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Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology
Seventh Edition
Elaine N. Marieb
Chapter 10
Blood
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Slides 10.1 – 10.31
Blood
Lecture Slides in PowerPoint by Jerry L. Cook
BloodBlood
The only fluid tissue in the human body
Classified as a connective tissue
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Classified as a connective tissue
Living cells = formed elements
Non-living matrix = plasma
BloodBlood
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Figure 10.1
Physical Characteristics of BloodPhysical Characteristics of Blood
Color range
Oxygen-rich blood is scarlet red
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Oxygen-poor blood is dull red
pH must remain between 7.35–7.45
Blood temperature is slightly higher thanbody temperature
Blood PlasmaBlood Plasma
Composed of approximately 90 percentwater
Includes many dissolved substances
Nutrients
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Salts (metal ions)
Respiratory gases
Hormones
Proteins
Waste products
Plasma ProteinsPlasma Proteins
Albumin – regulates osmotic pressure
Clotting proteins – help to stem blood
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Clotting proteins – help to stem bloodloss when a blood vessel is injured
Antibodies – help protect the body fromantigens
Formed ElementsFormed Elements
Erythrocytes = red blood cells
Leukocytes = white blood cells
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Leukocytes = white blood cells
Platelets = cell fragments
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Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells)Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells)
The main function is to carry oxygen
Anatomy of circulating erythrocytes
Biconcave disks
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Biconcave disks
Essentially bags of hemoglobin
Anucleate (no nucleus)
Contain very few organelles
Outnumber white blood cells 1000:1
HemoglobinHemoglobin
Iron-containing protein
Binds strongly, but reversibly, to oxygen
Each hemoglobin molecule has four
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Each hemoglobin molecule has fouroxygen binding sites
Each erythrocyte has 250 millionhemoglobin molecules
Leukocytes (White Blood Cells)Leukocytes (White Blood Cells)
Crucial in the body’s defense againstdisease
These are complete cells, with anucleus and organelles
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Able to move into and out of bloodvessels (diapedesis)
Can move by ameboid motion
Can respond to chemicals released bydamaged tissues
Leukocyte Levels in the BloodLeukocyte Levels in the Blood
Normal levels are between 4,000 and11,000 cells per millimeter
Abnormal leukocyte levels
Leukocytosis
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Above 11,000 leukocytes/ml
Generally indicates an infection
Leukopenia
Abnormally low leukocyte level
Commonly caused by certain drugs
Types of LeukocytesTypes of Leukocytes
Granulocytes
Granules in theircytoplasm can be
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cytoplasm can bestained
Includeneutrophils,eosinophils, andbasophils
Figure 10.4
Types of LeukocytesTypes of Leukocytes
Agranulocytes
Lack visiblecytoplasmic
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cytoplasmicgranules
Includelymphocytes andmonocytes
Figure 10.4
GranulocytesGranulocytes
Neutrophils
Multilobed nucleus with fine granules
Act as phagocytes at active sites of infection
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Act as phagocytes at active sites of infection
Eosinophils
Large brick-red cytoplasmic granules
Found in repsonse to allergies and parasiticworms
GranulocytesGranulocytes
Basophils
Have histamine-containing granules
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Have histamine-containing granules
Initiate inflammation
AgranulocytesAgranulocytes
Lymphocytes
Nucleus fills most of the cell
Play an important role in the immuneresponse
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response
Monocytes
Largest of the white blood cells
Function as macrophages
Important in fighting chronic infection
PlateletsPlatelets
Derived from ruptured multinucleatecells (megakaryocytes)
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Needed for the clotting process
Normal platelet count = 300,000/mm3
HematopoiesisHematopoiesis
Blood cell formation
Occurs in red bone marrow
All blood cells are derived from a
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All blood cells are derived from acommon stem cell (hemocytoblast)
Hemocytoblast differentiation
Lymphoid stem cell produces lymphocytes
Myeloid stem cell produces other formedelements
Fate of ErythrocytesFate of Erythrocytes
Unable to divide, grow, or synthesizeproteins
Wear out in 100 to 120 days
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Wear out in 100 to 120 days
When worn out, are eliminated byphagocytes in the spleen or liver
Lost cells are replaced by division ofhemocytoblasts
Control of Erythrocyte ProductionControl of Erythrocyte Production
Rate is controlled by a hormone(erythropoietin)
Kidneys produce most erythropoietin as
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Kidneys produce most erythropoietin asa response to reduced oxygen levels inthe blood
Homeostasis is maintained by negativefeedback from blood oxygen levels
