Notes

Chapter 1: The Development of European Democracy

1. Robert A. Dahl, Democracy and its Critics (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989), p.316.

2. Ibid., pp.2, 18-20,317-18. 3. See, for example, David Held, Models of Democracy (Cambridge: Polity Press,

1989), pp.254-64. 4. See Laski's letter of 2 November 1919 to Russell, in Bertrand Russell, The

Autobiography of Bertrand Russell, 1914-1944 (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1968), p.Il3.

5. Dahl, Democracy, pp.2, 318-20. 6. David Held, Democracy and the Global Order: From the Modern State to

Cosmopolitan Governance (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995), pp.32, 73, 143,227.

Chapter 2: Mediaeval Flanders and the Seeds of Modern Democracy

1. There are two modem editions of Galbert's Latin narrative: H. Pirenne (ed.), Histoire du meurtre de Charles Ie BOil, comte de Flandre (1127-1128) par Galbert de Bruges (Paris: Picard, 189 I) and J. Rider, Galbertus Notarius Brugensis. De multro, traditiolle, et occisione gloriosi Karoli comitis Flandriarum (Turnhout: Brepols, 1994, Corpus Christianorum. Continuatio MediaeuaIis, LXXXI). Dutch, English and French translations also exist (with extensive introductions): Galbert of Bruges, the Murder of Charles the Good, trans. 1.B. Ross (Toronto: Toronto University Press, 1984, Medieval Academy Reprints for Teaching); R.c. Van Caenegem (ed.), Galbert van Brugge, grafelijk secretaris: De moord op Karel de Goede: Dagboek vall de gebeurtenissen ill dejarenlI27-1128, trans. A. Demyttenaere (Antwerp: Mercatorfonds, 1978), and R.C. Van Caenegem (ed.), Galbertde Bruges, secrtftai're comtal: Le meurtre de Charles Ie Bon, trans. J. Gengoux (Antwerp: Fonds Mercator, 1978).

2. See C.H. Haskins, The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1927) and C.N.L. Brooke, The Twelfth Century Renaissance (London/New York: Thames and Hudson, 1969).

3. See R.c. Van Caenegem, 'Galbert of Bruges on Serfdom, Prosecution of Crime and Constitutionalism', in B.S. Bachrach and D. Nicholas (eds), Law, Custom, and the Social Fabric in Medieval Europe: Essays ill HOllor of Bryce Lyoll (Kalamazoo: Western Michigan University Press, 1990), pp.89-112.

4. Forthe Flemish keuren in general, see F.L. Ganshof, 'La Flandre', in F. Lot and R. Fawtier (eds), Histoire des institutionsfrall('aises au moyen age. 1: Institutions seigneuriales (Paris: PUF, 1957), pp.343-426. For the oldest extensive Flemish borough charter, see R.C. Van Caenegem, 'The Borough Charter of Saint-Omer of 1127, Granted by William Clito, Count of Flanders', in R.C. Van Caenegem, Legal History: A European Perspective (London and Rio Grande: Hambledon Press, 1991), pp.61-70.

128

Notes 129

5. R.C. Van Caenegem, Geschiedenis van het strafrecht in Vlaanderen van de Xle tot de XIVe eeuw (Brussels: Koninklijke Vlaamse Academie voor Wetenschappen, Letteren en Schone Kunsten van Belgie, 1954, Verhandlingen Kon. Acad. Wetensch., Klasse der Letteren, no. 19), pp.I4-17.

6. R.c. Van Caenegem, An Historicallntroductioll to Westem Constitutional Law (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp.15-21.

7. Pirenne, Histoire du meurtre de Charles Ie Bon, pp.138-41. See the comments by Van Caenegem in Galbert of Bruges, pp.102-7 and R.c. Van Caenegem, 'The Ghent Revolt of February 1128', in L. Milis et al. (eds), R.C. Van Caenegem, Law, History, the Low Countries and Europe (London and Rio Grande: Hambledon Press, 1994), pp.107-12.

8. Pirenne, Histoire du meurtre de Charles Ie Bon, cc.93, 94 and 95, pp.137-41. 9. V. Fris, Histoire de Gand depuis les originesjusqu 'en 1913 (Ghent: Tavernier,

1930), pp.126-7. 10. For recent surv,eys, see D. Waley, The Italian City-Republics (London:

Longman, 1978), and 1.H. Mundy, 'In Praise of Italy: the Italian Republics', Speculum 64, 1989, pp.815-34.

II. P. Carson, James Van Artevelde: The Man from Ghent (Ghent: Story-Scientia, 1980).

12. See 1. Decavele (ed.), Ghent: In Defence of a Rebellious City: History, Art, Culture (Antwerp: Mercatorfonds, 1989). For the position of Ghent in the earlier phase of the Burgundian state, see M. Boone, Gent en de Bourgondische hertogen ca. 13S4-ca. 1453: een sociaal-politieke studie van een staatsvorm­ingsproces (Brussels: Paleis van der Academien, 1990, Verhand. Kon. Acad. Wetensch., Kl. Lett., Jg. 52, no. 133).

