Chapter 11Chapter 11NigeriaNigeria

I.I. Public Authority & Political Public Authority & Political PowerPower

“National QuestionNational Question”: differing opinions about how political power should be distributed and how the government should be constructed.

In Nigeria differences are more distinct and run deeper than other countries

Since independence in 1960, neither its leaders nor its citizens agree on the basics of who should rule and how

Questions about whether Nigeria should remain one nation

Regional disagreements & hostilities Problems traditionally solved by military force and

authoritarianism

II.II. Constitutionalism

First constitution written in 1914 Eight constitutions between 1914 and 1995 Current constitution written in 1995 has been

heavily amended since its inception Acceptance of “constitutionalism” as a

guiding set of principles has eluded Nigeria

Military and civilian leaders have felt free to disobey and suspend constitutional principles or change constitutions not to their liking

Without constitutionalism the “National Question” has been much harder to answer

III. LegitimacyIII. Legitimacy

Nigeria is a relatively young country, achieving independence in 1960, this makes establishing legitimate government more difficult FragmentationFragmentation – tendency to fall apart along ethnic,

regional, and/or religious lines.

Contradictory Influence of the PastContradictory Influence of the Past – British colonial “rule of law” vs. Military rule/Personalized authority

CorruptionCorruption – both military and civilian rule tainted with corruption. Citizens question the payment of taxes that get deposited in personal bank accounts

General Ibrahim Babangida (1985-1993) General Sani Abacha (1993-1998)

IV. Precolonial Era (800-1600) IV. Precolonial Era (800-1600) “Political Traditions”“Political Traditions”

Trade ConnectionsTrade Connections – Sahara Desert “Golden Trade of the Moors”; Niger River & Ocean Access

Influence of IslamInfluence of Islam – Trade with North Africa put Hausa & other groups in contact with Arab education and Islam, sharia emerges as dominant political principle

Kinship-based PoliticsKinship-based Politics – village key political entity

Complex Political IdentitiesComplex Political Identities – contrast between centralized state and local governance. (Oyo & Ife centralized states in south vs. small trading-states in north)

Democratic ImpulsesDemocratic Impulses – accountability, representative government, and democracy practiced by many villages, including Yoruba and Igbo.

V. Colonial Era (1860-1960) V. Colonial Era (1860-1960) “Political Traditions”“Political Traditions”

Authoritarian RuleAuthoritarian Rule – in order to achieve goals of economic domination British strengthened the authority of traditional chiefs, making them accountable only to British. This resulted in a loosening of rulers’ responsibility to the people

Interventionist StateInterventionist State – colonialist trained chiefs to operate government to achieve economic goals. Checks on authority that existed in Britain did not have roots in Nigeria. This set in place expectations that citizens should passively accept actions of rulers.

IndividualismIndividualism – in Nigeria led to a tendency of chiefs to think about personal benefits of governance, rather than good of the community

V. Colonial Era continuedV. Colonial Era continued

Christianity Christianity – British introduction of Christianity created – British introduction of Christianity created a split between Christian and Muslim dominated areas. a split between Christian and Muslim dominated areas. Islam dominant in the north, Christianity in the south.Islam dominant in the north, Christianity in the south.

Intensification of Ethnic PoliticsIntensification of Ethnic Politics – – emergence of three emergence of three dominant groups: Hausa-Fulani, Igbo, and Yoruba. dominant groups: Hausa-Fulani, Igbo, and Yoruba.

British pitted groups against each other by promising rewards to some British pitted groups against each other by promising rewards to some groups but not others. groups but not others.

Anti-colonialism movement emerged during 20Anti-colonialism movement emerged during 20thth century appealed to century appealed to ethnic identities to gain followers and supporters of decolonizationethnic identities to gain followers and supporters of decolonization

VI. Independence Era (1960-Present) “Political Traditions”

Parliamentary vs. Presidential SystemParliamentary vs. Presidential System – Nigeria operated under parliamentary system from 1960-1979. Ethnic divisions made parliamentary system difficult, switched to presidential system with separate legislature and independent judiciary, but neither has been able to check power of the president

Intensification of Ethnic ConflictIntensification of Ethnic Conflict – After independence Hausa-Fulani dominated parliament because of large population. They formed a coalition with Igbo of the southeast to ensure their dominance, this created added tension and conflict with Yoruba of the west. In 1966 a group of Igbo military officers seized power.

VI. Independence Era continued

Military Rule Military Rule – first military ruler, Agiyi Ironsi, justified his authority by announcing his intention to end violence and political corruption. He was assassinated, sparking the Igbo secession that led to the Biafran War (1967-1970)Biafran War (1967-1970)

Personalized Rule/CorruptionPersonalized Rule/Corruption

FederalismFederalism – in attempt to mollify ethnic tension and remain one country, Nigerian leaders set up federalist system, with powers being delegated to state and local governments. Under military executives however it did not work. Military presidents did not allow states to have legitimate sovereignty.

