chapter 12. think… “it’s all about the circles”

Politics in IranChapter 12

Think… “It’s all about the circles”

“It’s all about the circles”INSTITUTIONS

OF THE REVOLUTION

(ISLAM)1979

INSTITUTIONS OF THE SHAH

(UNTIL 1979)

Democratic Structures

THEOCRATIC

Big Picture: For students to “get” how political institutions are a product of

the political history of a country.

Overview: The Big PictureSystem of Government: Mixed Theocratic-

Presidential SystemDistribution of Power: Unitary System Electoral System: SMDP, but double ballotConstitution: Constitution of 1979Legislature: Unicameral—MajlesCurrent Head of State: Mahmoud

Ahmadinejad, Supreme Leader• Head of Government: Mahmoud AhmadinejadCurrent Ruling Party: “conservatives”Major Political Parties: “conservatives”,

“pragmatists”, and “radicals”

1. Supreme Leader2. Guardian Council3. Expediency Council4. Assembly of Religious Experts5. President6. Parliament—Majles7. Judiciary8. The Constitution—Honestly

Undemocratic

Institutions of the Islamic Republic

Tension: Between Islam and practical governanceRemember: You can’t ask God what He thinks!

Two types of institutions coexist: Appointed and Elected

Dualism reflects the attempted synthesis between divine and popular sovereignty institutions

Multiple Power Centers: Institutions created by the revolutionaries to

supplement the activities of the traditional state institutions, with which they share overlapping responsibilities

This further complicates the institutional structure of Iran

Institutions of the Iranian Republic

Dualism: Multiple Power Centers

Assignment: Create one page “cheat sheet” for each institution based on the following:What is the institution—role in

government?Where does it come from (historical

legacy)?How does it get elected/appointed?Who/what has power over it?How does it fit in the structure of

dualism?How is its power limited?

Institutions of the Iranian Republic

Supreme Leader, Guardian Council, The Assembly of Religious Experts, and the Expediency Council DO NOT fit into three branch government.

All have broad executive, legislative, and judicial powers that allow them to supersede all other positions and bodies.

Jurist Guardianship: Ayatollah Khomeini’s overarching principle that they have all encompassing authority over the whole community based on their ability to understand the shari'a and their commitment to champion the rights of the people.

Jurist Guardianship

Highest authority in the Islamic RepublicSeen as iman of entire communityRepresents pinnacle of theocratic

principles of the state.Ayatollah Khomeini and Ali Khamenei.Faqih: the leading Islamic jurist to

interpret the meaning of religious documents and shari'a law.

Links three branches of government together, may mediate among them, and is charged with “determining the interests of Islam”

The Supreme Leader

Constitution gives Supreme Leader many powers:Elimination of presidential candidatesDismissal of presidentCommand of armed forcesDeclaration of war and peaceAppointment and removal of major administrators

and judgesNomination of six members of Guardian CouncilAppointment of many non-governmental directors,

such as the national radio-television network and semi-public foundations

Formally, is head of state (president is head of government), but the Supreme Leader holds ultimate power

The Supreme Leader

Represents theocratic principlesConsists of twelve MALE clerics

Six appointed by Supreme LeaderSix nominated by the chief judge (judiciary) and

approved by MajlesPurpose: To ensure that all bills passed by Majles

conform to shari'a law.Has power to decide who can compete in elections.

2004 and 2005 disqualified 1000 of candidates for both the Majles and the presidential elections.

Along with Supreme Leader, Guardian Council exercises principle of jurist guardianship, making sure that democratic bodies adhere to Islamic beliefs and laws.

The Guardian Council

86 member all male assembly directly elected every 10 years by people, but whose candidates are approved of by Guardian Council

Given the responsibility of broad constitutional interpretation—along with Supreme Leader and Guardian Council

Main Function: To select Supreme Leader and has power to remove Supreme Leader (after 1989 reforms).

In theory, Assembly of Religious Experts had power over the Supreme Leader, but since the Assembly is chosen by the Guardian Council and the Guardian Council is chosen by the Supreme Leader, the real power always rests with the Supreme Leader.

Assembly of Religious Experts

A 32 member “council for determination of what is in the interest of the regime”

Purpose: Originally designed to solve disputes between Majles and Guardian Council. Now it has expanded powers. Example: Now it can originate its own

legislationBegan as council of 13 clerics, now not all

are clerics but they are appointed by Supreme Leader

Collectively, they represent the most powerful men in Iran.

