in promotion of home gardens using indigenous biodiversity. Home gardens

provide food security and provide an additional source of income for women. Even very poor could

be part of this production system. Home gardens are important genetic resources of cultivated

plants including medicinal and other plants used for home remedy.

14.35. Karnataka has a rich heritage of indigenous livestock, poultry and pet breeds. It is necessary

to document, monitor and encourage through incentives, if necessary, in-situ conservation, breeding

and distribution of this animal diversity. There is also need for a policy and regulatory frame work

for the in-situ protection of domesticated biodiversity. Some of the hotspots of land degradation due

to agricultural practices are given in Table-4.

Table-4: Hotspots of Agro-ecosystem of Karnataka (land degradation due to agricultural

practices)

17

S.

No

Environmental Issues/

Threats Hotspots (Districts)

1 Excessive chemical use Shimoga, Mandya, Bellary, Raichur

2 Excessive Pesticide use Gulbarga, Bijapur, Raichur

3 Depletion of groundwater Kolar, Bidar, Chamarajnagar, Mandya, Bangalore, Bagalkot,

Bellary, Chitradurga, Tumkur, Haveri, Gadag, Gulbarga &

Dharwad.

4 Drought prone areas need watershed

treatment

Districts of Kolar, Chitradurga, Tumkur, Dharwad, Gulbarga,

Haveri. Gadag, Bellary and Bijapur.

5 Soil erosion All northeastern plain Districts

6 Water erosion Coastal and Western Ghats districts

Hotspots of Urban Ecosystem

14.36. Rapid urbanization in Karnataka, as elsewhere has accentuated the problems of urban

environment on all the three main fronts viz. water, air and soil (solid waste management). The

major problem areas of urban environment in Karnataka are Bangalore, Hubli-Dharwar, Mangalore

and Bhadravathi. Gulbarga is also catching up in this regard. One prominent feature of these

problems is that they are not confined to municipal limits and engulf peri-urban and rural areas as

well, affecting not only agricultural lands but also aquifers contaminating the only source of

drinking water (i.e. groundwater) in such areas. With the current population density in urban areas,

majority of India’s large cities face severe air and water pollution. Of the world’s top 20 polluted

cities, 13 are in India. City dwellers seek to escape from the congested and polluted city life and

retreat to serene and tranquil areas during their vacations.

14.37. Bangalore, with a population of more than 11.5 million people in its urban center is ranked

among the top 20 most polluted cities in the world. Therefore, its economic prosperity has come at

the price of environmental and social degradation. Its population and footprint have doubled in the

past ten years, as job opportunities and economic growth have lured people from across the region

to seek employment. As India’s third largest city, Bangalore faces enormous challenges managing

its urban environment and developing infrastructure to accommodate an influx of low-income rural

migrants. The city’s development plan is neither equitable nor sustainable and is leading to

widespread environmental degradation and social injustice. Sustainable cities are fundamental to

social and economic development.

14.38. Air Pollution: Urban ambient air pollution is the result of emissions from a multiplicity of

sources, mainly stationary, industrial and domestic fossil fuel combustion, and petrol/diesel vehicle

18

emissions. Major air polluting industries include thermal power plants, iron and steel plants,

smelters, foundries, stone crushers, cement plants, refineries, lime kilns, chemicals and

petrochemical plants, etc. In addition, burning of tyres, rubber, plastic and garbage, etc. also emits

toxic pollutants including dioxins and furans which are quite harmful to human health. Lack of

implementation of environmental regulations contributes to poor air quality in most of the Indian

cities. The most toxicologically significant air pollutants in the city are PM10, SO2 and the oxides of

Nitrogen. The annual average concentration of suspended particulate matter (PM10) is very high in

many cities of Karnataka. Bangalore has been identified as one among the 14 cities that have high

levels of particulate matter, while 47 per cent cities monitored in the state exceed ambient air

quality standards in this category. According to the Karnataka State Pollution Control Board

(KSPCB), the average concentrations of SPM and RSPM were found to be 220 and 225μg/cubic

meter in Bangalore, which is major cause of worry. These levels were also found to be very high in

Gulbarga (177 & 68 μg/ cubic meter), Hubli (222 & 103μg/ cubic meter), and Dharwad (241and

115μg/ cubic meter). Mysore (78 & 41μg/ cubic meter), Mangalore (35 & 72μg/ cubic meter) and

Belgaum (70 and33μg/ cubic meter) are found to be the less polluted cities as per the data. Higher

respirable particulate matter is a matter of worry for major cities in Karnataka. Therefore, the status

of Particulate Matter (PM) pollution in Bangalore, Gulbarga, Hubli and Dharwad shows poor air

quality of these cities. There is an urgent need to make strict environmental regulation to mitigate

the particulate pollution. Particulate air pollution can be reduced by using advanced technologies,

stricter air quality standards, limiting emissions from various sources, reducing energy

consumption, changing modes of transport, land use planning, use of cleaner modes of transport,

etc.

14.39. Municipal Solid waste Pollution: Today the most important subject that affects and

worries urban population is the subject of waste management. Waste management practices

especially those relating to municipal solid waste differ for developed and developing nations, for

urban and rural areas, and for residential, commercial and industrial producers. Waste collection

methods vary widely among different countries and regions. Domestic waste collection services are

often provided by local government authorities, or by private companies in the urban cities. A few

decades back disposable things were only known to developed countries in the west. People of the

third world countries used pens which were refilled with ink or a ball point pen that was used years

together by changing the tube. This is not the case now. Most of the things used are disposable or

ready-made, which cause a lot of wastage of our resources.

14.40. Community participation has a direct bearing on efficient Solid Waste Management. Yet,

the municipal authorities have failed to mobilize the community and educate citizens on the

methods of handling waste and proper practices of storing it in their own bins at the household,

shop and establishment level. In the absence of basic facilities of collection of waste from source,

citizens are prone to dumping waste on the streets, open spaces, drains, and water bodies in the

vicinity creating insanitary conditions. For the general public, which is quite indifferent towards

garbage disposal protocol, the responsibility of keeping the city clean is entirely on the Urban Local

Bodies (ULBs). This mind set is primarily responsible for the unscientific systems of waste

management in the country.

14.41. The solid waste management practice in Bangalore is very interesting. Waste generated per

person per day is about 0.5 – 1kg. Bangalore generates more than 4,500 tonnes of urban solid waste

19

a day, and Bhruhat Bangalore Mahanagara Palike (BBMP) disposes about 60% of the daily waste

generated by the metropolitan city. The primary and secondary collection and transportation have

been reasonably satisfactory to enable the city to remain clean. But, there are huge backlog of un-

cleared waste cluttering the city, dumped on lake beds, storm water drains and street corners.

(Environmental Status Report, 2008). The hotspots of air pollution, pollution due to municipal solid

waste and industrial pollution are given in Table-5 the table below.

Table-5: Hotspots of Urban-ecosystem of Karnataka

S.No Environmental Issues/

Threats

Hotspots (Districts)

1 Air pollution (PM10) Bangalore, Tumkur, Davanagere, Raichur,

Hubli, Gulbarga, Dharwad & Mangalore.

Air pollution (SPM & RSPM) Bangalore,Gulbarga,Hubli and Dharwad.

2 Municipal solid waste Bangalore & Mangalore

3 Industrial pollution (based on

CEPI, by MoEF& CC)

Mangalore, Peenya (Bengaluru), Bhadravati

and Raichur

Hotspots of developmental Activities (Mining and quarrying activities)

14.42. Mining is essentially a destructive development activity where ecology suffers at the altar of

economy. Environmental impacts due to mining manifest as water pollution, air pollution, noise

pollution, vibrations, land degradation, land subsidence, landslide, loss of biodiversity, increase in

health related problems, etc. Mining leaves disastrous effects on the living conditions of the people.

14.43. It is well known that mining results in considerable loss in fertility in agricultural and

cultivable lands. The existing land becomes unfit for cultivation due to dumping of solid mining

waste. Standing crops are adversely affected as fine mineral and dust particles which pollute the air

get deposited on the leaves thus making the growth of plants stunted. Mining activity results in

creation of deep pits, which in turn result in receding of ground water table. Mining in the forest

areas results in forest fragmentation and deforestation. Over the years, fragmentation and

degradation of forests results in change in the local weather pattern leading to irregular, erratic and

insufficient rain in that area.

14.44. Iron ore mining in the Kudremukh region of the Western Ghats has resulted in degradation

of forest area, which ultimately impacted the water quality of the Bhadra River on account of

siltation and contamination of river water by the iron ore tailings. The abandoned KIOCL mines

located within the Kudremukh National Park in Chikmagalur district is likely to become a hotspot

of despair in the future, if environmentally effective reclamation and rehabilitation measures like

stabilization of slopes in the mine area and appropriate protective measures for silt storage Lakya

dam are not put in place. Both legal and illegal mining, more of the latter, with least regard to the

safety and security of the common people, which was going on in Bellary as well as other districts

of Karnataka, has been brought to focus by the media, voluntary organizations, local environmental

20

groups and by the Karnataka Lokayukta. Illegal mining became the most sensitive issue often

receiving the attention of the highest judiciary, the Hon’ble Supreme Court of India.