Economic dependence on OilEconomic dependence on Oil

VII. Political CultureVII. Political Culture

Patron-Clientelism (PREBENDELISM)Patron-Clientelism (PREBENDELISM) Clientelism –Clientelism – exchanging political and economic favors among exchanging political and economic favors among

patrons and clients, corruption becomes problematicpatrons and clients, corruption becomes problematic EX: In Nigeria, in exchange for support a president may grant EX: In Nigeria, in exchange for support a president may grant

his clients a portion of the oil revenues.his clients a portion of the oil revenues.

State Control/Underdeveloped SocietyState Control/Underdeveloped Society Civil society refers to sectors of country that lie outside Civil society refers to sectors of country that lie outside

government control. government control. In Nigeria state controls all aspects of life (economics, political In Nigeria state controls all aspects of life (economics, political

participation, religious activity, etc.) this reinforces clientelism and participation, religious activity, etc.) this reinforces clientelism and limits democracylimits democracy

Modernity vs. TraditionModernity vs. Tradition Pre-Colonial Era vs. Colonial EraPre-Colonial Era vs. Colonial Era

Religious ConflictReligious Conflict Geographic InfluenceGeographic Influence

Geographic InfluencesGeographic Influences

NorthwestNorthwest – – dominated by two groups that combined as the dominated by two groups that combined as the Hausa-Hausa-Fulani Fulani people, area is predominantly Muslim.people, area is predominantly Muslim.

NortheastNortheast – – area is home to many smaller groups, such as the Kunari, area is home to many smaller groups, such as the Kunari, also predominantly Muslim.also predominantly Muslim.

Middle BeltMiddle Belt – many smaller ethnic groups, mix of Muslims and – many smaller ethnic groups, mix of Muslims and Christians.Christians.

SouthwestSouthwest – – Yoruba dominate the area. They are about 40% Muslim, Yoruba dominate the area. They are about 40% Muslim, 40% Christian, and 20% native religions.40% Christian, and 20% native religions.

Southeast Southeast – area dominated by the Igbo, predominantly Roman – area dominated by the Igbo, predominantly Roman Catholic with some Protestant Christians as wellCatholic with some Protestant Christians as well

Southern ZoneSouthern Zone – – area along Niger River Delta, people are from area along Niger River Delta, people are from various small minority groups.various small minority groups.

VIII. Societal Characteristics & VIII. Societal Characteristics & ConcernsConcerns

PovertyPoverty – 60% of all Nigerians live below poverty line, with – 60% of all Nigerians live below poverty line, with many living in absolute poverty.many living in absolute poverty.

Gap between Rich & PoorGap between Rich & Poor – similar to Mexico, – similar to Mexico, however in Nigeria now growth is being made to alleviate this gap.however in Nigeria now growth is being made to alleviate this gap.

Health IssuesHealth Issues – high rates of HIV/AIDS, one in every eleven – high rates of HIV/AIDS, one in every eleven HIV/AIDS sufferers live in Nigeria.HIV/AIDS sufferers live in Nigeria.

Literacy Literacy – for males is 75.7% and for females 60.6% (World – for males is 75.7% and for females 60.6% (World averages are 83% men, 71% for women)averages are 83% men, 71% for women)

IX. Political CleavagesIX. Political Cleavages

EthnicityEthnicity – Nigeria has between 250-400 ethnic groups, Huasa-Fulani, – Nigeria has between 250-400 ethnic groups, Huasa-Fulani, Igbo, and Yoruba dominant. Three groups have very little in common and Igbo, and Yoruba dominant. Three groups have very little in common and speak different languagesspeak different languages

ReligionReligion – – Islam, Christianity, and native religions.Islam, Christianity, and native religions.

Region Region – – follow along ethnic and religious linesfollow along ethnic and religious lines

Urban vs. Rural DifferencesUrban vs. Rural Differences – – most political organizing, interest most political organizing, interest groups, and political protest takes place in citiesgroups, and political protest takes place in cities

Social ClassSocial Class – deep divisions among social classes. Wealth of elites – deep divisions among social classes. Wealth of elites stems from access to Nigeria’s resources. Maintained their power by stems from access to Nigeria’s resources. Maintained their power by appealing to religious and ethnic identities. Wealthy elite find it difficult appealing to religious and ethnic identities. Wealthy elite find it difficult to give up wealth associated with access to state treasury, educated to give up wealth associated with access to state treasury, educated elite would like to see adoption of democratic principles.elite would like to see adoption of democratic principles.