The Expediency Council

Ethel Wood on the president, page 247 Iran does not have a presidential system, so the head

of the executive does not have the same authority as presidents in countries that have a presidential system, such as the U.S., Mexico, and Nigeria.

However, the president does represent the highest official representing democratic principles in Iran, and he functions as the head of government, while the supreme leader serves as head of state.

Directly elected by Iranian citizens every four years.

Limited to two consecutive terms in office, though may re-run.

Must be pious Shia who upholds Islamic principles.

The President

President holds the following powers:Devising the budgetSupervising economic mattersProposing legislation to the MajlesExecuting policiesSigning of treaties, laws, and agreementsChairing the National Security CouncilSelecting vice presidents and cabinet membersAppointing provincial governors, town mayors,

and ambassadorsFive of six presidents have been clericsThe cabinet conducts the real day-to-day

work over governance.

The President

Unicameral, the Majles, comprised of 290 members directly elected through SMDP.

Must be Muslims but the Constitution provides for five members of Parliament to represent Christians (3), Jews (one) and Zoroastrians (one)

All its bills are subject to the veto of the Council of Guardians—greatly limits power.

Predates Iranian Revolution—first created by Constitution of 1906

The Majles

Some of the powers of the Majles:Enacting or changing laws (with approval of Guardian

Council Interpreting legislation, as long as they don’t contradict

the judicial authoritiesAppointing six of the twelve members of Guardian Council,

chosen from a list drawn up by the chief judge (judiciary) Investigating the cabinet ministries and public complaints

against the executive and judiciaryRemoving cabinet members, but not the presidentApproving the budget, cabinet appointments, treaties, and

loans

The Majles

Judicial Review does not exist in IranUltimate legal authority resides in shari’a NOT constitution.Run by Chief Justice who is appointed by Supreme Leader

and who must be a cleric.Under Chief Justice is Supreme Court, highest court in the

land.All judges on Supreme Court must be clerics because judicial

system is based on shari'a law.Two important things to remember about judiciary:

1. Distinction between two types of law: shari'a and qanun2. The of principle of jurist guardianship means that the

Supreme Leader, the Guardian Council, and the Assembly of Religious Experts have the final say regarding interpretation of law.

The Judiciary

Shari’a LawIslamic law that comes directly from the time of

Muhammad.Foundation of all Islamic civilization—authority

goes beyond Iran’s borders.Muslims believe it to be the essence of

Muhammad himself.Purpose: Unifying Islamic morals and valuesFoundation of Iran: Sharia law supersedes all

other law, thus is foundation of Iranian law.Jurist Guardianship is a reflection of shari'a law—

Supreme Leader being the key interpreter

The Judiciary

Qanun lawNo sacred basis—unlike shari’a lawInstead is a body of statues made by legislative

bodies inside IranIn Iran, qanun are passed by the Majles.Qanun is law made by the people’s elected

representatives.Qanun must in no way contradict shari’a law.So, it becomes the responsibility of the Majles to

pass responsible qanun, but an important job of the Guardian Council (and ultimately the Supreme Leader) is to review legislative work of Majles and apply the interpretation of shari’a to all laws passed.

The Judiciary

Multiple power centers

An Honestly Undemocratic Constitution

World’s only theocracyA form of government in which ideally all laws

are grounded in religion and express the will of God, and the clergy exercises supreme power

While Islamic law has always been applied to varying degrees in Muslim states, it has almost always been complemented by some sort of nonreligious customary law.

Genuine theocracies have been very rare.Iran’s current theocratic regime constitutes a

break with Muslim tradition.

Background: Islamic Republic of Iran

Established in 1979A few months after a popular revolution uniting

poor and middle-class, religious and secular people overthrew Mohammad-Reza Shah Pahlavi – the last ruler of the country’s ancient monarchy.

Ruholla Khomeini – charismatic clerical leader who had authored a blueprint for theoretic government in the 1970s, led the 1979 revolutionOpposed democracy on religious groundsSovereignty belongs to God aloneDivine law, know as the shari’a, as interpreted and applied

by the ulema (religious scholars in the Muslim world) takes precedence over laws made by human legislators.


Developed a very lively political system after Khomeini’s death in 1989Presidential, Majles, and local elections

offer Iranian citizens a choice of candidates advocating differing policies.