14.45. The mine tailings heaped in huge dumps in the adjoining areas of closed gold mine site in

Kolar district and lack of concerted efforts for reclamation and rehabilitation have resulted in

environmental problems in terms of adverse health effects, loss of productivity of the land due to

surface runoff from waste dumps and water pollution, etc. In Kalaburagi district, large numbers of

big quarries are situated at Malkhaed, Wadi, Sedam and Shahabad, besides a number of smaller

quarries spread across the district. Unscientific mining has caused degradation of land,

accompanied by subsidence and consequential mine fires and disturbance of the water table leading

to topographic disorder, severe ecological imbalance and damage to land use patterns in and around

the mining regions.

14.46. Sand mining became a serious environmental issue in Karnataka as the demand for sand

increased in industry and construction. In almost every mineral bearing region, soil mining and land

degradation have been inseparably connected. Illegal and excessive sand mining in the riverbed of

the Papagni catchment area in Kolar district and around Nandhi hills of Chickballapur district have

been going on for many years. Such illegal and excessive sand mining from river beds has led to

environmental degradation and people of the villages situated on the river banks have been severely

affected due to the depletion of ground water table. Some of the adverse consequences of sand

mining include depletion of groundwater, lesser availability of water for industrial, agricultural and

drinking purposes, destruction of agricultural land, loss of employment to farm workers, threat to

livelihoods, human rights violations and damage to roads and bridges, etc.

Table -6: Hotspots of mining and quarrying activities, Karnataka

S.No Environmental Issues/

Threats Hotspots (Districts)

1 Iron ore mining Bellary, Chitradurga and Tumkur

2 Limestone mining Gulbarga

3 Gold mining Kolar

4

Sand mining

Kolar (Papagani catchment area),

Tungabhadra (Bellary, Gulbarga),

Udupi and Mangalore district (Nethravathi and

Gurupura river).

Hotspots of natural disasters

14.47. The history of disasters in Karnataka reveals that various types of disasters have befallen the

state over the years with devastating effects. Drought, flood, cloudburst, hailstorm, lightning,

coastal erosion, storm surge and cyclone are the climate related natural hazards which have

occasionally struck the state. Further, earthquake, landslide and tsunami are classified as geological

21

hazards. Groundwater depletion and aquifer salinity are the hydrological hazards, whereas, pest and

insect attack on crops and plague (Kolar under highest risk), SARS, bird flu on human beings are

the biological hazards associated with Karnataka state. With respect to vulnerability of the state to

natural disasters, about 80% of the geographical area in the state is prone to drought. About 22% of

the geographical area in the state is prone to moderate earthquake risks with possibility of

earthquakes with magnitude of 5 to 6.9; about 24% of the geographical area is prone to cyclone and

heavy winds. Landslides do affect the areas with slope above 30 degree gradient. The 320 kilometer

coastal line is prone to sea-erosion and Tsunami threat. Hailstorms are experienced almost every

year and cause localized damages to crops, human lives and livestock’s. All the districts in the state

are vulnerable to more than one natural hazard. Thunder storms, cloud bursts and lightening cause

considerable damages and loss to lives and properties.

14.48. Karnataka has the distinction of being the first state in the country to establish Drought

Monitoring Cell (DMC) in 1988 as an institutional mechanism to monitor Drought. Later, the

activities of the monitoring cell were broadened to include monitoring of other natural disasters and

thus the DMC was renamed in 2007 as Karnataka State Natural Disaster Monitoring Centre

(KSNDMC). With respect to Natural disaster, hotspots analysis has implications for development of

investment planning, disaster preparedness, and loss prevention. The highest risk areas are those in

which disasters are expected to occur most frequently and losses are expected to be the highest.

This provides a rational basis for prioritizing risk-reduction efforts and highlights areas where risk

management is most needed. The Hotspots analysis and its project provides a common framework

for risk identification and promoting risk management through dialogues between organizations and

individuals operating at various geographic scales. The methods and results provide useful tools for

integrating disaster risk management into development efforts and should be developed further.

Some of the commonly occurring natural disasters of Karnataka are as briefly described below:

14.49. Cyclones, winds and coastal erosion: Karnataka state has been confronting various natural

hazards. The coastal districts of Dakshina Kannada, Udupi and Uttara Kannada are under the direct

threat of cyclones. The high density of population along the coastline of Karnataka has made the

population highly vulnerable to the storm surge and high speed wind accompanied with cyclone.

Out of the state’s total geographical area of 190.238 lakh hectares, about 44.92 lakh hectares of area

covering 15 districts and 50 taluks fall under moderate risk zone (Vs=39m/s) of being affected by

winds and cyclones. The remaining areas of the state fall under low damage risk zone (33m/s). The

State has been placed under Category (II) A - Low Vulnerability along with other states of

Maharashtra, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.

14.50. Floods: Almost all the districts in Karnataka face the brunt of moderate to severe floods.

Floods are associated with cloud bursts, cyclones and depressions in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian

Sea. Even when the state was suffering under drought like conditions, heavy discharges from

Maharashtra caused floods in the north Karnataka region covering the Krishna and Godavari basins.

During 2005 and 2006, there were devastating floods in the districts of Kalaburagi, Belagavi,

Vijayapura, Bidar, Bagalkot, Raichur, etc. as a result of outflow of excess water from the Krishna

and Bhima Basins from Maharashtra, particularly from the Koyna Reservoir. Other districts such as

Uttara Kannada, Udupi, Mangalore, Shimoga, Kodagu and Chikmagalur also face flood damages.

22

14.51. Earthquakes: As per the revised earthquake hazard mapping, 22.13% of the total

geographical area of Karnataka is under moderate earthquake damage risk zone and remaining area

of the state is under the low damage risk zone. Karnataka has reported more than 500 earthquake

tremors in the last three decades with most of them having low magnitude.

14.52. Landslides: Hilly regions of the Western Ghats spread in the districts of Kodagu,

Chikmagalur, Hassan, Shimoga, Dakshina Kannada and Uttara Kannada record very high normal

rainfall of 2000mm to 4000mm. Landslides are common in these districts. During the rainy periods

these hilly regions regularly experience displacement of rocks and soils causing widespread damage

to property, infrastructure such as rails, roads and loss of human life.

14.53. Drought: Drought is a meteorologically related disaster. Karnataka stands second only to

Rajasthan in terms of Drought affected areas. The state is highly vulnerable to drought as compared

to its neighboring states.

14.54. Chemical disasters/ Hazards: All factories having manufacturing processes mentioned in

the first schedule appended to the Factories Act, 1948 are termed as hazardous process factories.

There are about 735 hazardous process factories in the state. Major accident hazard units are

identified in the state, which are located in 16 districts. District crisis groups have been constituted

with the respective Deputy Commissioner of the district as the chairman. They monitor the safety

systems in the major accident hazard units.

Table-7: Hotspots of natural disasters, Karnataka

Description about some selected Environmental Hotspots in Karnataka

S.

No

Environmental Issues/Threats/

Natural Disaster Hotspots (Districts)

1 Cyclones, Winds and Coastal erosion Dakshina Kannada, Udupi, Uttara Kannada

2 Floods Belgaum, Bijapur, Bagalkot, Raichur, Gulbarga, Shimoga,

Chikmagalur, Udupi, Coorg, Bellary, Dakshina kannada,

Dharwad, Davanagere, Gadag, Hassan, Uttara kannada,

Koppal, Bidar, Bangalore, Kolar, Mandya, Mysore and

Chamarajnagar.

3 Earthquakes

a. Zone III (Moderate damage risk zone

MSK VII)

b. Zone II (Low damage risk zone MSK VI)

Bidar, Gulbarga, Bijapur, Bagalkot, Belgaum, Dharwad, Uttara

Kannada, Shimoga, Udupi, Dakshina Kannada, Kodagu

All other districts

4 Land slides Kodagu, Chikmagalur, Hassan, Shimoga, Dakshina Kannada

and Uttara Kannada

5 Drought Shimoga, Chitradurga, Davanagere, Chikmagalur, Bangalore

and Mysore districts. Anekal and Hoskote areas.

6 Chemical Disasters/Hazards Bangalore urban, Bangalore rural, Belgaum, Dakshina

Kannada, Bellary, Haveri, Dharwad, Hassan, Mysore,

Shimoga, Uttara kannada, Kolar, Tumkur, Raichur, Koppal,

Ramanagara districts.

23

Hotspot number 1: Kudremukh forest complex

14.55. Reason for its selection as Environmental Hotspot: Kudremukh forest complex has been

selected as one of the most important Environmental hotspots of Karnataka due to the following

reasons: (1) Kudremukh is a representative of the Western Ghats, one of the 34 biodiversity

hotspots of the world (Meyer, 1988), (2) The environment of Kudremukh has suffered heavily due

to the destructive activities of open cast iron ore mining; so much so that even after mining was

discontinued from January 2006 as per directive of the Hon’ble Supreme Court of India, the scars

of mining have not healed fully even now. (3) The closure of mining at Kudremukh on the direction

of the Hon’ble Court based on a public interest litigation petition filed by a Bengaluru-based NGO

Wildlife First became symbol of successful environmental movement against destructive activities

in a pristine ecosystem, and (4) Kudremukh region is the catchment for many rivers, which sustain

the lifeline of the people in the downstream areas of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Therefore,

Kudremukh has, and will continue to have, great significance to the people of these states.