X. Political ParticipationX. Political Participation

Patron-ClientelismPatron-Clientelism

Voting BehaviorVoting Behavior

Attitudes toward GovernmentAttitudes toward Government

Protests and Social MovementsProtests and Social Movements

PrebendalismPrebendalism

Personalized system of rulePersonalized system of rule Personal offices treated like “fiefdoms”Personal offices treated like “fiefdoms” Large patronage networks based on Large patronage networks based on

personal loyaltypersonal loyalty Local government officials gain support of Local government officials gain support of

villagers by dispensing favors, in turn they villagers by dispensing favors, in turn they receive favors for supporting their patron receive favors for supporting their patron bossesbosses

Most favors exchanged by political elitesMost favors exchanged by political elites Corruption and informal influence rampantCorruption and informal influence rampant Does however represent established form Does however represent established form

of political participationof political participation

Voting BehaviorVoting Behavior

Nigerians have voted in elections since 1959Nigerians have voted in elections since 1959

Voting patterns difficult to determine because of fraud, Voting patterns difficult to determine because of fraud, postponement, and election cancellationpostponement, and election cancellation

Political parties are numerous and fluidPolitical parties are numerous and fluid

Babangida’s annulment of 1993 election hurt political Babangida’s annulment of 1993 election hurt political participation during the 1990sparticipation during the 1990s

Local, state, & national elections have continued however Local, state, & national elections have continued however since the late 1990ssince the late 1990s

About 2/3 of eligible voters participated in the 2003 About 2/3 of eligible voters participated in the 2003 electionelection

Attitudes toward GovernmentAttitudes toward Government

Citizens do not Trust Nigerian GovernmentCitizens do not Trust Nigerian Government

CorruptionCorruption

Military RuleMilitary Rule

Lack of Civil SocietyLack of Civil Society

No commitment toward DemocracyNo commitment toward Democracy

Babangida & Abacha (Corrupt - Military Babangida & Abacha (Corrupt - Military Authoritarianism)Authoritarianism)

Protests & Social MovementsProtests & Social Movements

Environmentalists (Ken Saro-Wiwa)Environmentalists (Ken Saro-Wiwa) Targeted the international oil companies, especially in Targeted the international oil companies, especially in

the Niger River Deltathe Niger River Delta In 2002 group of Ijaw women occupied In 2002 group of Ijaw women occupied

ChevronTexaco’s Nigerian headquarters for 10 daysChevronTexaco’s Nigerian headquarters for 10 days

Ethnic groupsEthnic groups

Women’s MovementWomen’s Movement President Obasanjo made it part of his 2003 campaign President Obasanjo made it part of his 2003 campaign

to include more women in cabinet and bureaucratic to include more women in cabinet and bureaucratic officesoffices

Nigerian legislature has very low female Nigerian legislature has very low female representationrepresentation

6.4% in House of Representatives6.4% in House of Representatives 3.7% in Senate3.7% in Senate

XI. Political InstitutionsXI. Political Institutions

Multiple regime throughout its historyMultiple regime throughout its history North & West – well-developed large states and hereditary North & West – well-developed large states and hereditary

monarchiesmonarchies Hausa in west organized into powerful trading city-statesHausa in west organized into powerful trading city-states

South – small, communal kinship-based ruleSouth – small, communal kinship-based rule British colonialism led to indirect rule, with chiefs leading British colonialism led to indirect rule, with chiefs leading

on behalf of British government. (on behalf of British government. (Authoritarian rule Authoritarian rule under British directionunder British direction))

Post-independence = Military AuthoritarianismPost-independence = Military Authoritarianism Government structure formally federalist & democratic, but does not Government structure formally federalist & democratic, but does not

generally operate as suchgenerally operate as such British controlled economy led to current state controlled economyBritish controlled economy led to current state controlled economy Nigeria has currently turned to supranationals (IMF & World Bank) to Nigeria has currently turned to supranationals (IMF & World Bank) to

save economysave economy

XII. Political PartiesXII. Political Parties

Factionalism led to creation of many political partiesFactionalism led to creation of many political parties

Failure to create coherent party systemFailure to create coherent party system

Parties formed and faded around personalitiesParties formed and faded around personalities

Multi-party system reinforced and strengthened ethnic and Multi-party system reinforced and strengthened ethnic and religious cleavagesreligious cleavages

Independent National Election Committee (INEC)Independent National Election Committee (INEC) – registered a – registered a number of parties following the death of Abacha in 1998number of parties following the death of Abacha in 1998

