Chapter 12

Research related to Sanctions

From the headlines Survey of 100 senior executives Dress influences promotion (a positive sanction) Appearance influences impressions of

Credibility Suitability for role with greater responsibility

Decisions about what to wear to work Would managers at my company wear this? Does it give me confidence? Is it clean and in good condition? Is it comfortable?

Appearance influences impressions of credibility

Questions to answer How do researchers study sanctions against

dress norm violations? How does research reveal the interrelatedness

of the aspects and variations of sanctions? What methods are used to conduct research

related to sanctions against dress norm violations?

What tools are used to collect data for research related to sanctions?

Use of sanctions within the family Socialization agents

Parents/guardians Earliest Most influential

In transmitting society’s values and norms Positive sanctions—praise, compliments Negative sanctions—shame, guilt

Positive sanctions--compliments

Shame—negative self-evaluation

Teasing Teasing

Sarcasm Insults Mockery Ridicule Making fun of Belittling Malicious remarks

During childhood, obese girls receive more comments and more teasing

Socialization Agents Transmit Cultural principle of acceptable and ideal

appearance (e.g., weight/height ratio or Body Mass Index)

Appearance-related teasing can have long-term effects on body image, depression, and eating disturbances

Society’s Values and Norms

Body Mass Index (BMI) Formula: Weight/(height X height) x 703 Divide your weight by the square of your

height Multiply by a conversion factor of 703 Below 18.5 Underweight 18.5 – 24.9 Normal 25.0-29.9 Overweight 30.0 and above Obese

What is Cathy’s BMI?

Prevalence and effects of teasing by family members Teasing about appearance—risk factor for

body image and eating disturbances Middle-school girls

23% teased by a parent about appearance 12% teased by a parent about being

overweight 19% teased by fathers 13% teased by mothers 29% teased by siblings

Teasing by mothers related to depression Teasing by fathers related to

Body dissatisfaction Social comparison Thin-ideal internalization Restriction Bulimic behaviors Self-esteem Depression

Dear Ann Landers A recent letter from “Heavy-Duty Problem

in Atlanta” described the conflict between a husband and wife over their daughter’s weight. The mother was concerned because the girl is overweight and a borderline diabetic. The father felt she was being picked on by her mother. You replied that the father should support the mother’s efforts to help “Sue.”

Where in the world did you get the idea that the mother is helping the girl? However well-intentioned and sincere she believes her concerns are for her daughter’s health, it is obvious from her reference to “excess blubber” that the daughter is receiving a lot of negative, judgmental, and accusatory vibes.

Frequency of teasing related to

Body dissatisfactionSocial comparisonThin-ideal internalizationRestrictionBulimic behaviorsSelf-esteemPerfectionismAppearance-related teasing is NOT a

harmless behavior

Positive and negative body-related comments and body satisfaction Body satisfaction—an individual’s

satisfaction with specific physical features, weight and/or shape

898 54-year-old females 50% reported positive comments from

spouse 25% reported negative comments from

spouse

Positive or negative comment?

Comments while growing up Positive comments—25% of women Source: mothers Negative comments—33% of women Source: peers at school Negative comments recalled from

childhood had a negative effect on midlife body satisfaction

Family Support

Power of other people Damaging experiences in childhood Embarrassment, ridicule, comments Praise, support Others—parents, coaches, teachers,

spouses, physicians Most teasing related to body size and

shape Women recalled more experiences than

men

Comments related to weight

Use of sanctions within the school Sanctions used by students against their

peers Sanctions used by students against

teachers and administrators Sanctions used by teachers and

administrators against students

Name-calling and Nicknames9-10 year old children Negative experience Most common content of nicknames—physical

appearance Weight Height Nose Teeth Hair Skin (freckles, warts)

Sanctions used by students against their peers

Frequency and effects More than 20%

experienced nasty comments and unkind nicknames daily

Effects—unhappy, upset

Teasing, name-calling, nicknames Targets of such sanctions are “different” Appearance, personality, ethnicity, etc. Deviate from some social norm Lack of tolerance in U.S. society for

individuals who look different Usually involves repeated exposure over

time to negative actions on the part of one or more people

Deviation from a social norm

5th grade boys and girls Teasing and bullying in school Teasing was verbal aggression

Name-calling Laughing at another’s appearance, race,

academic, or athletic abilities Cursing Spreading rumors

Teasing is verbal aggression

Children recalled Names—geek, shrimp, wimp, etc. Teasing remarks—too big, too fat, too tall Targets did not look like everyone else

Wore glasses Wore bad clothes

Teasing was an extreme and extensively pervasive sanction

Ugly duckling

Bullying When children say nasty things to a child When a child is hit, kicked, threatened,

locked inside a room, or sent nasty notes When no one ever talks to a child When a child is teased repeatedly in a

nasty way Most bullying took the form of name-

calling--50% of younger students; 67% of secondary students

Name-calling and Nicknames Name-calling is calling someone abusive,

disgraceful or shameful names Unkind nicknames are names given to a person in

contempt or derision Verbal sanctions

Name-calling

Adult recollections of name-calling and nicknames during school More than half were called hurtful names Name-calling peaked between 8-12 years

of age Most common content of names referred

to physical appearance Other categories of names (e.g., famous

person, animals, objects) also related to appearance

Famous people

Results of name-calling Negative feelings such as anger, embarrassment,

shame, unhappiness Effects of name-calling lasted into adulthood

Memories of childhood teasing and anxiety and depression as adults Teasing Questionnaire (TQ)

Being ugly or unattractive Weight Height Aspects of appearance (e.g., dress, glasses,

hair color) Ethnic or cultural differences (wearing special

items of clothing such as a head covering)