14.56. Kudremukh Forest complex: Kudremukh national park (600 sq. km), along with

Someshwara wildlife sanctuary (314.25 sq. km) and Mookambika wildlife sanctuary (370.36 sq.

km), constitutes the “Kudremukh forest complex”. Kudremukh forest complex represents one of the

largest stretches of contiguous forest habitats in the Western Ghats, epitomizing the biological

richness of central Western Ghats. Kudremukh was declared a national park through a notification

of intention in 1987, followed by its confirmation through final notification, in 2001. It is located at

the tri-junction of Dakshina Kannada, Udupi and Chikmagalur districts. Kudremukh derives its

name from the highest hill peak known as the Kudremukh peak (Kudremukh means horse face in

Kannada) having an altitude of 1,892 meters from the sea level and considered as the queen of

many fascinating hill peaks in Karnataka. Kudremukh national park is connected with Someshwara

and Mookambika wildlife sanctuaries in the north and with Pushpagiri wildlife sanctuary in the

south through Charmadi-Kanarpadi reserved forest, Balur state forest, Shiradi-Sisla reserved forest

and Miyar reserved forest.

Values of Kudremukh National Park:

14.57. Economic value: Kudremukh national park is the birth place of three major rivers viz.

Tunga, Bhadra and Nethravathi. All the three rivers originate from a common place called

“Gangamoola” located in the national park near Bhagavathi valley. Kudremukh constitutes hardly

six per cent of the catchment area of Tunga and Bhadra but contributes nearly 30 per cent of the

inflow. Though Tunga and Bhadra originate from the same point “Gangamoola”, they flow in

different directions before joining as Tungabhadra at Koodli, 16 kilometers away from Shimoga.

Tungabhadra ultimately joins the River Krishna, one of the major rivers of peninsular India.

Tungabhadra river system irrigates thousands of parched farm lands of Karnataka and Andhra

Pradesh. River Nethravathi is 90 kilometer long, supplies drinking water to the Mangalore city.

Kudremukh region is also the catchment of other minor rivers like Swarna, Yannehole, Gurpura and

Seethanadhi. Therefore, Kudremukh forest complex is one of the most important landscapes and

highly valued forest ecosystems providing water (ecosystem service) to the people of Karnataka

and Andhra Pradesh for drinking water, irrigation, hydro power production, etc. Therefore, any

destruction/degradation of Kudremukh landscape would pose serious threat to livelihood of the

people and their economy in this region.

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14.58. Biological value: Kudremukh forest complex is the largest protected area complex in the

Western Ghats covering an area of 1,285 sq. km, which supports four species of non-human primate

viz. Lion-tailed Macaque (Macaca silenus), Hanuman Langur (Semnopithecus hypoleucos), Bonnet

Macaque (Macaca radiata) and a nocturnal Malabar Slender Loris (Loris lydekkerianus

malabaricus). With only 585 individuals of Lion-tailed Macaque (LTM) recorded in 39 groups

(Ramesh Kumar P et al., 2017), Kudremukh forest complex becomes natural home for the single

largest viable population of LTM in the world. Therefore, Kudremukh can be appropriately called

as “Land of Primates”. Kudremukh remains the only place other than the Malabar Coast of Kerala,

where the presence of critically endangered “Malabar Civet Cat” (Viverra civettina) was reported. It

is also a natural home for many arboreal mammals like Indian Giant Flying Squirrel (Petaurista

philippensis), Malabar Giant Squirrel (Ratufa indica maxima) and small Travancore flying squirrel

(Petinomys fuscocapillus). Kudremukh represents Tropical wet evergreen forest having co-

existence of top predators like Tiger, Leopard and Wild Dogs (dhole). Kudremukh national park

forms part of Kudremukh-Bhadra tiger conservation complex, an important source population of

tigers in the Western Ghats and is a crucial corridor to maintain long-term viability of tiger

conservation in the entire Western Ghats landscape. Kudremukh represents biodiversity treasure

house where new species continue to be discovered and reported from time to time.

14.59. Ecosystem value: Kudremukh is a unique combination of wet evergreen forest interspersed

with Shola-grassland eco-system and performs many regulatory functions of the biosphere in terms

of biogeochemical cycles. Kudremukh national park holds very high standing biomass estimated at

an average of 250-300 tons per ha and therefore acts as a carbon sink of great significance, a

solution towards global warming and climate change phenomenon.

14.60. Corridor value: Kudremukh national park forms critical link with the protected areas (PA)

situated on northern and north-western sides (Someshwara, Mookambika, Sharavathi and Shettihalli

wildlife sanctuaries and Bhadra tiger reserve) and also with the protected areas of southern side

(Pushpagiri, Talacauvery, Brahmagiri wildlife sanctuaries and Nagarahole tiger reserve). Therefore,

Kudremukh national park is a vital corridor connecting many protected areas of Karnataka and

maintains gene flow of long ranging wild animals.

14.61. Cultural value: Culturally, Kudremukh represents diversity of ethnic indigenous

communities. This region has a significant population of the Malékudiya, Marathi Naik and

Gowdlu tribes. The revered Someshwara and Kollur Mookambika temples symbolize the cultural

beliefs of the local people and their rich cultural history. In recognition of its importance, scenic

beauty, cultural and natural value to the human kind, Kudremukh national park along with Agumbe

reserved forest of Someshwara wildlife sanctuary was declared as World Natural Heritage site by

the UNESCO.

14.62. Conservation value: Kudremukh national park represents the positive attitude of the state

and/or Indian government and the people towards conservation. Kudremukh, where mining

activities of KIOCL (a profit making public sector unit of the GOI) were stopped following the

order dated 31-12-2005 of Hon’ble Supreme Court of India, epitomises a successful environment

conservation movement in India, depicting the political will of the Government of Karnataka as

25

well as the Government of India towards conservation of forest and wildlife over any negative

developmental activities.

Major Threats and Current status of Kudremukh landscape:

14.63. Forest Enclosures: With the presence of 108 forest enclosures (belonging to 41 revenue

villages), around 1,328 families with a population of 6,244 people are living inside the national

park. Since most of them are poor, they are heavily dependent on the national park for their

livelihood. Many of the threats faced by the national park such as grazing, forest fire,

encroachment, NTFP collection, land degradation, etc., emanate from these forest

settlements/enclosures.

14.64. Encroachment: Encroachment of wildlife habitat by the people living in and around the

national park is a serious threat facing the national park, as it directly leads to deforestation and land

degradation.

14.65. Grazing: People living in and around the national park own large herds of unproductive

cattle, serving as dung producing machine and are totally dependent on the national park for their

grazing. Therefore, grazing becomes a serious threat to the wild animals as the local cattle compete

with the wild ungulates for fodder and also act as a potential carrier of the zoonotic diseases.

14.66. Forest fire: Grasslands of Kudremukh national park which occupy187.78 sq. km area or

about 30% of the total area of the park, have become the Achilles heel for the park, as major part of

these grasslands get burnt every year during summer. Recurrent forest fire is a serious threat to the

Kudremukh habitat, as it results in soil erosion and promotes weed growth leading to habitat

degradation and destruction. Forest fire also has the potential to damage and destroy Shola forest if

it is not prevented, which could ultimately endanger the water security of this region.

14.67. Illegal and unsustainable collection of NTFP: People living in and around the national

park depend upon the national park for their livelihood, as large quantities of NTFPs such as

rampatre, muruganahuli, vatehuli, honey, seegekai, dalchini leaves (Cinnamomum zeylanicum),

canes and Myristica malabarica, etc. are collected from the national park for both bona-fide and

commercial purposes. This illegal and unsustainable collection of NTFP from the national park

would cause serious disturbance and damage to wildlife and its habitat.

14.68. Pollution: Cultivation of both private and encroached lands in the forest enclosures located

in the middle of the wildlife habitat poses serious threat to the fragile ecosystem as it promotes soil

erosion and causes environmental pollution due to increasing use of pesticides and fertilizers in

their farmlands. Further, religious tourism and other forms of tourism activities in and around the

Kudremukh landscape generate a lot of waste/garbage and leads to environmental pollution.

14.69. Hunting of wildlife: Human-animal conflicts such as crop raiding by the ungulates and

livestock killing by predators have led to retaliatory killing of wild animals. Further, hunting of

wild animals for local consumption and religious hunting of wild animals by local people is a

serious threat to the Kudremukh wildlife and its habitat.

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14.70. Abandoned mine site: The abandoned KIOCL mined area located near the Malleshwara

enclosure of Kudremukh national park looks like a barren land, as the top soil is completely

removed during mining and there is hardly any natural vegetation due to infertility of land. Because

of open cast mining, the mined area has been fragmented posing serious threat to free movement of

wild animals and in addition, surface and groundwater drainage patterns were altered. Although

mining operations were discontinued since 2006, the scars of mining have not completely healed.