In order to run candidates for the legislative and presidential In order to run candidates for the legislative and presidential elections of 1999, a party had to qualify by receiving at least 5% elections of 1999, a party had to qualify by receiving at least 5% of the votes in two-thirds of the states in the 1998 electionof the votes in two-thirds of the states in the 1998 election

This cut the number of parties significantly, only 5 parties were This cut the number of parties significantly, only 5 parties were eligible to run candidates in the 2003 electioneligible to run candidates in the 2003 election

Political Parties IIPolitical Parties II

People’s Democratic Party (PDP)People’s Democratic Party (PDP) Well-established PartyWell-established Party Began running candidates in 1998Began running candidates in 1998 Party of President Olesugun Obesanjo (Igbo, Christian from the North)Party of President Olesugun Obesanjo (Igbo, Christian from the North) Obesanjo received 62% of vote in 2003 electionObesanjo received 62% of vote in 2003 election PDP gained majority in National Assembly and most of the governors PDP gained majority in National Assembly and most of the governors

throughout the countrythroughout the country Do to voter fraud, difficult to determine accurate level of support for the Do to voter fraud, difficult to determine accurate level of support for the

PDPPDP

All Nigeria People’s Party (ANPP)All Nigeria People’s Party (ANPP) General Muhammadu Buhari, Muslim from the North, ran against General Muhammadu Buhari, Muslim from the North, ran against

ObesanjoObesanjo Received about 32% of the voteReceived about 32% of the vote His running mate and potential future candidate was Chuba His running mate and potential future candidate was Chuba

Okadigbo, an Igbo from the SoutheastOkadigbo, an Igbo from the Southeast

Other parties that ran presidential candidates include All Progressive Grand Alliance Other parties that ran presidential candidates include All Progressive Grand Alliance (APGA), The Movement for Democracy and Justice (MDJ), and the Justice Party(APGA), The Movement for Democracy and Justice (MDJ), and the Justice Party

Alliance for Democracy (AD) did not have a presidential candidate in 2003, but did receive Alliance for Democracy (AD) did not have a presidential candidate in 2003, but did receive 9% of the votes for the legislative elections9% of the votes for the legislative elections

XIII. Elections & Electoral XIII. Elections & Electoral ProceduresProcedures

Citizens vote for candidates on 3 levels: local, state, and Citizens vote for candidates on 3 levels: local, state, and national.national.

National level citizens vote for the president, National level citizens vote for the president, representatives to the National Assembly, and senators representatives to the National Assembly, and senators from their states.from their states.

National ElectionsNational Elections Presidential ElectionsPresidential Elections

After annulled election of 1993, first election took place in After annulled election of 1993, first election took place in 1999, with another in 2003.1999, with another in 2003.

If presidential candidate does not receive outright majority, If presidential candidate does not receive outright majority, a second ballot election takes place.a second ballot election takes place.

President must receive at least 25% of the votes in 2/3 of President must receive at least 25% of the votes in 2/3 of the statesthe states

A purely regional candidate can not winA purely regional candidate can not win Requirement reflects difficulty experienced in attempt Requirement reflects difficulty experienced in attempt

to unify Nigeriato unify Nigeria

Elections ContinuedElections Continued

Legislative ElectionsLegislative Elections Senate has 109 senators, 3 from each of the 36 Senate has 109 senators, 3 from each of the 36

states, and one from federal capital territory of states, and one from federal capital territory of AbujaAbuja

Elected by direct popular voteElected by direct popular vote

360 representatives of National Assembly 360 representatives of National Assembly (formerly the House of Representatives)(formerly the House of Representatives)

Elected from single member districts by plurality Elected from single member districts by plurality votevote

Regional representation dominates in both houses.Regional representation dominates in both houses. Wide-array of ethnic coalitions in legislatureWide-array of ethnic coalitions in legislature Legislative authority is weak in NigeriaLegislative authority is weak in Nigeria

Election FraudElection Fraud

Currently 3 consecutive elections have been held without Currently 3 consecutive elections have been held without annulment or delayannulment or delay

Public protest and several deaths have accompanied the Public protest and several deaths have accompanied the last few elections, but none were as bad as many last few elections, but none were as bad as many predicted they would bepredicted they would be

Several politicians were assassinated, including Marshall Several politicians were assassinated, including Marshall Harry, a leader of the ANPPHarry, a leader of the ANPP

Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC)Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) Attempted to cleanse electoral process, declared six million Attempted to cleanse electoral process, declared six million

names to be fraudulent during 2003 electionsnames to be fraudulent during 2003 elections International teams concluded elections were corruptInternational teams concluded elections were corrupt Voting boxes were stolen, vandalized, and stuffed with fraudulent Voting boxes were stolen, vandalized, and stuffed with fraudulent

votesvotes Voting patterns in the south in particular were suspiciousVoting patterns in the south in particular were suspicious

