chapter 10

©2011, Cengage Learning, Brooks/ Col©2011, Cengage Learning, Brooks/ Cole Publishinge Publishing

Becoming an Effective Becoming an Effective Policy AdvocatePolicy Advocate

Bruce Jansson, University of Southern CaliforniaBruce Jansson, University of Southern California

PowerPoint created byPowerPoint created by

Gretchen Heidemann, MSW, PhD CandidateGretchen Heidemann, MSW, PhD Candidate

University of Southern CaliforniaUniversity of Southern California

School of Social WorkSchool of Social Work


Chapter 10Chapter 10Developing and Using Power Developing and Using Power


Developing and Using PowerDeveloping and Using Power

Developing and using power is part of Developing and using power is part of Task #6 (policy-enacting) of the Policy Task #6 (policy-enacting) of the Policy Practice and Advocacy ModelPractice and Advocacy Model


In Defense of PoliticsIn Defense of Politics

Power and politics have a bad reputation among Power and politics have a bad reputation among some professionalssome professionalsHowever, power and politics can be used to help However, power and politics can be used to help stigmatized groups and unpopular causesstigmatized groups and unpopular causesPoliticsPolitics: Efforts by people in governmental and : Efforts by people in governmental and nongovernmental settings to secure their policy nongovernmental settings to secure their policy wishes by developing and using power resourceswishes by developing and using power resourcesPolitics is relevant to anyone who tries to influence Politics is relevant to anyone who tries to influence policy makingpolicy making The political process in a democracy provides a way The political process in a democracy provides a way for people with conflicting values or opposing for people with conflicting values or opposing positions to resolve their differencespositions to resolve their differences


Analytic and Political Analytic and Political Approaches to Policy AdvocacyApproaches to Policy AdvocacyThe Analytic ApproachThe Analytic Approach– Aim to discover

technically superior solutions

– Use quantitative and qualitative techniques

– Assumes that the truth will win out

The Political ApproachThe Political Approach– Aim to understand

existing political realities to select feasible options

– Develop a political strategy to outmaneuver likely opponents

– Assumes that might will prevail


The Nature of PowerThe Nature of Power

Policy advocates have to understand political power and develop skill in using itThe nature of power relationships is transactional– One person “sends” power and the other

“receives” it– Force is not power because it gives people

little or no choice– Real power, then, involves transactional

rather than unilateral relationships



The receiver (Y) in a power transaction The receiver (Y) in a power transaction chooses whether to accede to the chooses whether to accede to the sender’s (X’s) suggestionssender’s (X’s) suggestionsY can:Y can:– refuse to follow X’s suggestions– voice indecision– agree but not really mean it– agree enthusiastically– respond ambiguously



People use various power resources with People use various power resources with others in power relationships:others in power relationships:– Person-to-person power – Power that stems from policy maneuvering

Substantive power

Decision making power

Process power


Person-to-Person PowerPerson-to-Person Power

Person-to-person powerPerson-to-person power: Exerting power in : Exerting power in personal discussions with otherspersonal discussions with othersThere are 9 kinds of these power resources:There are 9 kinds of these power resources:– Expertise: The sender displays their personal

credentials and knowledge to influence others– Coercive power: The sender uses threats to influence

others– Reward power: The sender uses promise

inducements to influence others– Referent power: The sender uses associations with

people or groups that others identify with or want to belong to in order to influence others



The 9 kinds of these power resources (cont.):The 9 kinds of these power resources (cont.):– Authority/Legitimacy: The sender uses the power of

authority to influence others– Position:The sender uses his/her strategic location in

an agency or legislature to influence others– Information: The sender uses his/her control of critical

information to influence others– Connections:The sender uses particular networks or

key contacts to influence others– Value-based power: The sender uses his/her The sender uses his/her ability to

appeal to others based upon their shared ethical commitments to influence others



Person-to-person power is most effective when: Person-to-person power is most effective when: – The sender selects the kind of power that the

receiver is likely to honor

– It is applied skillfully

Policy advocates can draw upon many kinds of Policy advocates can draw upon many kinds of power resources when seeking policy changespower resources when seeking policy changes