One of many paradoxes found in Iran


Never formally colonized by Europeans

Borders arise from historical balance of power between its shahs and their neighboring rules.

Current Iranian state was set up in the early 16th century by the Safavid dynasty.Establishment of Twelver Shiism as the

official state religion and the conversion of most Iranians who had been Sunnis to Shiism

Political center of the Shiite world

Historical Legacy

Twelver ShiismSplit between Sunnis (90% of all Muslims) and

the Shiites came about after the death of the founder of Islam, the Prophet Muhammad

Shiites believed that descendants of the Prophet could be the only rightful successors/leaders-- Imams.Third Imam, Husayn, whose martyrdom in

680 C.E. symbolizes for Shiites for the struggle of the just against the unjust.

Most Shiites believe the Twelfth Imam was the last of the Imam, thus their name.Believe he is alive and will come forth and show

himself to establish a just rule at the end of timeHe is a messiah-like figure.Creates a dilemma for Shiite followers—how do you

rule?

Historical Legacy

Safavid Dynasty presented dilemmaThe unavailability of the one truly

legitimate ruler became an existential problem—in the absence of the Twelfth Imam, who had the right to rule in practice?

By end of 1600s, a minority of ulema argued that for the rule of a shah to be legitimate, he had to have the ulema’s explicitly endorsement

This sets up the dynamic relationship between the ulema and the political leaders in Iran today.

Historical Legacy

Tithing creates ulema as independent institution from the state—financial independence = power

Beginning in 1800s, the ulema had greater social, political, and religious prominence in Iran than in the Sunni world

Ulema had there own sources of income and were beyond the control of the state.

Without this legacy the establishment of a theocracy in Iran would not have been conceivable in the 1970s.

Historical Legacy

“catching up with the West” became major goal of Iranian intellectual elite

The believed “rule of law” was European secret to superiority (arbitrary rule).

In 1905 widespread dissatisfaction with the way the country was governed

Led to a popular movement that would wrest the constitution from the shah in December 1905

Shiite ulema played major role in the constitutional movement

Powers of the monarchy needed to be curtailed

Historical Legacy: Constitutionalism in Iran

Believed the citizenry had the right to elect a representative parliament

Shah could name a prime minister only in agreement with parliament.

Parliament could hold the government accountable.

Constitutionalist ulema found ways to justify them in Islamic terms.Ayatollah Muhammad-Husayn Na’inni

His argument implied the novel idea that as long as the Twelfth Imam chose to remain in hiding, the believers themselves were his deputies.

Reconciled Shiism’s core beliefs with modern notions of constitutionalism and is a legacy that the revolutionaries of 1979 could not ignore as they set out to create an Islamic state.

Historical Legacy: Constitutionalism in Iran

In a 1907 secret agreement Britain and Russia divided Iran into two spheres of influence.

During WWI, belligerents repeatedly violated Iran’s neutrality and fought each other on Iranian territory.Created strife in Iran

1921 coup d'état put an end to the rule of the old establishment

Historical Legacy: The Pahlavi Monarchy

Between 1941 and 1953 Iran’s political system included three main camps:Pro-Western conservative establishment

(Shah and landlords)Pro-Soviet communist Tudeh partyNeutralist National Front, which aimed at

establishing the full rule of law within the country and consolidating its standing among nations.Mohammad Mossadegh: nationalizing Iranian

oil industryBritish plotted his overthrow; accomplished

with the help of the U.S. Central Intelligence (CIA) in August 1953


Reverted to royal autocracy as the second ruler of the Pahlavi dynasty (1963)White Revolution

Land reform and granting suffrage to womenWesternizing policies

Traditionalists riotedNew opposition: Ruhollah Khomeini

Riots suppressed with violenceKhomeini arrested and exiled: settled in Najaf in

Iraq until 1978 when he was expelled by Saddam Hussein until his triumphant return to Iran in 1979


Demands for free electionsShah’s regime increasingly contested at

home but it continued to receive support from the West in general and in the U.S. in particularOpposition to the Shah also became opposition

to the U.S.Evidence suggests that Shah was successful at

manipulating U.S. policymakers to achieve his ends rather than it being the other way around.


Who and Why? Iranian RevolutionsWho? Middle Class Urban Revolution!