XIV. Interest GroupsXIV. Interest Groups

Have actually played an important role in Nigerian Have actually played an important role in Nigerian politicspolitics

A large number of civil society organizations often A large number of civil society organizations often cooperate with political partiescooperate with political parties

Religious interest groups important in NigeriaReligious interest groups important in Nigeria Christian Association of Nigeria protested when General Christian Association of Nigeria protested when General

Babangida changed Nigeria’s status in the Organization Babangida changed Nigeria’s status in the Organization of Islamic Conference from observer to memberof Islamic Conference from observer to member

Muslim civil society organizations in the north work to Muslim civil society organizations in the north work to support the shari’a court systemsupport the shari’a court system

Citizens have worked around military Citizens have worked around military authoritarianism to have an impact on political life authoritarianism to have an impact on political life through labor unions, student groups, and populist through labor unions, student groups, and populist groups.groups.

Interest Groups IIInterest Groups II

Labor UnionsLabor Unions Independent and politically influential prior to 1980sIndependent and politically influential prior to 1980s Through the introduction of corporatism the Babangida regime limited the influence of Through the introduction of corporatism the Babangida regime limited the influence of

labor unionslabor unions A central labor organization supplanted the older unions, and only candidates A central labor organization supplanted the older unions, and only candidates

approved by Babangida could be chosen as labor leadersapproved by Babangida could be chosen as labor leaders In July 2003 labor unions widely and openly protested the government’s attempt to In July 2003 labor unions widely and openly protested the government’s attempt to

raise oil prices for Nigerian consumersraise oil prices for Nigerian consumers

Business InterestsBusiness Interests Business interests have tended to work in collaboration with the military regimes, in Business interests have tended to work in collaboration with the military regimes, in

return for the spoils related to the corruption of the elite classreturn for the spoils related to the corruption of the elite class Associations for manufacturers, butchers, and car rental firms have operated outside Associations for manufacturers, butchers, and car rental firms have operated outside

the realm of government and helped promote economic reforms of the 1990sthe realm of government and helped promote economic reforms of the 1990s

Human Rights GroupsHuman Rights Groups Promote democratic reformsPromote democratic reforms Include university students, teachers, civil liberties organizations, and professional Include university students, teachers, civil liberties organizations, and professional

groups (doctors, lawyers)groups (doctors, lawyers) These groups protested against the abuses of Babangida and AbachaThese groups protested against the abuses of Babangida and Abacha

XV. Mass MediaXV. Mass Media

Nigeria has well-developed, independent pressNigeria has well-developed, independent press

General Abacha attempted to curb criticism of his General Abacha attempted to curb criticism of his regime by closing several newspapers and regime by closing several newspapers and magazines in Nigeria in 1994magazines in Nigeria in 1994

Press reflects ethnic divisions in the countryPress reflects ethnic divisions in the country

Outspoken and critical newspapers mainly in the Outspoken and critical newspapers mainly in the southsouth

Radio is the main source of information for most Radio is the main source of information for most NigeriansNigerians

All 36 states have their own radio stationsAll 36 states have their own radio stations

XVI. Institutions of National XVI. Institutions of National GovernmentGovernment

Nigeria is a federal political system (in theory)Nigeria is a federal political system (in theory)

Three branches of government (Legislative, Executive, Three branches of government (Legislative, Executive, Judicial)Judicial)

Executive has been most dominant traditionallyExecutive has been most dominant traditionally

Each of the 36 states and 774 local governments has an Each of the 36 states and 774 local governments has an executive, legislative, and judicial branchexecutive, legislative, and judicial branch

22ndnd, 3, 3rdrd, & 4, & 4thth Republics (all since 1979) had presidential Republics (all since 1979) had presidential system, with a strong executive theoretically checked by system, with a strong executive theoretically checked by bicameral legislature and independent judiciarybicameral legislature and independent judiciary

Currently neither federalism or checks & balances operate, Currently neither federalism or checks & balances operate, and state & local governments are completely dependent and state & local governments are completely dependent on the central governmenton the central government

Executive BranchExecutive Branch

1979, 21979, 2ndnd Republic, presidential system replaced Republic, presidential system replaced parliamentary system based on British modelparliamentary system based on British model

Multiple ethnic groups fragmented the multi-party Multiple ethnic groups fragmented the multi-party system and the legislature and prevented a prime system and the legislature and prevented a prime minister from gaining the necessary authority to ruleminister from gaining the necessary authority to rule

Belief was that a president could symbolize Belief was that a president could symbolize national unity and rise above weak party systemnational unity and rise above weak party system

U.S. presidential model with two-term limitsU.S. presidential model with two-term limits