Power resources can be used singly or in Power resources can be used singly or in tandemtandem


Power Resources that Stem Power Resources that Stem from Policy Maneuveringfrom Policy Maneuvering

Power resources that stem from policy Power resources that stem from policy maneuvering develop:maneuvering develop:– from specific actions that policy advocates from specific actions that policy advocates

take during policy deliberationstake during policy deliberations– in response to the actions of other personsin response to the actions of other persons– less from the specific characteristics of power less from the specific characteristics of power

users themselves than from give-and-take users themselves than from give-and-take with other persons in the policy-making with other persons in the policy-making processprocess


Substantive PowerSubstantive Power

Substantive powerSubstantive power:: Shaping the content of Shaping the content of policies to elicit support from specific personspolicies to elicit support from specific persons– Vagueness is often used when persons disagree

about the specific details of a proposal– However, vagueness can be counterproductive

because: an excessively vague proposal will arouse opposition from those who favor specific measures

the implementers of the will legislation have more leeway



Policy advocates exercise substantive power Policy advocates exercise substantive power when they change a policy’s content to enhance when they change a policy’s content to enhance specific decision makers’ support for itspecific decision makers’ support for it

These changes may be made:These changes may be made: – when a proposal is initially draftedwhen a proposal is initially drafted

– during deliberationsduring deliberations

– when the proposal goes before a decision-when the proposal goes before a decision-making bodymaking body



Ways to shape a proposal so that it is non-Ways to shape a proposal so that it is non-threatening to potential opponents:threatening to potential opponents:– Couple relatively unpopular proposals with more Couple relatively unpopular proposals with more

popular ones (i.e. “Christmas Tree legislation”)popular ones (i.e. “Christmas Tree legislation”)

– Design and portray a program as a pilot Design and portray a program as a pilot project project

– Place a proposed program under a specific Place a proposed program under a specific government unit’s jurisdictiongovernment unit’s jurisdiction

– Select a title that makes it more acceptableSelect a title that makes it more acceptable



Dilemmas encountered when using Dilemmas encountered when using substantive power:substantive power:– Obtaining one person’s support while Obtaining one person’s support while

alienating someone elsealienating someone else– Making so many concessions to obtain Making so many concessions to obtain

support that the proposal becomes dilutedsupport that the proposal becomes diluted


Power in Decision-Making Power in Decision-Making ProceduresProcedures

Decision-making power Decision-making power ((oror Procedural powerProcedural power):): Parliamentary techniques and strategies for Parliamentary techniques and strategies for increasing a proposal’s chances of enactment, increasing a proposal’s chances of enactment, or for blocking a proposalor for blocking a proposalExamples include:Examples include:– Bypassing persons, committees, and meetings Bypassing persons, committees, and meetings

unfavorable to the proposal, while routing the unfavorable to the proposal, while routing the proposal to those more favorableproposal to those more favorable

– Persuading party officials to steer a proposal to the Persuading party officials to steer a proposal to the committee most favorably disposed or to leapfrog a committee most favorably disposed or to leapfrog a meeting or proceduremeeting or procedure


Power in Decision-Making Power in Decision-Making ProceduresProcedures

Challenges in using decision-making Challenges in using decision-making power:power:– Accusations of unfairly stifling dissent– Ethical objections when concerned persons

are excluded from deliberations


Process PowerProcess Power

Process powerProcess power:: Influencing the tenor, Influencing the tenor, tempo, or scope of conflict of deliberations tempo, or scope of conflict of deliberations in order to get a specific proposal enactedin order to get a specific proposal enacted– Tenor: The level of conflict– Tempo: The timing, pace, and duration of a

deliberation– Scope of conflict: The number and kind of

people who participate in the deliberation



Advocates can influence the tenor (level of Advocates can influence the tenor (level of conflict) of deliberations by:conflict) of deliberations by:– Using emotion-laden words (increases conflict)– Clearly stating that an amicable resolution is not

desirable (increases conflict)– Identifying the common interests of all the parties