14.71. The practice of open cast mining together with the practice of conversion of lower grade ore

bodies into high grade through concentration process has led to increased waste production (Lakhya

tailing dam) and serious environmental impacts to Kudremukh. As directed by the Hon’ble

Supreme Court in its judgment in IA 1010/2003 in WP No. 202/95 dated 15.12.2006, it is

mandatory for the Indian Bureau of Mines to re-analyze the stability of slopes with the technical

support of IIT Delhi and draw up detailed terms for the work to be done, consistent with the basic

paradigm of “no or minimal disturbance to unbroken area”. But even after eleven years, there is

total negligence and no action has been taken by the Indian Bureau of Mines and IIT Delhi towards

stabilizing the abandoned mine area. Over the years, there was large scale erosion due to annual

monsoon shower and thus large gorges and gullies were formed in the abandoned mined area,

which is still posing threat to the landscape. Further, the entire abandoned mined area should be

added to the Kudremukh national park for its long term protection and conservation.

Strategies to address the challenges faced by Kudremukh forest complex:

14.72. Voluntary relocation and rehabilitation of families from forest enclosures: As already

mentioned, there are 108 forest enclosures belonging to 41 revenue villages with around 1,328

families living within the Kudremukh national park and their activities directly or indirectly have

serious impact on the protection and conservation of forest and wildlife. Further, people living in

these enclosures also need civic and other amenities which cannot be provided inside a protected

area. Therefore, voluntary relocation and rehabilitation is the best option for a win-win situation. A

novel voluntary rehabilitation scheme of the Government of Karnataka is already in operation,

which needs to be expedited to rehabilitate all the families who were ready to relocate outside the

protected area. More funds need to be allocated for this purpose by the Government of Karnataka

and the Government of India for speedy implementation of this scheme.

14.73. Reclamation and rehabilitation of abandoned mines: Around 3,203.55 hectares of forest

land which was originally leased to KIOCL and which currently remains as abandoned mined area

needs to be restored and converted to natural habitat suitable for the native wildlife. Vegetative

method of restoring the mined area is the best suitable option which is compatible with physical

method and can slowdown the runoff, soil erosion and stabilize the mined area. Planting of grass

slips can be taken up, as these strike roots early and are much more efficient in conserving

rainwater. Agave plantation is to be done along the contours, as it is suitable for the conditions of

mined area. Planting Ficus cuttings is to be done as it can grow in hard soil with less care. Dibbling

of seeds of selected native plants is the best option as these native species have evolved for

thousands of years and as a result have adapted to local soil type, rainfall and temperature.

14.74. Soil moisture conservation measure on watershed basis: Kudremukh is a hilly,

undulating terrain receiving heavy rainfall during the south-west monsoon. Further, it is the

27

catchment for seven major and minor rivers/streams which form the lifeline for the whole region.

Therefore soil moisture conservation on watershed basis should be adopted as the most important

and crucial strategy for Kudremukh. Effort should be made to treat all the micro-watersheds of

Kudremukh landscape in the ‘from ridge to valley’ concept.

14.75. Other strategies: Other strategies recommended for tackling various threats of Kudremukh

forest complex include firing protection measures, protection against hunting and illegal tree

felling, protection against grazing, fire wood and NTFP collection, protection against linear

development projects like road, electric lines, water pipelines and other projects, regulation of

tourism activities, nature education camps and awareness creation, eco-development activities

around the protected areas and long-term monitoring of forest and wildlife, etc.

Hotspot Number 2: Talacauvery wildlife sanctuary and its surrounding landscape:

14.76. Reason for its selection as Environmental Hotspot: Talacauvery wildlife sanctuary and

its surrounding landscape represent the whole of Kodagu district, which is a global biodiversity

hotspot and World Heritage site. Talacauvery is the fountain head of the river Cauvery, which is the

lifeline of southern Karnataka, Tamilnadu, Kerala and Pondicherry. The evolution of this dynamic

landscape in Kodagu district is triggered by activities of various sectors such as coffee sector

(Coffee-Based Agroforestry System-CAFS), the timber sector, the tourism sector and tribal sector

(Forest Right Act implementation). These sectors have also posed serious threat to the landscape’s

natural ecosystem and its biodiversity. Further, biodiversity and water resource management, two

most important issues of the Talacauvery landscape, are very relevant to the present and future

generation. Therefore, Talacauvery landscape has been chosen as environmental hotspot

representing both the forest and agro-ecosystems and their associated biodiversity, so that all the

stakeholders would be sensitized towards their protection and conservation.

14.77. Talacauvery landscape: Talacauvery landscape consists of three wildlife sanctuaries and

other reserved forest located adjacent to the wildlife sanctuaries. Talacauvery wildlife sanctuary is

spread over an area of 105 sq. km, located in Kodagu (Coorg) district of Karnataka. The sanctuary

derives its name from Talacauvery (Head of the Cauvery), the source of the Cauvery, a sacred river

of great religious and cultural significance. Pushpagiri wildlife sanctuary, located on the north-

eastern direction of Talacauvery wildlife sanctuary is spread over an area of 102.92 sq.km and is

named after the highest peak called Pushpagiri peak located in the north of the wildlife sanctuary.

Brahmagiri wildlife sanctuary comprising of Brahmagiri and Urty reserved forests is spread over an

area of 181.29 sq. km and is located in the south-eastern direction of Talacauvery wildlife

sanctuary. It is named after the Brahmagiri peak, which is the highest point located at the south-

eastern boundary of the sanctuary. All the three protected areas of Kodagu district are together

referred to as “Greater Talacauvery Wildlife Sanctuary”. Protection of this landscape would help in

the overall protection and conservation of forest and wildlife in the district and would also help in

the maintenance of regional climatic balance.

Values of Talacauvery and its surrounding landscape 14.78. Economic value: Talacauvery is the original creator of the greatest South Indian River, the

Cauvery whose origin springs deep in these sacred mountains. The sanctuary also acts as an

important catchment area for the perennial streams like Dodda hole, Nadumal hole, Betemale hole,

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Kumekolli, Mundra hole, etc. Similarly, Pushpagiri wildlife sanctuary is catchment for river

Kumaradhara, probably the only undammed river in Karnataka, still unpolluted and natural, till it

gushes out from these evergreen forests near the temple town of Kukke Subramanya and it also acts

as an important catchment for perennial streams and tributaries of river Kumaradhara such as

Lingada hole, Percha hole, Marigundi hole, Uppangala hole, Padakka hole, Kadamakal hole, etc.

Brahmagiri wildlife sanctuary has huge value as source of fresh water as river Laxmantirtha, a very

important tributary of river Cauvery originates in it. Barpole, a west flowing river, originates in this

wildlife sanctuary. All these rivers and their tributaries remain source for drinking water, irrigation,

power production, tourism, etc. The Cauvery River originating from these forests travels hundreds

of kilometers and remains the main source of water for millions of people downstream in Tamil

Nadu, Kerala, Pondicherry and southern Karnataka. The significance of this mighty Cauvery River

is both economic and cultural. The river is also a major source of hydroelectric power in the region.

14.79. Biological values: Situated in the Western Ghats, which is considered as one of the 34

biodiversity hotspots of the world, the southern part of the Talacauvery region is a conspicuous

ecotone in the Western Ghats because it is at the southernmost range of forests dominated by

Cullenia exarillata. It also represents the southern limit of the lion-tailed macaque (Macaca silenus)

habitat. Talacauvery and Pushpagiri wildlife sanctuaries are natural habitats for many endangered

species like Asian Elephant, Tiger, Leopard, Sloth Bear, Indian Wild Dog, Slender Loris, Pangolin,

Indian giant squirrel, Flying Squirrel, Mouser Deer, Nilgiri marten, Gaur, Bonnet Macaque and

Common Langur. Brahmagiri wildlife sanctuary is the northern limit of the distribution of the

Nilgiri Langur (Semnopithecus johnii), is also home for the most threatened of species like LTM,

Malabar civet, Slender Loris, Nilgiri marten, Clawless otter, etc. Talacauvery landscape is one of

the few places in the Western Ghats where all the primates of southern India are found in sympatry.

The size and contiguity of these ecosystems make them most suitable for long term in-situ

conservation of primates.

14.80. Corridor value: The south-eastern tip of the Brahmagiri wildlife sanctuary is adjacent to

the western boundary of Rajiv Gandhi (Nagarahole) National Park, separated by a narrow strip of

coffee plantations. The larger wide-ranging species are known to move between Brahmagiri and

Nagarahole. Further, being in continuity with important protected areas like Mudumalai, Bandipur,

Nagarahole, Wayanad and Aralum, Brahmagiri sanctuary provides extended habitat for large

mammalia like elephants and tigers.

14.81. Cultural and religious value: Pushpagiri, as the place of origin of the rivers Lingadahole

and Kumaradhara has been a place of worship and great cultural and religious significance.

Brahmagiri sanctuary has sacred mythological importance. There is a legend that when Lord Rama

was returning from Sri Lanka with his brother Laxmana, after rescuing Sita, they had taken rest in

this area. In need of water, Laxmana had struck ground with an arrow and a stream gushed out,

which became the river Laxmanatirtha river. The River Cauvery has great socio-cultural importance

in south India. She is revered and worshiped as the Goddess Cauvery in the southern part of India,

especially in Kodagu.

14.82. Major threats facing Talacauvery landscape: The major threats facing the Talacauvery

landscape are its environmental degradation due to shrinking of forest cover as a result of

deforestation and encroachment for expanding plantations, increase in the human-animal conflict

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due to loss of wildlife habitats, lack of sustainable agricultural practices in plantations, lack of

sustainable building practices in construction and pollution of Cauvery river. Further, negative

impacts of tourism and lack of environmental education among the people of Talacauvery

landscape also constitute serious threats facing this landscape.