1983, Major-General Muhammadu Buhari initiated 1983, Major-General Muhammadu Buhari initiated palace coup, set precedent for military coups and palace coup, set precedent for military coups and military rulemilitary rule

Buhari ousted by Gen. Babangida in 1985Buhari ousted by Gen. Babangida in 1985 Gen. Abacha replaces Babangida in 1993Gen. Abacha replaces Babangida in 1993 Civilian rule returned in 1999, President ObasanjoCivilian rule returned in 1999, President Obasanjo

Executive IIExecutive II

Military RuleMilitary Rule 7 military rulers have all 7 military rulers have all

ruled differentlyruled differently All promised transition to All promised transition to

democracydemocracy Only Obasanjo in 1979 and Only Obasanjo in 1979 and

General Abubakar in 1999 General Abubakar in 1999 delivered democratic delivered democratic transitiontransition

Generals Buhari (1983-85), Generals Buhari (1983-85), Babangida (1985-93), and Babangida (1985-93), and Abacha (1993-98) used Abacha (1993-98) used repression and violencerepression and violence

All military & civilian regimes All military & civilian regimes concentrated power in hands concentrated power in hands of the executiveof the executive

PatrimonialismPatrimonialism Generals/Presidents head of Generals/Presidents head of

patron-client systempatron-client system Dispense government jobs Dispense government jobs

and resources as rewards to and resources as rewards to political supporterspolitical supporters

Cabinet positions & Cabinet positions & bureaucratic chiefs part of bureaucratic chiefs part of president’s patronage president’s patronage systemsystem

Patrimonialism in Nigeria is Patrimonialism in Nigeria is unstable which has led to unstable which has led to recurring coupsrecurring coups

XVII. BureaucracyXVII. Bureaucracy

British installed elaborate civil service system during British installed elaborate civil service system during colonial periodcolonial period

Nigerians were allowed to fill lower-level jobs within Nigerians were allowed to fill lower-level jobs within bureaucracybureaucracy

Civil service sector continued to grow after Civil service sector continued to grow after independenceindependence

Current bureaucracy is bloated, corrupt, and Current bureaucracy is bloated, corrupt, and inefficient. Bribery is common.inefficient. Bribery is common.

Jobs in civil service are often awarded through the Jobs in civil service are often awarded through the patron-client system, patron-client system, PrebendalismPrebendalism..

Bureaucracy IIBureaucracy II

ParastatalsParastatals Most government agencies are Most government agencies are

parastatals, or corporations parastatals, or corporations owned by the state. (Similar to owned by the state. (Similar to Mexico)Mexico)

Provide commercial and social Provide commercial and social welfare serviceswelfare services

Board members are appointed Board members are appointed by government ministers, and by government ministers, and corporate executives are part of corporate executives are part of the president’s patronage the president’s patronage systemsystem

Parastatals provide public Parastatals provide public utilities such as water, utilities such as water, electricity, public transportation, electricity, public transportation, and agricultural subsidiesand agricultural subsidies

Control major industries such as Control major industries such as steel, defense industry, and steel, defense industry, and petroleumpetroleum

State CorporatismState Corporatism Corporatism – authoritarian Corporatism – authoritarian

political system that allows for political system that allows for political input from selected political input from selected interest groups outside the interest groups outside the government structuregovernment structure

In Nigeria, this input is provided In Nigeria, this input is provided by parastatals, because they are by parastatals, because they are controlled by the government it controlled by the government it is referred to as is referred to as State State CorporatismCorporatism

Parastatals insure that the state Parastatals insure that the state controls private interest as well controls private interest as well as fulfills social & economic as fulfills social & economic functionsfunctions

Parastatals serve as contact Parastatals serve as contact point between government & point between government & business interests, but state business interests, but state ultimately controls these ultimately controls these interactions (Corrupt & inept) interactions (Corrupt & inept)

XVIII. LegislatureXVIII. Legislature

A parliamentary system until 1979A parliamentary system until 1979

Replaced by a bicameral legislatureReplaced by a bicameral legislature

Nigerian legislature under military governments Nigerian legislature under military governments have had no power, under civilian government they have had no power, under civilian government they have been unable to check power of the presidenthave been unable to check power of the president

Corruption scandals – in 1999 president of the Corruption scandals – in 1999 president of the Senate and speaker of the lower house were Senate and speaker of the lower house were removed for perjury and forgery. In 2000 the Senate removed for perjury and forgery. In 2000 the Senate president was removed for accepting kickbacks for a president was removed for accepting kickbacks for a government contractgovernment contract