Results Males and females scored equally on TQ Appearance-related items endorsed most

strongly Females—recalled being teasing about

Weight Height Appearance

Results Males recalled being teased about

Aspects of appearance Hair color Weight Excelling at school

There was a relationship between teasing during childhood and both depression and anxiety as adults

Teasing of overweight and non-overweight children Teasing about physical attributes Being called disparaging nicknames Frequency Duration Perpetrators Emotional impact of teasing

Overweight children Appearance-related teasing most

prevalent, frequent and upsetting Involved disparaging nicknames More often by peers Contemptuous nicknames related to fat,

body parts, overweight characters, and large animals or objects

Teasing was related to Weight concerns Loneliness Negative self-perception Preference for sedentary/isolative

activities Lower preference for active-social

activities

Case studies of school shootings Possible role of teasing and rejection 3 forms of rejection among adolescents

Teasing Ostracism Romantic rejection

Occur in the presence of other people An element of public humiliation

Perpetrators had been teased or bullied Many had been ostracized

Ridicule One means of communicating

consumptions norms and values among adolescents

Interviews Recalled mean-spirited barbs (hurtful

remarks) Used to put down and exclude those Who did not fit into the group

Recalled being taunted About over-protective parents About being immature Name-calling Responded to ridicule by conforming to

group norms Sought greater control over clothing

purchases Peer opinions replaced parental input

Jeer pressure Refers to the pressure felt by witnesses of ridicule

to behave in conventional ways Ridicule and teasing

Establish or maintain power over someone By intentionally embarrassing them

Embarrassment—to become painfully self-conscious, ashamed, humiliated, or ill-at-ease

Universal need to be liked by others and to fear rejection

Sanctions used by students against teachers and administrators Name-calling and nicknames reflect power

issues—weaker called names by stronger Students (weaker power position) use

derogatory nicknames for teachers they view negatively

Nicknames expressed dislike, contempt, or were attempts to get even

Characteristics of nicknames Teachers with most hurtful nicknames

Less admired Less popular Less respected More disliked

Most frequent category—some distinctive feature of physical appearance

Baldness, mole, double chin, overweight Students used nicknames in a secretive fashion

Comments about teacher in secretive fashion

Sanctions used by teachers and administrators against students Published in student handbooks Dress code violations—violations of norms

for student appearance

Dress code violations lead to sanctions

Content analysis of 155 handbooks 26 sanctions found Examples: verbal reprimand, loss of

privileges, detention, suspension, expulsion, disciplinary probation, alternative school

Not found—corporal punishment, student apology

Characteristics of sanctions in handbooks External Formal (except verbal reprimand) Punishment Obtrusive (21 of 26) Moderate magnitude (22 of 26) Mild (16 of 26) Equally pervasive (13), non-pervasive (13)

Use of Sanctions in the Workplace Creating a company image is important Dress and appearance one method Appearance-based hiring policies can be

discriminatory

Sanctions associated with appearance regulation at work Termination Promotion Being passed over for promotion or

partnership Social ridicule

Sanctions associated with visible religious symbols in the workplace Visual religious symbols may arouse

anxiety or fear in others who do not belong to the religion symbolized

Religious symbols

Common justifications for not allowing particular dress items Aesthetic Public health Public safety Solidarity

Employment discrimination of Muslim women who wear hijab 90% said a prospective employer said

something to them about wearing hijab 40% were told they must remove their

hijab if they wanted a job Applicants without hijab were treated in a

courteous manner Applicants with hijab were treated in a

dismissive and rude manner

Women who wore hijab experienced negative sanctions Denied jobs Told they must remove the hijab Harassed in the workplace Fired

Women who wore hijab experienced negative sanctions

Sanctions associated with weight as an appearance norm violation Sanctions

Taunting Name-calling Stereotypes

Unattractive Lazy Incompetent Second-class citizens

Called lazy, stupid, incapable

Dear Ann Landers“Extra Weight Isn’t Sign of a Sluggard” I have a response for “Frank in Frederick, S.D.”

who called women who are carrying extra weight “addicted, lazy, indifferent, self-indulgent, sick, or just plain stupid.” I am several pounds overweight and tired of being

lumped into the same category with lazy, uncaring slobs. I work 40 hours a week, keep an immaculate house, take care of two children, and a husband, and find time for visits to a gym to work out. I am the only woman on my block who cuts the grass, washes the car, paints the house, and knows how to dismantle an above-ground swimming pool.

When I am doing dirty work around the house, I admit that I look like a mess, but not many people wear an evening gown to wash the car. At work, I wear nice outfits, makeup, jewelry and heels. I can adapt to any situation from digging a hole in the back yard to attending a formal party.

Not all overweight people are sitting in front of the television feeling sorry for themselves and stuffing their face with food. We are vital members of the community who just happen to have some extra weight.

“Fed” up in Louisiana

Impressions lead to sanctions Sloppy, dirty, ugly, disgusting, unkempt Sanctions of extensive pervasiveness Informal sanctions

Repulsion Disgust Dirty looks Make fun of Look right through Nicknames and name-calling

Dear Ann Landers I read those letters trumpeting the theme “Thin is

in,” and I totally agree with you. I’m a smidge over 5 feet tall and an extra two pounds really shows up on me.

I’ve gained 25 pounds in 23 years of marriage. I’m not fat but I could stand to lose 20 pounds. What really bugs me is my husband. He says I’m fat and he equates fat with “lazy” and “slob” and says I’d better get my act together. Chubby in Cal

Dear Chubby in Cal I’ve said it many times, but I’ll say it once

more. Overweight people know how they look. Unkind comments are demoralizing, not helpful. They hurt and destroy self-esteem. I’m always slightly suspicious of people who feel they need to tell you something “for your own good.”