14.83. Ecological loss due to shrinking of forest cover: Talacauvery landscape of Kodagu today,

with the commercialization of its plantations, is at the cusp of change. The landscape suffers from

continued deforestation and encroachment of forest lands resulting in ecological loss. The above

mentioned encroachment is done illegally by landowners in order to expand their estates. With the

alliance of Kodagu with Karnataka, a criminalized and powerful timber mafia has systematically

stripped much of the forest wealth. Ancient devarakadus, sacred protected forests, have vanished

completely in most places. Dr. Kalam (2001) a noted Anthropologist wrote ‘during the 180 year

period that the devarakadus were under the care of the Revenue Department, their extent shrank

from 15,506 acres to 6,299 acres (that is a 60% loss). More than 95,000 acres of devarakadus have

been lost since 1905’. Today, there are 346 devarakadus left in Kodagu, down from its former

number of over a thousand”. Study on assessment and conservation of forest biodiversity in the

Western Ghats (Ramesh, 2009) revealed that forest areas were converted to anthropogenic cover

types at an annual rate of 0.63%. Forest loss was mitigated in areas under state protection (reserve

forest), while degraded or fragmented forests lost more area than dense, undisturbed ones.

14.84. Increase in the human-animal conflict due to loss of wildlife habitats: This is a direct

result of shrinking of forests. Fragmentation and destruction of forests have caused wild animals to

come out of the forests and forage for food in plantations. With habitat destruction, animals have

diverted from their normal migratory routes. There has been a huge surge in the last decade of

elephant herds taking new migratory routes through local roads and villages into coffee estates.

This is causing severe crop damage and, in many extreme cases, loss of human life.

14.85. Lack of sustainable agricultural practices in plantations: Plantation owners (who

practice coffee-based agro-forestry system-CAFS) use pesticides for farming which leach into the

ground water and Cauvery River. The runoff from the plantations simply makes its way into field

drains, rivulets and streams eventually draining into and polluting the Cauvery River. There is no

management of water resource in the plantations/agricultural fields. Groundwater is fast depleting

as individuals drill bore wells for domestic purposes and for irrigating plantations during summer. It

is remarkable that in spite of being located in very high rainfall zone, Kodagu suffers from drought

and water shortages for irrigation and domestic consumption during the summer months of April

through June. It is ironical that due to improper water management practices, there is a drought

every summer, including minor crop failure, in a region with so much rainfall.

14.86. Illegal sand mining: An ongoing environmental disaster in Kodagu now is the illegal sand

mining from the sand banks of the local tributaries of the River Cauvery for making concrete

blocks. This has resulted in an ecological disaster to the riverine ecosystem in addition to number of

incidents of death due to local drowning.

14.87. Pollution of Cauvery River: Considering that the Cauvery River is worshiped in the region

as a goddess, it is surprising that her waters continue to get polluted, almost as if she has the healing

powers to restore and renew the polluted waters. A major threat is the impact of non-scientific

30

agricultural practices followed in the coffee estates under the coffee-based agro-forestry system

(CAFS). Intensification of coffee-based agro-forestry system through use of chemical fertilizers and

pesticides, decrease of tree cover and the development of irrigation have led to pollution of water

bodies apart from other environmental problems like soil erosion, biodiversity loss and increased

human-animal conflict. Spraying of pesticides and insecticides may result in erosion of the

ecological and environmental health of the ecosystem.

14.88. Negative impacts of tourism: Natural beauty, culture and traditions are an inherent part of

Kodagu; but the immensely growing population in the nearby urban mega-cities is putting a lot of

pressure on this land and its ancient customs. The peaks and waterfalls of Pushpagiri and

Brahmagiri wildlife sanctuaries attract a large number of tourists. Tourism has encouraged various

activities such as construction of roads, resorts or home-stays, transportation facilities, etc. Tourism

has promoted directly or indirectly approximately 21% of deforestation, 37% of the environmental

pollution and 7% landslides in Kodagu (Shivaraju and Kumar 2015). Similar impacts have been

reported in earlier research studies on landslides in the district (Vishwanatha et al. 2014; Prajapati

R.C. 2010). Most crucial impact observed in those eco-tone areas is regarding disposal of plastic

wastes and their accumulations, which further degrade the habitation of endemic and endangered

species. Careful management of tourism is very critical to the sustainability of the fragile ecosystem

of the landscape.

14.89. Lack of environmental education: Environmental education is lacking in the public and

private schools of Kodagu. There are currently no museums, botanical gardens, zoos or

organizations that inform and teach children about the unique land they live in. There is no platform

for all the children of various schools to form clubs, groups or an environmental organization. In

spite of growing up in one of the world’s greatest hotspots of biodiversity, the children of Kodagu

have been denied the opportunity of basic understanding of the region’s ecology.

14.90. Future threats in waiting: We have seen that Kodagu is already dealing with a number of

major environmental issues. To add to these, there is now a proposal to bring in a railway line from

Mysore to Madikeri to increase tourist traffic and to provide connectivity to the mountains. There is

also the current and future issue of the Cauvery River water dispute. For decades since the inception

of states, sharing and allocation of the waters of the river Cauvery is a source of serious conflict

between the states of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. In recent years, due to all the aforementioned

environmental problems and global climate change, there has been shortage of inflow in the river

and consequent non-availability of water for sharing. In 2016 after negotiations between the states

could not resolve the issue, unrest turned into violence with people burning buses and riots

protesting against the state of affairs. Finally, Global climate change continues to affect this

region’s weather patterns. Rainfall and the monsoon season that is the lifeline of the region have

become too unpredictable for the farmers and plantation owners to rely solely upon.

14.91. Strategies to address the challenges faced by Talacauvery and its surrounding

landscape: Some of the strategies suggested to mitigate the existing threats of Kodagu in general

and Talacauvery landscape in particular are as follows:

14.92. Protection against encroachments and deforestation: All forms of encroachment in forest

lands irrespective of ownership must be immediately halted. Devarakadus or sacred groves should

31

be protected against illegal encroachments. All the encroached forest and government lands should

be recovered and efforts should be made to regenerate the areas with native species, so as to restore

the forest cover in their original glory. Biodiversity of the landscape should be protected and

conserved through public participation and cooperation.

14.93. Water conservation: Kodagu being the catchment area of the Cauvery river requires

rainwater-harvesting system. Artificial ground water recharge systems with rapid percolation pits to

recharge the perennial water sources need to be commissioned. It could be implemented during the

road construction and other developmental works. This would not only help to maintain satisfactory

ground water level, but also would prevent occurrence of flood and drought. This would also

overcome the drinking water problem in the district. Implementation of rainwater/roof water

harvesting in private lands, large community buildings and institutional buildings are highly

recommended as it helps in maintaining the ground water table besides helping in recharging of

open wells and bore wells, maintaining regular flow of water in all streams and rivers, reducing

floods and soil erosion, improving the quality of water and mitigating the effects of drought.

14.94. Implementation of Eco-sensitive Area Concept: To avoid and prevent uncontrolled

development of infrastructure and to regulate the process of urbanization, there is need to declare

the Kodagu part of the Western Ghats as ecologically sensitive area as recommended by the Dr.

Kasturirangan Committee. Further, the concept of Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) should be

introduced and implemented for promoting voluntary protection and conservation of forest cover in

Kodagu district as a whole.

14.95. Declaration and protection of corridors between the Protected Areas: Areas connecting

the protected areas of Talacauvery, Brahmagiri and Pushpagiri should be declared as either

community reserve or conservation reserve or wildlife sanctuary. It helps in long-term protection

and conservation of wildlife in this landscape and results in reduction of human-animal conflict.

14.96. Environmental learning centers: An independent outdoor environmental learning center

should be set up in Kodagu district that would be a platform to tie with local schools with a very

immersive learning technique. It would also be accessible to tourists to learn about the rich culture,

heritage and biodiversity of Kodagu. It would be accessible to local plantation owners and their

families where they will receive education and training on new technologies and more sustainable

practices in farming.

14.97. Eco-development activities: Eco-development programmes and activities need to be taken

up in the buffer zone of the Talacauvery, Pushpagiri and Brahmagiri wildlife sanctuaries. This will

ensure help and support of local people in promoting the conservation objectives. Harmful and

unsustainable uses of resources have to be gradually replaced with sustainable alternatives.

Hotspot number 3: Belandur and Varthur lakes, Bangalore

14.98. Reason for selection as Environmental Hotspot: Belandur and Varthur lakes have

become very famous among the urban people especially the people of Bengaluru, for all the wrong

reasons. As a matter of fact, these have become symbols of negative developmental activities and

environmental malaise associated with the life styles of the present generation. By referring to

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Belandur and Varthur lakes, one can connect the ongoing negative developments in the cities/towns

and their impact on all the associated environments. Therefore, Belandur and Varthur lakes have

been chosen as Environmental hotspot representing both fresh water and urban ecosystems, which

could incite the sense of civilized urban dwellers towards negative developments, modern lifestyles

in cities/towns and could generate their support towards their protection and conservation for the

future generation.