Coalition of intellectuals, university and high school students and teachers, bazaar merchants, politically active clerics and seminarians, industrial workers, and finally, state employees and white-collared workers

Why? Anti-Shah, Anti-USADespotism, corruption, and the alliances

with the United States and Israel united such diverse ideological factions as liberal adherents to 1906 constitution, Marxist-Leninist leftists and Islamists

Charismatic Leader: Ayatollah Khomeini's

Historical Legacy: The Islamic Revolution

Iran-Iraq War: 1980-1988The perfect thing for Ayatollah KhomeiniWar = National UnityProvoked by Saddam Hussein of IraqAllowed the regime to consolidate

power by calling for national unity in the face of a foreign invader

The war became a means to suppress domestic discontent

US supported Saddam and Iraq with billions of dollars of military aide!

Historical Legacy: Iran Iraq War

KEY POINT:Rentier state = non-responsiveness to needs of

citizensIran = Rentier StateTherefore, Iran = non-responsive to needs of

citizensOil as made Iran dependent on the price of oil

for the bulk of its budgetRentier State: countries that can sustain

themselves independently of social pressures and powerful interest groups

Oil Curse…creates lack of broad based industrialization

Historical Legacy: Legacy of Oil Wealth: A Rentier State

Big Picture: Political Landscape1980s: Dominated by Khomeini1990s: Moderates: Rafsanjani and

Khatami 2000s: Conservatives—Ahmadinejad

(post 911)

Student ResponsibilityPresidential ElectionsLocal ElectionsElections of 2004Elections of 2005Elections of 2009

Elections and Parties

The Pre-revolutionary legacyVery limited competitive elections before

1979Suffrage for womenMinimum voting age 15Communist Tudeh Party and Nationalist

Party did exist since WW IIOvershadowed by Islamist groups—anti-

communist


Post-revolutionary partiesMost political parties form around one

person’s charisma and political ambitions

Three Ideological DifferencesConservatives

Clerics and politicians who argue for stricter social rules

Call for greater authority to Supreme Leader at the expense of elected bodies

Support market oriented policies (paradoxical!)


PragmatistsAccomodating on social issuesSupport economic liberalization and

privatizationRadicals

Younger revolutionaries and clerics influenced by leftist and anti-imperialist policies

Increased state control of economy to ensure social justice

Active in supporting Islamists struggles in Middle East


Majles ElectionsDivided into multimember

constituenciesLargest is Tehran with 30

representativesEach voter can write down the names of

as many candidates as there are seats in a constituency.

Top vote-getters in each constituency are elected provided they receive over 50% of the total vote.

Second round determines the remaining representatives from among the runner-ups.


Presidential elections1980 first ever presidential election

Victory of a lay Islamist: BanisadrImpeached by Parliament and deposed by Khomeini in

1981His successor and prime minister killed by a bomb

two months laterThe next four elections: Khomeini associates

Result: participation went downKhatami – “outsider”; appealed to those who

had been humiliated by the regimePromised greater cultural openness and personal

freedom2005 elections: arch conservative mayor of

Tehran, Mahud AhmadinejadSome question as to voter fraud allegations


Elections of 2004Council of Guardians disallowed about 2,000 reformist candidates, including about 80 sitting MPS (unprecedented)Call for a boycott of the election50% of the population still went to

the polls


Local electionsConstitution of 1906 provided for elected local

government councils but these were never constituted.

Similar provision of the 1979 Constitution first put into action in 1999.Iranians for the first time went to the polls to elect

city, town, and village councils.Reformists won control over most councils; stymied

by conservativesVoters stopped participating.Elections in 2003 – only 15 turnout in Tehran- even

though the freest election in Iranian history. Mostly conservatives voted. Result: very conservative council

December 2006 new electionsParticipation increased; Ahmadinejad conservatives won

only a few seats; rebuke for the President’s handling of the economy.


Who governs Iran?Under the Shah

Small class of educated and secular Iranians who had personal loyalty to the monarch

Wealthy and Western Educated and insularUnder the Islamic Republic

PersonalismRevolutionary pedigreesClergy recruited into the state (post-revolution)Nonclerical parliamentarians and ministers tend

to emerge from educational and military institutions (1990s)

Many of the new elite have come from the ranks of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps and the Basij (2000s).

Kinship ties

Recruiting the Political Elite

The mix of electoral politics and authoritarian power generates multiple and competing forms of interest articulation and aggregation under Islamic Republic.