(decreases conflict)– Discouraging the participation of those who will raise

the level of conflict (decreases conflict)



Advocates can influence the timing of Advocates can influence the timing of deliberations by:deliberations by:– Introducing a proposal at an opportune moment– Choosing a favorable context

Advocates can influence the scope of conflict by:Advocates can influence the scope of conflict by:– Co-opting other persons by giving them credit or by

involving them in key tasks– Intimidating opponents by giving the impression that

they are certain to lose– Publicizing the deliberation in the mass media


Shaping ContextsShaping Contexts

Policy advocates can increase their odds Policy advocates can increase their odds of success by placing pressure on of success by placing pressure on decision makers from external sources, decision makers from external sources, such as by:such as by:– involving interest groupsinvolving interest groups– forming coalitionsforming coalitions– using the internet to solicit support from using the internet to solicit support from

sympathetic personssympathetic persons


Shaping ContextsShaping Contexts

Politicians are more likely to take the advice of an Politicians are more likely to take the advice of an advocate who is backed up by affiliations with advocate who is backed up by affiliations with recognized groups or coalitionsrecognized groups or coalitions

Such groups can:Such groups can: – mobilize membersmobilize members– get attention from the mass mediaget attention from the mass media– obtain funds from foundations and other sources obtain funds from foundations and other sources – conduct more sophisticated research than solo advocatesconduct more sophisticated research than solo advocates– develop ongoing associations with government officials develop ongoing associations with government officials – pool resources, share contacts, and form coalitionspool resources, share contacts, and form coalitions

If such groups do not exist, policy advocates should If such groups do not exist, policy advocates should form themform them


Successful Power UsersSuccessful Power Users

Characteristics and tactics of successful Characteristics and tactics of successful power users:power users:– PersistencePersistence– FlexibilityFlexibility– Fashions compromisesFashions compromises– Sticks to basic convictions, even in the face of Sticks to basic convictions, even in the face of

oppositionopposition– Focuses on an issue’s content and avoids Focuses on an issue’s content and avoids

attacking the motivations or character of attacking the motivations or character of opponentsopponents


Power in OrganizationsPower in Organizations

Power relationships and power resources Power relationships and power resources also are used extensively in social also are used extensively in social agenciesagencies

Most social workers must confront - at Most social workers must confront - at some point in their professional work - some point in their professional work - when to challenge policies or practices when to challenge policies or practices that they believe to be unethicalthat they believe to be unethical


Power in OrganizationsPower in Organizations

Social workers and policy advocates in Social workers and policy advocates in agencies have many power resources:agencies have many power resources:– DiscretionDiscretion

How much autonomy service workers haveHow much autonomy service workers have

– ComplianceComplianceObeying or disobeying policies believed to be Obeying or disobeying policies believed to be unethicalunethical

– Whistle-blowingWhistle-blowingTaking disagreements to outside authoritiesTaking disagreements to outside authorities


DiscretionDiscretion

Line workers in agencies translate policy into actionLine workers in agencies translate policy into actionMuch of the work occurs within zones of discretion, Much of the work occurs within zones of discretion, where their own judgments and choices shape their where their own judgments and choices shape their actionsactions– They are sometimes given the latitude to make exceptions They are sometimes given the latitude to make exceptions

to policiesto policies– The location and nature of the work sometimes precludes The location and nature of the work sometimes precludes

detailed oversightdetailed oversight

Ceding discretion to professionals bears some risks:Ceding discretion to professionals bears some risks: – It may lead to discrimination against certain clientsIt may lead to discrimination against certain clients – Some professionals might take advantage of the Some professionals might take advantage of the

discretion to further their own interestsdiscretion to further their own interests