Control of Erythrocyte ProductionControl of Erythrocyte Production
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Figure 10.5
HemostasisHemostasis
Stoppage of blood flow
Result of a break in a blood vessel
Hemostasis involves three phases
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Hemostasis involves three phases
Platelet plug formation
Vascular spasms
Coagulation
Platelet Plug FormationPlatelet Plug Formation
Collagen fibers are exposed by a breakin a blood vessel
Platelets become “sticky” and cling tofibers
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fibers
Anchored platelets release chemicals toattract more platelets
Platelets pile up to form a platelet plug
Vascular SpasmsVascular Spasms
Anchored platelets release serotonin
Serotonin causes blood vessel muscles
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Serotonin causes blood vessel musclesto spasm
Spasms narrow the blood vessel,decreasing blood loss
CoagulationCoagulation
Injured tissues release thromboplastin
PF3 (a phospholipid) interacts withthromboplastin, blood protein clotting
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thromboplastin, blood protein clottingfactors, and calcium ions to trigger aclotting cascade
Prothrombin activator convertsprothrombin to thrombin (an enzyme)
CoagulationCoagulation
Thrombin joins fibrinogen proteins intohair-like fibrin
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hair-like fibrin
Fibrin forms a meshwork(the basis for a clot)
Blood ClottingBlood Clotting
Blood usually clots within 3 to 6 minutes
The clot remains as endothelium
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The clot remains as endotheliumregenerates
The clot is broken down after tissuerepair
Undesirable ClottingUndesirable Clotting
Thrombus
A clot in an unbroken blood vessel
Can be deadly in areas like the heart
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Embolus
A thrombus that breaks away and floatsfreely in the bloodstream
Can later clog vessels in critical areas suchas the brain
Bleeding DisordersBleeding Disorders
Thrombocytopenia
Platelet deficiency
Even normal movements can causebleeding from small blood vessels that
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bleeding from small blood vessels thatrequire platelets for clotting
Hemophilia
Hereditary bleeding disorder
Normal clotting factors are missing
Blood Groups and TransfusionsBlood Groups and Transfusions
Large losses of blood have seriousconsequences
Loss of 15 to 30 percent causes weakness
Loss of over 30 percent causes shock,
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Loss of over 30 percent causes shock,which can be fatal
Transfusions are the only way toreplace blood quickly
Transfused blood must be of the sameblood group
Human Blood GroupsHuman Blood Groups
Blood contains genetically determinedproteins
A foreign protein (antigen) may be
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A foreign protein (antigen) may beattacked by the immune system
Blood is “typed” by using antibodies thatwill cause blood with certain proteins toclump (agglutination)
Human Blood GroupsHuman Blood Groups
There are over 30 common red bloodcell antigens
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The most vigorous transfusion reactionsare caused by ABO and Rh blood groupantigens
ABO Blood GroupsABO Blood Groups
Based on the presence or absence of twoantigens
Type A
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Type A
Type B
The lack of these antigens is calledtype O
ABO Blood GroupsABO Blood Groups
The presence of both A and B is calledtype AB
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type AB
The presence of either A or B is calledtypes A and B, respectively
Rh Blood GroupsRh Blood Groups
Named because of the presence orabsence of one of eight Rh antigens(agglutinogen D)
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(agglutinogen D)
Most Americans are Rh+
Problems can occur in mixing Rh+ bloodinto a body with Rh– blood
Rh Dangers During PregnancyRh Dangers During Pregnancy
Danger is only when the mother is Rh–
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Danger is only when the mother is Rhand the father is Rh+, and the childinherits the Rh+ factor
Rh Dangers During PregnancyRh Dangers During Pregnancy
The mismatch of an Rh– mother carryingan Rh+ baby can cause problems for theunborn child
The first pregnancy usually proceeds without
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The first pregnancy usually proceeds withoutproblems
The immune system is sensitized after the firstpregnancy
In a second pregnancy, the mother’s immunesystem produces antibodies to attack the Rh+
blood (hemolytic disease of the newborn)
Blood TypingBlood Typing
Blood samples are mixed with anti-A andanti-B serum
Coagulation or no coagulation leads todetermining blood type
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determining blood type
Typing for ABO and Rh factors is done inthe same manner
Cross matching – testing foragglutination of donor RBCs by therecipient’s serum, and vice versa
Developmental Aspects of BloodDevelopmental Aspects of Blood
Sites of blood cell formation
The fetal liver and spleen are early sites ofblood cell formation
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blood cell formation
Bone marrow takes over hematopoiesis bythe seventh month
Fetal hemoglobin differs fromhemoglobin produced after birth