Legislature IILegislature II

SenateSenate 109 Senators109 Senators 3 from each of the 36 3 from each of the 36

statesstates 1 from Abuja district1 from Abuja district Directly elected by Directly elected by

popular votepopular vote Senators are ethnically Senators are ethnically

and religiously diverseand religiously diverse Only 4 of 109 Senators Only 4 of 109 Senators

were women as of 2003 were women as of 2003 electionselections

National AssemblyNational Assembly Formerly called House of Formerly called House of

RepresentativesRepresentatives 360 member 360 member

representativesrepresentatives Single-member districts, Single-member districts,

elected by plurality voteelected by plurality vote Only 23 of the 360 Only 23 of the 360

representatives are representatives are women (2003)women (2003)

XIX. JudiciaryXIX. Judiciary

Early years of after independence judiciary had great deal of Early years of after independence judiciary had great deal of autonomyautonomy

Autonomy stripped by military decrees that nullified court Autonomy stripped by military decrees that nullified court decisions and setup quasi-judicial tribunals outside regular systemdecisions and setup quasi-judicial tribunals outside regular system

Judicial review was suspendedJudicial review was suspended Presidential cronies appointed as justicesPresidential cronies appointed as justices Today judiciary is responsible for interpreting laws in accordance Today judiciary is responsible for interpreting laws in accordance

with the Constitution, so judicial review exist in theorywith the Constitution, so judicial review exist in theory Court structure at state & federal level, highest court is the Court structure at state & federal level, highest court is the

Supreme CourtSupreme Court Shari’a courts exist in parallel existence with courts developed on Shari’a courts exist in parallel existence with courts developed on

British modelBritish model Cases:Cases:

In 1993, Mshood Abiolao, winner of annulled 1993 election was detained and In 1993, Mshood Abiolao, winner of annulled 1993 election was detained and died in custody. Presiding judges changed often and critics attacked the died in custody. Presiding judges changed often and critics attacked the military cronyism of the judicial systemmilitary cronyism of the judicial system

In 1995, activist Ken Saro-Wiwa, and 8 other activists were detained and In 1995, activist Ken Saro-Wiwa, and 8 other activists were detained and executed under court orders arranged by the military and presided over by executed under court orders arranged by the military and presided over by military officersmilitary officers

XX. MilitaryXX. Military

Strong, policy-making force in NigeriaStrong, policy-making force in Nigeria

““Military in GovernmentMilitary in Government” – those that initiate coups and take ” – those that initiate coups and take over the responsibility of the executive branchover the responsibility of the executive branch

““Military in BarracksMilitary in Barracks” – fulfills traditional duties of military, its ” – fulfills traditional duties of military, its leaders have been critical of military control of political power.leaders have been critical of military control of political power.

Military has been subject to internal discord, military presidents Military has been subject to internal discord, military presidents often have to keep a close eye on other military leaders.often have to keep a close eye on other military leaders.

Babangida protected his authority by constantly moving military personnel Babangida protected his authority by constantly moving military personnel around and appointed senior officers through his patronage systemaround and appointed senior officers through his patronage system

Military is one of the few institutions that is truly national in Military is one of the few institutions that is truly national in character.character.

Military has restored and maintained order during ethnic strife Military has restored and maintained order during ethnic strife and conflictand conflict

XXI. Public PolicyXXI. Public Policy

Top-down policy-making process.Top-down policy-making process.

Power concentrated in hands of the president & cabinet Power concentrated in hands of the president & cabinet ministers through channels established by patron clientelismministers through channels established by patron clientelism

Loyalty PyramidLoyalty Pyramid – senior officials supported by broader base of loyal – senior officials supported by broader base of loyal junior officialsjunior officials

State control of resources means that those in the pyramid get the State control of resources means that those in the pyramid get the spoils, they alone have access to wealth and influence. Loyal clients of spoils, they alone have access to wealth and influence. Loyal clients of patronage structured pyramids includes:patronage structured pyramids includes:

““Kaduna Mafia”, “Babangida’s Boys”, and “Abacha’s Boys”Kaduna Mafia”, “Babangida’s Boys”, and “Abacha’s Boys”

Military controls pyramids, pyramids supported by “guns” (Force); Military controls pyramids, pyramids supported by “guns” (Force); therefore, protesting system can be dangeroustherefore, protesting system can be dangerous

Top-down, self-interested rule established by British during Top-down, self-interested rule established by British during colonial era when the British relied on native chiefs to ensure colonial era when the British relied on native chiefs to ensure Nigerian trade and resources benefited Great BritainNigerian trade and resources benefited Great Britain

XXII. Economic IssuesXXII. Economic Issues

Loyalty pyramids and corruption have led to a Loyalty pyramids and corruption have led to a squandering of Nigeria’s wealthsquandering of Nigeria’s wealth

Nigeria is currently in debt and majority of the population Nigeria is currently in debt and majority of the population lives in povertylives in poverty