14.99. Lakes in Bangalore: The landscape in and around Bangalore is dotted with hundreds of

man-made lakes which were originally irrigation tanks constructed over the past centuries. They

were also important as sources of drinking water, for washing, fishing and wider aquatic habitat. As

the city grew, agricultural lands got converted into built-up areas, and the importance of tanks as

irrigation structures declined. Therefore, while urbanization proceeded at a very fast pace in the

Bangalore region during the past two decades, mismanagement of urban wastewater and other

environmental processes accompanying urbanization (such as solid waste generation, protection of

natural stream flow channels) resulted in pollution of most of the lakes.

14.100. Values of Belandur and Varthur lakes: Bellandur and Varthur lakes are two of the

largest lakes of Koramangala and Challaghatta area located in the south-eastern portion of

Bangalore metropolitan region with spatial extents of 370 hectares and 180 hectares respectively.

Catchment of these lakes ranges from 158.5 square kilometers to 279 square kilometers. They

provide diverse ecosystem services such as fishing, fodder, microclimate improvement, recreation,

ground water recharge, aesthetic value, biodiversity, medicinal plants, etc. There is also a proposal

to divert treated sewage from this region to meet irrigation demand in Kolar district. Hence the

“Designated Uses” of these lakes include fisheries, fodder, irrigation, recreation, ground water

recharge and biodiversity conservation. Bellandur lake, which is one of the oldest lakes in

Bengaluru, was the lifeline for surrounding 18 villages a few decades ago. Old time residents of

Bellandur village recall the good times when the lake was full and the nearby lands were fertile. Till

the 1970s, people used to cultivate paddy, grow vegetables like cauliflower and tomato in

abundance in these lands, besides fishing in the lake waters. Apparently, more than 400 fishing

families were living in this neighborhood. The lake water then was used for irrigation as well as for

drinking. People of Belandur and nearby villages used to celebrate annual ‘Theppotsava’ (boat

festival) on this now infamous lake. This was also a ‘sea-plane’ channel that was built into the

Bellandur Lake in the 1940s.

14.101. Current status of Belandur and Varthur lakes: Bellandur lake is Bengaluru’s

largest lake, hits the headline often for all wrong reasons. The once bountiful lake has gradually

transformed into a sewage tank. This lake is part of Varthur lake series and currently both these

lakes are the most polluted lakes in Bengaluru as they have been receiving the largest volumes of

wastewater. The sewage water that enters Bellandur lake mixes with fresh water and the excess

water flows downstream into Varthur lake, as both these lakes are interconnected. Varthur Lake

empties itself in South Pennar river, also known as Dakshina Pinakini. Currently, Bellandur lake is

filled with stinking water in all seasons and it is covered with weeds and filled with silt. Water

pollution has led to disappearance of fishes in the lake. An independent study conducted by the

Indian Institute of Science in 2013 revealed that bore well water in Varthur village (close to

Bellandur) was high in nitrate, ammonium and phosphorous. There have been adverse

environmental and public health consequences. During the pre-monsoon of 2015, due to high wind

33

coupled with rainfall, massive froth and aerosol formation was noticed in the southern waste weir of

Bellandur lake eventually overflowing onto the neighboring road obstructing traffic. Further, to

make things worse, on May 16, 2015, the froth at the northern waste weir (Yamalur weir) of

Bellandur lake caught fire and this created fear and anxiety in the minds of the people living in that

region, leading to a major public outcry. With increased and instant communication through the

social media these days, the matter receives very high publicity.

14.102. Reason for the current status of Belandur and Varthur lakes: The problem in

Bellandur lake began in late 1980s. According to CPCB findings, Bellandur lake has more or less

become a sewage tank due to sustained inflow of untreated sewage and industrial effluents. There

are around 110 villages located around Varthur and Bellandur lakes which do not have UGD

connection and as a result, sewage flows into the lakes. Further, there are more than 500 industries

from which effluents enter the lakes. Thus domestic sewage and industrial effluents have led to the

prevailing environmental conditions of the lakes, which are evident from intolerable levels of smell

and very poor and unhygienic conditions.

14.103. Strategies to address the challenges faced by the two lakes: Since Bellandur lake

is under the management of different agencies like BBMP (manages storm water drains), Revenue

department (catchment areas/encroachment), BWSSB (sewage), LDA (overall lake management),

BDA (lake rejuvenation) and Urban Development department, an integrated plan should be made to

rejuvenate the lake. A report by Professor T V Ramachandra and team from the IISc titled

“Pathetic status of wetlands in Bengaluru” offers some solution to control ‘Varthur – Bellandur –

Yamalur’ fiasco. The main approach has been to maintain the minimum water quality standard to

fulfill the vital role of lakes in urban ecosystem and to identify a series of short-term and long-term

measures that need to be taken or need to be strengthened in order to bring the lakes to the desired

standards. There may be no easy or quick techno-fixes for this issue; however there is need for

long-term solutions which should have technological and ecological components besides

participatory social processes including increased citizen involvement in the monitoring and

management of the lakes and their catchments and indeed of all activities that are likely to impact

the lake environment.

Short term remedial measures:

14.104. Measures to stop the inflow of untreated sewage and also to improve the quality

of water: All waste processing units located in the vicinity of lakes and lake bed should be evicted.

Dumping of municipal solid waste should be stopped immediately. Dumping of construction and

demolition (C & D) wastes in the Rajakaluve, valley zones and lake beds should also be stopped

immediately. Regular harvesting of macrophytes should be done, as it helps in curtailing

accumulation of nutrients. It must be ensured that all apartments let out only treated water to the

lakes. Installation of online water quality monitors at the treated water outlets from Koramangala

and Challaghatta valley 250MLD STP and up-linking of the monitoring data to a public website

should be ensured. All industries must have functional effluent treatment plants (ETP) and their

functioning should be closely monitored by the KSPCB to ensure zero untreated effluent

discharges. There should be mechanisms for surprise environment audit to ensure zero untreated

effluent discharges to storm water drains (and lakes), and also for vetting of the inspection reports

by the respective resident lake associations.

34

14.105. Measures to achieve froth reduction: BDA should reduce the velocity of the flow

at the waste weirs and the extent of drop by constructing ramps at the waste weirs (3 out of 4 weirs,

since 1 ramp is already in existence). BBMP should ensure free passage of water (by restoring

storm water drains, waste weirs, freeing of all debris) and KSPCB and UDD should move

MoEFCC, Government of India to ban the use of phosphorous in detergents or regulate detergents

with phosphorous in market

14.106. Measures to improve the aeration or oxygen levels: BDA and UDD should

improve aeration or oxygen levels through installing fountains, removing all blockages and

widening and increasing the number of channels / outlets.

14.107. Measures to improve the physical integrity of lakes and storm water drains:

Revenue department should be involved in surveying and mapping of water bodies (including flood

plains) and buffer zones (30 m as per BDA; 75 m as per NGT) and valley zones (eco-sensitive zone

as per RMP 2015, and green belt as per CDP 2005), removal of all the encroachments (lake bed,

Raja kaluves, storm water drains) to prevent calamities related to floods and in identifying the

common lands, Kharab lands, streams, drains, tracks and paths (as per cadastral / revenue maps) in

Koramangala and Challaghatta valley and on priority between the Agara, Bellandur and Varthur

lakes. This would be useful to setup waste water treatment plants (STPs) and constructed wetlands

Long term remedial measures:

14.108. Untreated Sewage:

i. BWSSB should be committed to install 90 MLD STP at Ammanikere (upstream of Varthur

lake) to which 60 MLD will be pumped from Agaram pumping station and this should be

completed within one or two years. BWSSB should also install 60 MLD STP at Koramangala

and Challaghatta valley to which 60 MLD will be pumped from Agaram pumping station.

Similarly, 150 MLD STP should be installed at Koramangala and Challaghatta valley to treat

sewage from Koramangala valley-Ejipura drain.

ii. BWSSB should also establish 2 MLD STP at Ulsoor lake (upstream of Bellandur) and four

treatment plants of 55 MLD capacity at Hulimavu, Chikkabegur, Sarakki and Agaram lakes

upstream of Bellandur and completion of sewers in all parts of the catchment, new (110

villages and erstwhile CMCs) and Core area by March 2020.

iii. There is urgent need to cancel all the land allotments made by KIADB between Agaram lake

and Bellandur lake (40 acres). This should be pursued legally to enable establishment STP (40

acres as per RMP 2015) in the region between Agaram and Bellandur lakes to enable

establishment of 210 MLD STP at that location itself, to treat sewage locally and to prevent

unnecessary waste of electricity for pumping 60 MLD to Koramangala and Challaghatta valley

and 90 MLD to Amanikere STP.

iv. BDA should undertake one-time cleaning of the lake, especially removal of accumulated silt

(enriched with nutrients) to be initiated within a year or after the inflow of untreated sewage

reduces to 100 MLD or below, whichever is earlier.

v. The problem of sewage reaching SWDs from slums and houses unable to connect to UGDs

should be addressed by BWSSB.

vi. Slum board should relocate the existing settlement in the Bellandur Varthur catchment.

35

vii. BDA should identify disposal points for sludge and silt with chemical analysis for appropriate

end uses.

14.109. Strengthening the Bio-remediation capability of lakes: A Natural Treatment

system (Constructed wetlands and algae ponds; similar to treatment systems at Jakkur lake) should

be developed by BWSSB, KSPCB and Minor Irrigation department to augment the existing and

proposed STPs in order to remove nutrients (Nitrates and Phosphates) thereby providing relatively

safe water to Kolar, Anekal, etc. Further, BDA should remove the macrophytes by harvesting at

regular intervals.