ComplianceCompliance

Social workers who do not want to implement Social workers who do not want to implement specific policies can adopt several strategies:specific policies can adopt several strategies:– They can keep their noncompliance secret They can keep their noncompliance secret – They can comply with official policy but use every They can comply with official policy but use every

available means to seek exemptions for specific available means to seek exemptions for specific personspersons

– They can comply with official policy in every respect, They can comply with official policy in every respect, even while believing it to be defectiveeven while believing it to be defective

– They can comply with official policies while trying to They can comply with official policies while trying to change themchange them


Whistle-BlowingWhistle-Blowing

Whistle-blowing is an attempt to correct lapses Whistle-blowing is an attempt to correct lapses by calling external parties into the conflictby calling external parties into the conflictIt is ethical if: It is ethical if: – The policies or actions are major, not trivial, violations The policies or actions are major, not trivial, violations

of ethics or professional standardsof ethics or professional standards– The whistle-blower has extremely good evidence that The whistle-blower has extremely good evidence that

he or she cannot modify policies by conventional he or she cannot modify policies by conventional meansmeans

– The whistle-blower has excellent evidence that he or The whistle-blower has excellent evidence that he or she will be subjected to serious penalties as a result she will be subjected to serious penalties as a result of raising questions about the policies or conductof raising questions about the policies or conduct


Power DifferentialsPower Differentials

Power differentials give some people a significant advantage over others– Those with formal authority– Executives of agencies and government

bureaucracies – Technical experts on specific topics – Leaders, staff members, and lobbyists of

groups that have large constituencies– Individuals who help shape and enact budgets


Power DifferentialsPower Differentials

Discrimination patterns in the broader society Discrimination patterns in the broader society influence power transactionsinfluence power transactionsSome point to the Some point to the power elitepower elite– The leaders of well-financed interest groups that The leaders of well-financed interest groups that

monopolize power and consigns other people and monopolize power and consigns other people and interests to marginal rolesinterests to marginal roles

Others suggest that many interests and people Others suggest that many interests and people shape policy choicesshape policy choicesPolicy practitioners need to be realistic in Policy practitioners need to be realistic in assessing the distribution of power in specific assessing the distribution of power in specific settingssettings


Ethical IssuesEthical Issues

Social workers often use power in their workSocial workers often use power in their work

It may be unethical NOT to use power in certain It may be unethical NOT to use power in certain situationssituations

However, power can be used unethicallyHowever, power can be used unethically

Simple, easy-to-follow ethical rules are difficult to Simple, easy-to-follow ethical rules are difficult to constructconstruct– Blatant dishonesty and manipulation are clearly Blatant dishonesty and manipulation are clearly

unethicalunethical– But there are many shades of grayBut there are many shades of gray


Obtaining Power ResourcesObtaining Power Resources

Tactics for developing power resources for Tactics for developing power resources for use in agency, community, and legislative use in agency, community, and legislative settings:settings:– Build personal credibilityBuild personal credibility– Learn how to networkLearn how to network– Create links with groupsCreate links with groups


Building Personal CredibilityBuilding Personal Credibility

Policy Advocates require personal credibility to Policy Advocates require personal credibility to be effectivebe effectiveThey can build credibility by:They can build credibility by:– Appearing reasonable and pragmatic

Downplay ideologyEmphasize a proposal’s underlying principles rather than focus on its substantive provisions

– Appearing to be a team playerAssume multiple functions Take the initiative to make changes within an organizationShape policy proposals germane to an org’s mission


Building Personal CredibilityBuilding Personal Credibility

Policy advocates can build credibility by (cont.):Policy advocates can build credibility by (cont.):– Having personal integrity