Large oil revenues have been pocketed by government Large oil revenues have been pocketed by government officialsofficials

Economic situation complicated by ethnic & regional Economic situation complicated by ethnic & regional conflictconflict

In February 2001, federal government asked the Supreme In February 2001, federal government asked the Supreme Court to all the government to collect oil revenue and put Court to all the government to collect oil revenue and put it in a “federal account” (Revenue Sharing)it in a “federal account” (Revenue Sharing)

Areas in the south along Niger River Delta protested this idea, they Areas in the south along Niger River Delta protested this idea, they believed the policy was a way for northerners to take profits and believed the policy was a way for northerners to take profits and revenue away from the southrevenue away from the south

Economic Issues IIEconomic Issues II

OilOil Oil wealth during the 1970s Oil wealth during the 1970s

gave Nigeria international gave Nigeria international leverageleverage

OPEC memberOPEC member

Conflicts in Middle East have Conflicts in Middle East have made Nigeria more made Nigeria more important as a trade partner important as a trade partner for other countries since for other countries since 1970s1970s

Lack of economic Lack of economic diversification hurts Nigeria diversification hurts Nigeria when oil prices dropwhen oil prices drop

DEBT – as a result of drop in DEBT – as a result of drop in oil prices and lack of oil prices and lack of revenue surplusrevenue surplus

Structural AdjustmentStructural Adjustment 1980s, Nigeria seeks 1980s, Nigeria seeks

assistance from assistance from international international organizations to deal organizations to deal with debt crisiswith debt crisis

World Bank & IMF World Bank & IMF involvementinvolvement

Restructure & Restructure & diversification of diversification of Nigerian economyNigerian economy

Privatize parastatalsPrivatize parastatals Cut government Cut government

spendingspending

““Shock Treatment” not Shock Treatment” not very successfulvery successful

Parastatals still under Parastatals still under government controlgovernment control

Debt repayment had to Debt repayment had to be restructuredbe restructured

XXIII. “Federal Character”XXIII. “Federal Character”

Federalism seen as a positive characteristic for Nigerian political Federalism seen as a positive characteristic for Nigerian political structurestructure

Federalism promises power-sharingFederalism promises power-sharing Allows citizens more contact points with governmentAllows citizens more contact points with government ““Federal CharacterFederal Character””

Recognition of all ethnic, religious, & regional groupsRecognition of all ethnic, religious, & regional groups Nigerian Constitutional ProvisionsNigerian Constitutional Provisions

Senators represent diverse statesSenators represent diverse states Representatives elected from diverse districtsRepresentatives elected from diverse districts President must receive 25% of the votes in 2/3 of the districtsPresident must receive 25% of the votes in 2/3 of the districts

Negatives of FederalismNegatives of Federalism Federalism bloats bureaucracyFederalism bloats bureaucracy Promotes corruption within bureaucracyPromotes corruption within bureaucracy

Jobs created to satisfy demands of various ethnic groupsJobs created to satisfy demands of various ethnic groups Legislative branch suffers from gridlockLegislative branch suffers from gridlock

Competition over government resourcesCompetition over government resources

Federalism IIFederalism II

Southerners argue that federalism will only exist Southerners argue that federalism will only exist when central government devolves some authority when central government devolves some authority to the state & local governmentsto the state & local governments

Nigerians of the Niger Delta believe they should control Nigerians of the Niger Delta believe they should control their own resourcestheir own resources

Redistribution of the region’s oil wealth should be Redistribution of the region’s oil wealth should be prohibitedprohibited

Southerners suggest that police duties should also be the Southerners suggest that police duties should also be the responsibility of local and state governmentsresponsibility of local and state governments

This This “True Federalism Movement”“True Federalism Movement” not supported by not supported by NorthernersNortherners

North has few resources and very little revenue to shareNorth has few resources and very little revenue to share Northerners benefit more from redistribution of wealth Northerners benefit more from redistribution of wealth

programsprograms

XXIV. ReformsXXIV. Reforms

Economic Reforms of the late 1990sEconomic Reforms of the late 1990s Further privatization of state-owned industryFurther privatization of state-owned industry

Limitations on economic controls of the central Limitations on economic controls of the central governmentgovernment

Money taken by General Abacha returned by foreign Money taken by General Abacha returned by foreign banks and placed in the state treasurybanks and placed in the state treasury

Scheme for alleviating poverty in NigeriaScheme for alleviating poverty in Nigeria

Increase in public wagesIncrease in public wages Hope of decreasing instances of corruptionHope of decreasing instances of corruption

Increase in financial reserves as a result of stabilized oil Increase in financial reserves as a result of stabilized oil pricesprices