14.110. Long term monitoring and compliance: The following actions are suggested for

long term monitoring and compliance:

(a) Formation of Citizen Lake Monitoring Committees: Citizen Lake Monitoring

Committees should be formed for each lake, notified under Section 3(3) of the

Environment Protection Act, 1986. The Committee should consist of five eminent

citizens of the locality and should be chaired by a Retired Judge or Environmental

Expert.

(b) Enforcement of existing Environmental norms: There is need to strengthen the

legal cells at BBMP, BDA, Forest Department and KLCDA in order to address all

illegalities and evolve fast track mechanism to ensure speedy disposal and eviction

of encroachers and for penalizing the polluters.

(c) Enforcement of safer Urban planning norms: There is need to exercise caution in

granting any consent for the establishment of large scale projects in these catchments

with immediate effect.

(d) Monitoring and Research for improving the efficacy of measures and adaptive

management of lakes: Full-fledged online lake water quality monitoring system

should be established with the support of KSPCB and other research institutes.

Hotspot number 4: Bellary mining area

14.111. Reason for its selection as Environmental Hotspot: During the last decade, the

name of Bellary district became synonymous with illegal mining. The district saw unprecedented

level of rampant and illegal mining during the period 2003-04 to 2009-2010 which had inflicted

severe damage to the environment and ecosystems of the district, creating huge uproar among the

public, media and civil societies and resulted in enough sensitization among the general public.

Therefore, Bellary has been chosen as one of the Environmental hotspots of Karnataka, representing

the negative developmental activities of the current generation, which could help in further

sensitization of various stakeholders including bureaucrats and political bosses towards sustainable

development.

36

14.112. Mining Activity in Bellary district: Bellary is known for its mining activity since

the last fifty years mainly due to the availability of iron and manganese ores. The minerals are

abundant in three taluks of Bellary, Hospet and Sandur (referred to as BHS sector). BHS sector is

considered to be one among the world’s richest deposits with iron ore (hematite) with iron (Fe)

content as high as 65%. According to IBM, there are 148 mining leases in BHS Sector covering

10,598 hectares. Out of the 124 mining leases, 98 are in forest area. Out of 124 mine leases which

were operational, 116 mines were engaged in iron ore production and rest (8 mines) were engaged

in manganese production. Iron ore mining in Bellary took off in 1999, paved by the 1993 National

Mineral Policy that began encouraging private players to participate in iron ore mining. It received

a further push when the Karnataka State Mining Policy in the year 2000 outlined a policy of

“Export Oriented Development”. During 2003, the state Government had allowed the private sector

to mine in areas earlier earmarked for the public sector. The changes in mining policy went hand in

hand with increasing demand from China due to the Beijing Olympics that caused iron ore prices to

soar. From around Rs. 1,300 per tonne in 2000 it crossed Rs. 4,500 per tonne in 2005-06. Therefore,

mining which was at a low rate in the last four decades (1960 to 2000) had increased manifold due

to “China Boom”.

14.113. Report of the Central Empowered Committee (CEC) appointed by the Hon’ble

Supreme Court of India states that there has been a complete breakdown of government machinery

in the region, leading to devastation of the environment and indiscriminate looting of the country’s

resources. Further, CEC report also states that nearly 45% of the forest cover in the region has been

lost to mining. “As a result of mining and associated activities, what was once an area with green,

scenic, undulating hilly terrain, today presents a barren and dismal picture akin to a war-ravaged

zone with huge ugly scars”. The area affected due to mining activities has been assessed between

the two periods i.e. 2000-2006 and 2006-2011 (ICFRE, 2011). Accordingly, it was found out that,

about 8.9 sq km forest area has been lost to other land use/cover in the district. Mining/Overburden

areas were increased by 21.5 sq km of which 20.3 sq km was contributed from forests. Mining

related activities such as ore dumps, processing area and mine access roads have impacted 27.3 sq

km area in the district as on 2011. Siddapura, Sandur, Nandihalli were highly deforested sub-

watersheds recording loss of forest over 594 ha, 158 ha and 152 ha respectively.

14.114. Impacts of mining on various ecosystems of Bellary: Development projects in any

region must learn to respect the ecological integrity and the priority of conserving biodiversity of

the region for long-term sustainability of the mineral extraction initiatives, for economic

development and dependent human well- beings. It is therefore important to evaluate the magnitude

and severity of impacts associated with mining activity and their implications for wildlife

conservation.

14.115. Impact of mining on physical environment: Air: The SPM, PM10 and PM2.5

emissions are found to increase proportionally with increase in iron ore production in all three

taluks of Bellary, Sandur and Hospet. Noise: Mining Noise includes blasting noise (Leq 63.2 to

120.6 dBA), ore handling noise (range of 87-110 dBA) and transportation noise (Leq 60-79 dBA).

Workers working in these areas may get exposed to noise levels higher than stipulated 90 dBA.

Transportation of ore on the existing roads has also led to increase in noise levels. Water: Based on

the survey of post-monsoon 2011 conducted in Bellary district, it was found that water quality was

37

poor due to the presence of iron (Fe) and manganese (Mn) in groundwater sources around mining

areas. Excessive concentration of fluoride in ground water was noticed in some of the villages.

Impacts on Biological Environment: 14.116. Direct loss of forest cover: One of the earliest direct impacts of mining is the loss

of forest in the areas identified for iron ore extraction. A total of 82 leases, covering a total extent of

6,776 ha already exist within the forested areas of Bellary, Sandur and Hospet ranges that together

constitute a total 68,234 ha. It becomes evident that 9.93% of forest cover has already been lost due

to mining in these three specific ranges. Indirect loss of forest cover: In most of the cases, where

the mines are located on the hill tops, overburden was dumped haphazardly on the downhill areas

from where these were eroded to the valleys. In this process, the vegetation in the valley also got

destroyed resulting in further loss of forest cover affecting the wildlife living in the forest areas.

Forest degradation: Mining involves blasting, excavation, crushing, sizing, grading, storing and

disposal of mine waste. All these activities generate enormous amount of dust. Windblown dust

particles settle on the vegetation thus forming a thick layer on the leaves and thereby affecting the

photosynthetic process and overall growth rate and biomass productivity of the adjacent forests.

Forest fragmentation: Opening of a large number of mines in the limited forest areas in BHS

sector has resulted in the fragmentation of the forests. Fragmentation is very high in Sandur.

Impact on aquatic habitat/wetlands: Sedimentation induced by soil erosion/landslides and water

pollution due to inflow of acidic material from the mines/dumps have tremendous negative impact

on the wetlands in the plains/foothills of the hill ranges, which are under mining. Tungabhadra dam,

the largest water body located in the foothill of Gunda reserved forest in Hospet range, and other

reservoirs located in the mainland such as Daroji lake, Chilkanhalti tank and Shivpur tank receive

runoff from the hill ranges.

14.117. Impact on agro‐ecosystem and associated biodiversity: It is stated that nearly

3000-4000 trucks transport the iron ore from mines to different destinations using the public roads

which pass through villages and agricultural fields. Continuous movement of such a large number

of vehicles damages the roads and generates enormous volumes of airborne dust particles which

ultimately settle on the crops. These events are likely to reduce seed setting in the crops leading to

decline in agricultural productivity. The negative impact on the agro ecosystem also adversely

affects the faunal diversity associated with agricultural lands including granivore, omnivore,

insectivore and frugivore birds, herpetofauna and lesser mammals like mongoose, rodents and small

cats.

14.118. Impact on Flora and Fauna: Flora: Most of the forests in Bellary forest division

are located on the hill ranges and are rich in floral and medicinal plant species. Evaluation of floral

status revealed that, species richness has been affected due to mining. Invasion of weeds is one of

the significant secondary impacts of mining activity. Further, mining in Bellary has resulted in

negative impact on forest richness, phenology of the plant species, height of the tree species,

regeneration and recruitment of native species, etc. Mining and associated activities are likely to

cause greater ecological disturbance and impact upon the medicinal and other RET species. Mining

at Bellary has also impacted decomposers like Polyporus and other fungi which play a vital role in

the forest ecosystem. Similarly, the symbiotic microbes, especially the Arbuscular Mycorrhizal

(AM) fungi also get removed along with the overburden (OB) during mining activity. Fauna:

Clearing of vegetation/forest cover in the mining lease area is one of the most important factors

38

having an important bearing on the habitat and quality of all associated faunal species. Clearing of

6,776 hectares forest area during the last 40 years for mining might has resulted in loss of habitat

thus affecting wide varieties of faunal species. Mining has affected the butterfly population,

Herpetofauna (because of ground vibrations due to blasting, excavation and crushing) and avifauna

including terrestrial faunal species which are considered to be the most sensitive indicators of

disturbance and habitat quality. It is also noted that, some of the birds like flycatchers, doves and

pigeons, some species of raptors, pheasants and starlings were totally absent from the mining lease

areas. Mining has also impacted mammalian species such as Bonnet Macaque, Hanuman Langur,

Common Grey Mongoose, Indian Hare, Three striped Palm Squirrel, etc. Further, the movement of

mammalian fauna between different forest patches has also been restricted due to drilling, blasting,

crushing, loading and frequent movements of heavy vehicles in the mining areas. Mining has

severely affected the RET species.