Most Institutionalized forms: regular elections (presidential, parliamentary and

local)Least Institutionalized (Most prevalent and

effective)Paternalistic TiesPatron-Client relationships

Result:Representation is highly fragmented, fluid, and

contentiousAlthough system is not fully pluralistic, competitive,

nor democraticWeak party organizationsLack of formalized links to the citizenry.

Interest Articulation and Aggregation

Noninstitutional Forms of Art. and AggregationClientalismPatron-client networksExternally: State trades access to revenue streams

through loyalty or access to political/clerical offices Internally: distribution of large subsidies to ensure

loyalty of large portions of populationFood, medicine for urban poor

Institutionalized Forms: VotingElections are regularized, but do not provide complete

pluralism because of limited power of elected institutions.

More a test of regime legitimacy than expression of interests

Exceptions: 1997 Khatami and 2005 AhmadinejadPolitical parties play no major roles


Institutional Groups & Professional OrganizationsGroups based in state organizations have a more

corporate identity and a greater ability to shape policy—similar to controlled interest groups (Mexico)

Islamic Revolutionary Guard CorpsBasij: volunteer mobilization corpsThese are military and security forces but play a

role in the economy through business subsidiaries: construction and importing consumer goods

In direct communication with Supreme LeaderMore emerged in 1990s and under KhatamiNo clear separation between state and interest

groups


Nonassociational social groupsBazarri merchants

Influence: economic and closeness to ulemaThreatened by state control

War veterans (families of martyrs &Iran-Iraq war) Demonstrations and public protests

Protests against the regime have come from a variety of groups, including teachers, ethnic groups, university students

Protests against president have taken place recently

Strikes are not uncommon form of civil disobedience

Protests against selling state-owed industries successful

Women’s groups have protested against male bias of constitution.


BIG IDEA: Introduction to Section: page 380In Iran state policy is set by a

number of bodies, some of them explicitly mentioned in the Constitution, some not. Given the mixed nature of the political system, overlaps, duplications, and even contradictions abound, and it is not rare for different policymaking bodies to work at cross-purposes.

Policy Formulation

State institutions mentioned in the ConstitutionIn theory, no state policy may

contradict Islam, so those who determine this have a preponderant voice in setting policy.The Supreme LeaderThe Expediency CouncilGuardian CouncilThe National Security Council (p.381)Executive and Legislative Branches

Policy Formulation

CONCLUSION: page 382The extensive powers of the Leader

and the existence of such unelected decision-making bodies as the Council of Guardians, the Expediency Council, and the National Security Council severely limit the policymaking role of the elected officials: the president, cabinet members named by him and approved by Majles, and the Majles itself. Popular sovereignty is thus severely undermined.

Policy Formulation

State institutions not mentioned in the ConstitutionsSupreme Council for the Cultural Revolution

Multiple Power Centers and the Difficulty of CoordinationMultiple power centers so policies are often

not coordinatedJudiciary Revolutionary GuardsInconsistencies damaged Iran’s credibility

abroadExamples page 382-383

Policy Formulation

Economic policymakingOne of the most contentious topics

Post-revolution favored state-centered approach

The late 1980s liberal approach: private sector and market mechanisms

Mixed resultsLed to hardship and therefore faced

oppositionKhatami’s efforts limited due to economic

foundations’ and parastatal organizations’ autonomous and privileged access to resources and markets.

Policy Formulation

Incoherent policiesIMPACT: The result of the multiplicity

of policymaking bodies is frequent incoherence and sometimes paralysis, but this incoherence has prevented the system from becoming totalitarian, as overlapping spheres of activity of various institutions have made centralized control of public life nigh impossible.

EXAMPLE: Music..absurd and hilarious..page 385

Policy Outcomes

Spreading progress and prosperityTried to help the poor…indifferent

to upper middle classState educational system

astonishingly goodScience and literacy

Birth control…free and widely distributed

Health care…adequate Roads and the provision of basic

services

Policy Outcomes

Alcohol consumption banned except for the non-Muslim minorities

Veiling enforced in public spacesState committed in theory to the minimizing contact

between unrelated men and womenReligious content of education is vastly expandedGruesome physical punishment to chastise adulterers,

homosexuals, and other offenders of religious moralityOutwardly a success; but underneath the surface –

bootlegging, prostitution (driven by poverty), over 2 million Iranians are drug addicts, corruption

Religious practice has become more privateAnticlericalism

Policy Outcomes: Islamicization of Society

Legal restrictions on women’s rights Many ad hoc discriminations instituted by the Islamic