Take principled and outspoken positions on certain issues

– Displaying authoritativeness Demonstrate knowledge and offer evidence

– Developing a positive track record – Affiliating oneself with successful institutions – Using Machiavellian tactics

Negative tactics, such as harming others’ reputations, buck-passing, sandbagging, and turf or empire building

Are often seen as immoral, and credibility can thus suffer


NetworkingNetworking

NetworkNetwork: The number and range of supportive : The number and range of supportive relationships a person hasrelationships a person hasThere are many types:There are many types:– Lateral networks Lateral networks consist of relationships with consist of relationships with

colleaguescolleagues– Vertical Vertical and and subordinate networks subordinate networks consist, consist,

respectively, of persons who are superior to and respectively, of persons who are superior to and beneath a person in an organization’s hierarchybeneath a person in an organization’s hierarchy

– Heterogeneous networks Heterogeneous networks are supportive relationships are supportive relationships with others in a range of positions both within and with others in a range of positions both within and outside the work settingoutside the work setting


NetworkingNetworking

Strategies that help expand a person’s Strategies that help expand a person’s networks: networks: – Enhancing visibilityEnhancing visibility

Exchange information with, and sExchange information with, and seek advice, support, or suggestions from others

– Seeking inclusion in decision-making bodiesSeeking inclusion in decision-making bodiesShow interest, or sugges the formation of a committee to examine a problem


NetworksNetworks

Strategies that help expand a person’s Strategies that help expand a person’s networks (cont.):networks (cont.):– Cultivating mentorsCultivating mentors

Develop informal relationships with high-level officials

– Obtaining access to informal groupsObtaining access to informal groups– Developing links with social movementsDeveloping links with social movements


Power Challenges Encountered Power Challenges Encountered by Vulnerable Populationsby Vulnerable Populations

Members of these groups can use the Members of these groups can use the techniques already discussed, but they techniques already discussed, but they must be even more diligent and persistentmust be even more diligent and persistent

They can also: They can also: – Develop relationships with other members of Develop relationships with other members of

their own group from both within and outside their own group from both within and outside the organizationthe organization

– Find allies among mainstream personsFind allies among mainstream persons


Developing AssertivenessDeveloping Assertiveness

To use power effectively, people must first decide: – that they possess power resources – that they can use them successfully– that they want to use them

Assertiveness is undermined by:– Victim mentality

The belief that others conspire to defeat their preferences

– FatalismThe belief that only high-level persons or powerful interests can wield power successfully


Developing AssertivenessDeveloping Assertiveness

An assertive person: – Does not passively accept a situation – Rather, he/she diagnoses it, identifies

possible strategies, and tries several options in search of one that works


Can Direct-Service Staff Use Can Direct-Service Staff Use Power Resources?Power Resources?

Direct-service staff already have considerable Direct-service staff already have considerable power stemming from their personal knowledge power stemming from their personal knowledge of an agency’s problemsof an agency’s problems

Executives depend on direct-service staff for the Executives depend on direct-service staff for the agency’s: agency’s: – reputation reputation – efficiencyefficiency– revenues revenues – public relations with clients and other agenciespublic relations with clients and other agencies


Can Direct-Service Staff Use Can Direct-Service Staff Use Power Resources?Power Resources?

Direct-service staff members who belong to Direct-service staff members who belong to unions can imply or state that their work will be unions can imply or state that their work will be disrupted if certain demands are not metdisrupted if certain demands are not metThey often have access to at least some agency They often have access to at least some agency decision-making processesdecision-making processesThey can also wield power indirectly by: They can also wield power indirectly by: – influencing a supervisor to initiate a suggestioninfluencing a supervisor to initiate a suggestion– forming coalitions within the agency to pressure forming coalitions within the agency to pressure

administrators to modify specific policiesadministrators to modify specific policies

They often derive power from their autonomyThey often derive power from their autonomy

chapter 10

Education

person power power

political power

person power person

coercive power

referent power

reward power

exerting power

power transaction