Socioeconomic impacts 14.119. Impact of mining on agriculture and animal husbandry: It was found that the

cultivation of crops has reduced over the years in the mining affected areas as the extent of

uncultivated land increased over the period. It has been found that since 2005-06 onwards, there

was declining interest among farmers in agricultural activities in the mining affected villages of

Sandur and Hospet taluks. The main reason for this was reduction in productivity of cash crops. As

per the current estimation, working population of livestock (cattle, buffalo, goat and sheep) has

reduced drastically in the mining affected villages of Bellary and Hospet taluks. The decrease in

livestock population, including that of sheep, is attributed to marked decrease in availability of

grazing land.

14.120. Road conditions and road accidents: Despite spending heavily on maintenance,

the roads of Bellary, Sandur and Hospet taluks were in dismal condition due to continuous plying of

multi-axle vehicles. Further, overloading of vehicles had negative impact on road conditions and

also led to increased accidents.

14.121. Impact on health: Acute diarrhea and respiratory diseases contribute 42% of the

total health related problems in the three mining taluks. The number of patients suffering from acute

respiratory diseases continues to rise from 2007 with a sharp increase in 2010 compared to the

previous year. Very similar trend can be observed for diarrhea due to poor quality of water.

Respiratory diseases can be attributed to the fine dust present in the air all the time due to mining

and allied activities.

14.122. Mitigation measures to reduce the impacts of mining on various ecosystems of

Bellary: It is clearly established that rampant, unauthorized and unregulated mining in Bellary

district has had a negative impact on the floral and faunal biodiversity along with adverse impacts

on human health and well-being. The need therefore is to plan, implement and institutionalize a

range of mechanisms and processes which would enable the country to meet the industrial and

economic imperatives on the one hand but also safeguard the environment, biodiversity and human

well-being considerations on the other. Some of the proposed mitigation measures against the

impact of mining in Bellary district are as follows:

Mitigation measures for physical environment

39

14.123. Mitigation of air pollution: Crusher handling plant is to be monitored and dust

collectors installed, wherever possible. Vehicular emission norms are to be strictly enforced.

Regular checking and stopping of overloaded trucks/dumpers and regular monitoring of air

pollution near source and the villages as per the new CPCB standards by a reliable and competent

agency is recommended.

14.124. Mitigation of noise pollution: Low-noise technologies for blasting operations in

mines should be implemented. Transportation of lumps and overburden generates noise which can

be mitigated by minimum use of trucks and maximum use of closed conveyor belts. Plantation on

overburden dumps will also help attenuate excessive noise levels and development of green belt

surrounding the villages near mining areas will also attenuate noise. Vibration and related noise

should be monitored regularly and this effect can also be minimized by development of thick

plantations around mining areas.

14.125. Mitigation of water pollution: Measures such as construction of percolation tanks,

creation of artificial water bodies in natural depressions, check dams to arrest wash off solids and

groundwater recharge should be followed on priority basis. Construction of diversion channels and

protective earthen bunds in appropriate locations should be done to prevent entry of runoff into the

Narihalla dam. Engineering measures such as stone masonry check dams, dry stone masonry check

dams or earthen check dams with other engineering slope stabilization methods should be adopted

to arrest silt and leachates.

14.126. Measures to improve the Biological Environment: Habitat Improvement: Check

dams/waterholes should be developed to facilitate and meet the water requirement of the faunal

species. Further, some of the open and semi open patches must be developed into grass patches

which can protect the topsoil, and they must be restored with medium and short fodder grass

species (Apluda spp. and Cynodon spp), that would enhance the food availability for the small and

medium sized RET mammals and other faunal species. Conservation plan for RET floral and

faunal species: Among the RET species, climbers (Celastrus paniculata, Gloriosa superba,

Holostemma adaikodien and Pueraria tuberosa), herb (Curcuma karnatakensis), shrub (Embelia

tsjeriam-cottam) and trees (Aegle marmelos and Santalum album) are relatively more sensitive and

vulnerable to mining activities. All these species need to be protected and conserved using both in

situ and ex situ approaches. RET faunal species should be ecologically monitored annually. Some

of the endangered (Schedule I) faunal species which need regular monitoring of their population

include Leopard (Panthera pardus), Indian Wolf (Canis lupus), Ratel (Mellivora capensis), Indian

Pangolin (Manis crassicaudata), Sloth Bear (Melursus ursinus), Four-horned Antelope (Tetracerus

quardicornis) and Yellow Throated Bulbul (threatened avifauna of the study area). Conservation of

Medicinal Plants through in-situ conservation models such as MPCA (Medicinal Plants

Conservation Area), MPDA (Medicinal Plants Development Area) and sustainable harvest of NTFP

(Non Timber Forest Produce) should be implemented. Establishment of Butterfly Conservation

Centre in Bellary with special focus on raising of host plants of selected butterfly species is

suggested as butterflies are considered as one of the best indicators of the health of the ecosystem.

Village forests should be restored by strengthening joint forest management committees (JFMC)

and involving local communities and miners with the Forest department. Relic patches of forest

with various RET species should be developed/preserved.

40

14.127. Scientific mining in Bellary district-the way forward: Scientific mining is the key

to manage the environment in the district within recuperative limits, which lies in scientific and

environmentally sustainable mining coupled with socio-economic development of the people living

in the vicinity of mines. Though mining is an inevitable economic activity for a developing

economy like ours, it is detrimental to the environment if carried out on large scale in an

unscientific and unsustainable manner. ‘Sustainable development is essentially a policy and strategy

for continued economic and social development without detriment to the environment and natural

resources, on the quality of which continued activity and further development depend. The study

team (ICFRE, 2011) however had also observed that, after cessation of mining operations as

ordered by the Hon’ble Supreme Court, the affected area particularly in Hospet-Sandur block is

getting natural regeneration of many species, which shows that the area has natural resilience. It can

therefore be concluded that environmental damage could be minimized if scientific, planned,

sustainable and progressive mining is carried out with simultaneous reclamation, rehabilitation and

restoration of mined out areas.

Conclusions on Environmental Hotspots: 14.128. Natural resources are indispensable not only for sustaining life but also as an

important input for economic growth. Currently, all the environmental problems arise because of

resource depletion and negative externalities caused by the development processes and projects.

Specifically, the growing population, rapid industrialization and urbanization, faster developmental

activities as a part of globalization process and drastic climate changes exert tremendous pressures

on our natural resources.

14.129. Currently, due to poor availability of information on various aspects of natural

resources and the existing problem in quantification of natural resources, it is not possible to fully

assess the damage being done to the natural resources. Therefore, identification of environmental

hotspots and monitoring the same over a period of time would help us in identifying numerous

environmental policy-making dilemmas and paradoxes. Space technology (through satellite

imagery) serves as a potential tool to identify, delineate and study the environmental hotspots over a

period of time. The data generated about the hotspots over a period of time (long term monitoring)

through satellite technology would serve as a basis for evaluation and description of the state of

environment, trends of environmental changes, environmental management and protection systems

and mechanisms, as well as environmentally sound measures that need to be taken at "hot spots".

14.130. All natural habitats possess inherent conservation values, including the presence of

rare or endemic species, provision of ecosystem services, sacred sites, resources harvested by local

residents, etc. It is not enough to protect species and places; for humanity to survive and thrive, the

protection of nature must be a fundamental part of every human society. Environment is not to be

seen as a stand-alone concern, as it cuts across all sectors of development. Therefore, environment

has strong inter-sectoral linkages and hence safeguarding the environment becomes the

responsibility of almost all development agencies both government and non-government, besides

the citizens, residents and entrepreneurs irrespective of their occupation.

14.131. As a developing country with an ambition to become developed country in the near

future, India should aim for sustainable development, balancing the need to protect the environment

and continued growth. All the developmental works like infrastructure projects, industrial

41

development projects, and other developmental works should be planned with adequate and/or

necessary regulatory, safety and mitigation measures to protect the environment. There is no

“inherent contradiction between environmental protection and developmental requirement, if we

can check our lust for appropriation beyond our requirement.”

14.132. Environmental degradation resulting from various anthropogenic activities such as

production or consumption of goods and services causes externalities. However, these are not

routinely accounted for in a competitive market. It is therefore necessary to develop a system of

accounting of natural resources, which is likely to provide ample support to design the economic

system in such way that it is possible to attain economic growth without destroying natural

resources (i.e. sustainable development). As stated in the tenth plan document of the National

Planning Commission, sustainability is not an option but imperative. For a better world to live in,

we need good air, pure water, nutritious food, healthy environment and greenery around us.

Without sustainability, environmental deterioration and economic decline will be feeding on each

other leading to poverty, pollution, poor health, political upheaval and unrest. We have to improve

our economic growth rate, provide basic minimum life support services to large section of our

population and deal with the problems of poverty and unemployment. At the same time, we have to

pay attention to conserving our natural resources and also improving the status of our environment.

In order to meet the goal of sustainable development, it is necessary to address both the problem of

resource depletion and negative externalities adequately. Therefore, sustainable development is the

mantra of current and future generation, which can be achieved through sound environmental

polices accompanied by effective actions on the ground.

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