Republic Fields of study closed to women Women’s sports restricted; attire incompatible with veiling

Women increasing their participation in public life Many are working outside of the home 60% of the student body at universities’ restrictions on

what they can study having been gradually lifted More novels- written by women Women compete in sports but at locations to which men are

not admitted Mal-veiling Islamic feminism

Policy Outcomes: Gender Relations

Under the ShahU.S. an ally

Revolution seen on par with Russian and Chinese revolutions

Vanguards of vast revolutionary wave1990s “national interest” over export of the

revolution, but disagreement over what is a national interest

Third WorldistDesire to escape the hegemony of Western

worldThree concentric circles against “world

arrogance” (Third World, Muslim world, Shiites)

“Neither East nor West”, but more EastMain issue confronting current Iranian diplomacy

is the nuclear program.

Policy Outcomes: Foreign Policy

Read and know conclusion section!Faced many challenges and has

survivedWhat are they? Great review tool.

Reopening of the debate: What is the proper relation between religion and politics in Iran?

Iran and Its Challenges

Iran is the first country in which Islamists have had to deliver on the promises of a society characterized by social justice and moral propriety.

During the first decade of the Islamic RepublicSome redistribution of wealthNew leadership came mostly from humble or

middle-class backgrounds and adopted populist policies that somewhat bettered the lot of the poorest.Rural developmentHealthWomen’s educationRoads

Poverty, inequality, and underemployment continue to be major public grievances.

Current Policy Challenges

Job creation has been very inadequate.Need to increase economic output.

Population grows by one million a year.Discontent spurred out migration from the country

One in four Iranians with higher education live abroadSubsequently, Iranians often have family abroad in the U.S.,

Canada, and Europe

CorruptionDissatisfaction with the status quo among

some of Iran’s ethnic minorities

Current Policy Challenges

Country Bio: Iran

Population: 66.3 million

Territory: 636,296 sq. miles

Year of Independence: 550 B.C.

Year of Current Constitution: 1979, amended in 1989

Head of State: Ali Khamenei

Head of Government: Mahmud Ahmadinejad

Language: Persian, regional languages

Religion: Twelver Shiite Muslim 90%, Sunni Muslim 10%, non-Muslims less than

1%

1977 Jimmy Carter – president of the U.S.Focus on human rights

Shah had terminal cancer; began liberalizing Iran’s political system Groups pushed for greater reforms

Revolutionary uprisingCoalition of intellectuals, university and high school

students and teachers, bazaar merchants, politically active clerics and seminarians, industrial workers, and finally, state employees and white-collared workers

Despotism, corruption, and the alliances with the United States and Israel united such diverse ideological factions as liberal adherents to 1906 constitution, Marxist-Leninist leftists and Islamists

Khomeini

Historical Legacy: The Islamic Revolution & the Iran Iraq War

Iranian citizens from a variety of backgrounds and viewpoints have an intense sense of national prideGlory of pre-Revolutionary Iran and because

Iran survived the colonial movement untouched

Nuclear program new nationalistic rallying point

Tend to compare themselves more readily with the dominant countries of the West than developing countries

Conspiracy theory mentalityForeign meddlers real and made up

Political Culture

System levelIranian nationalism/ancient PersiaVanguard of the Islamic world’s

struggle against Western domination

Recently, ethic nationalism has become stronger among Iran’s non-Persian populations

“Right” to develop nuclear energyGovernment used this issue to shore

up their legitimacy.

Political Culture

Process levelIslamic revolution increased participation in

politicsSome disaffected Khatami brought them back

into politics (1997 and 2001)Extreme individualism and lack of trust of

governmentLong history of despotismDoing the bidding of foreign governmentsCauses the absence of strong political partiesThis saved them from totalitarianism in the 1980s

Periodic emergence of charismatic leaders

Political Culture

Policy levelOil- Iranians have tended to expect the

state to provide welfare and material well-being for everybody and alleviate the gap between rich and poor.

CorruptionSuspicion of private enterprise and

industryPopulism = anti-large scale economic

activities

Political Culture

Educational systemThe militaryReligion and religious institutions

Mass mediaFamily and social groups

Political Socialization

chapter 12. think… “it’s all about the circles”

Documents

political institutions

branch government

branches of government

traditional state institutions

types of institutions

head of state president

leading islamic jurist

islamic republicseen