13. The most recent discussion of the republican strain, which started in the mediaeval cities of Flanders and culminated in the independent Dutch Republic, can be found in W. Blockmans, 'De tweekoppige draak. Het Gentse stadsbestuur tussen vorst en onderdanen, 14e-16e eeuw', in 1. de Zutter, L. Charles and A. Capiteyn (eds), Qui valet ingenio: Liber Amicorum J. Decavele (Ghent: Stichting Mens en Kultur, 1996), pp.27-37. The author stresses the leading role of Ghent and analyses several plans of Ghent, Bruges and Ypres for the division of the county of Flanders into three city-states, with a common monarch who would, however, depend on the recognition of his subjects and only wield limited power. The author underlines the fact that, two years before the Act of Abjuration, the city of Ghent had, on 6 August 1579, already renounced Philip II as legitimate ruler: the king was said to have rejected reasonable proposals of peace so that his sovereignty had passed to the urban magistrate.

14. B1ockmans, 'De tweekoppige draak', p.34. The author (p.32) shows the pre­ponderance of Flanders and Brabant by referring to the contribution of those two principalities in the total tax yield of the Netherlands. Indeed, the distribution of the taxation, established by the Estates General at the time of Emperor Charles V, was as follows: Flanders paid 34 per cent, Brabant 29 per cent, Holland and Zeeland together between 15 and 17 per cent, Guelderland 12 per cent, and the other regions much less.

IS. See J. Gilissen, Le regime representat!! avant 1790 en Belgique (Brussels: La Renaissance du Livre, 1952), and C. Van De Kieft, 'De Staten-Generaal in het Bourgondisch-Oostenrijkse Tijdvak (1464-1555)" in S.J. Fockema Andreae

130 Foundations of Democracy in the European Union

(ed.), 500 Jaren Staten-Generaal in de Nederlandell (Assen: Van Gorcum, 1964), pp.I-26.

16. I am thinking of W. Prevenier, A. Zoete and W.P. Blockmans, editors of the Handelingen vall de Leden en Staten van Vlaanderen for the Belgian Royal Commission for History since 1959.

17. It is of some importance to realise how the members of the Third Estate - that is, the burgesses (comparable to some extent to the English House of Commons) - were appointed, both in the earlier stage of the' aldermen of Flanders' (scabini Flandriae) and later. Generally speaking, the aldermen of the Flemish boroughs were, in the twelfth century, appointed by the count and, in the thirteenth, coopted by the sitting aldermen; whereas the fourteenth century witnessed a democratisation by which the common people, organised in guilds, crafts and corporations, played a dominant role in the selection of the town authorities and their spokesmen who sat in the urban 'general assemblies'. Nowhere in mediaeval Europe do we find the modem-type democracy with general franchise and secret ballot. Nevertheless, the numerous assemblies and estates of the later Middle Ages show that they could, in the course of time, develop into repre­sentative bodies as we know them in the modern democracies.

18. Everything was ready. in 1473, for Charles the Bold to be made king of Lotharingia (a name going back to Carolingian times) by Emperor Frederick III who, however, withdrew at the last moment. So the Burgundian Netherlands remained what they had been before: that is, a union of principalities held together by a common ruler (who was count of Flanders, Hainaut, Holland and Namur, Duke of Brabant, etc.) and by ever-expanding common institutions. The title of king, which eluded the Burgundian dukes, would have been a consummation of what was in fact their status as princes with most of the attributes of kings.

19. See the recent survey by W. Prevenier and W. Blockmans, De BOllrgondische Nederlanden (Antwerp: Mercatorfonds, 1983).

20. Ibid., p.198. 21. Ibid. 22. R.C. Van Caenegem, 'Methods of Proof in Western Medieval Law', in Van

Caenegem, Legal History, pp. 71-113; R. Bartlett, Trial by Fire and Water: The Medieval Judicial Ordeal (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1986); R.C. Van Caenegem, 'Reflexions on rational and irrational modes of proof in medieval Europe', The Legal History Review 58, 1990, pp.263-79.

23. Van Caenegem, Geschiedenis, pp.280-307. 24. Pirenne, Histoire du meurtre de Charles Ie BOil, c.55, p.87. See the comments

in R.C. Van Caenegem, 'Considerations on the customary law of twelfth-century Flanders', in Van Caenegem, Law, History, the Low Countries and Europe, pp.97-106. In the following centuries the towns produced a considerable body of legislation. For some recent surveys, see J.-M. Cauchies, 'Services publics et legislation dans les villes des anciens Pays-Bas: Questions d'heuristique et de methode', in L 'initiative publique des communes en Belgique: Fondemellts historiques. Actes du lie Coli. internat. Credit communal de Belgique (1-4 September 1982) (Brussels, 1984), pp.639-88; P.Godding, 'Les ordonnances des autorites urbaines au moyen age: Leur apport a la technique It~gislative', in J.-M. Duvosquel and E. Thoen (eds), Peasants and townsmen in medieval

Notes 131

Europe: Studia in honorem A. Verhulst (Ghent: Snoek Ducaju, 1995), pp.185-20 1.

25. F. Vercauteren (ed.), Actes des Comtes de Flandre, 1071-1128 (Brussels: Palais des Academies, 1938, Commission Royale d'Histoire), 79, p.178.

26. Pirenne, Histoire du meurtre de Charles Ie BOil, cc.105, 108, pp.150, 154--5. 27. R.C. Van Caenegem and L. Milis, 'Kritische uitgave van de "Grote Keure" van

Filips van de Elzas, graaf van Vlaanderen, voor Gent en Brugge (1165-1177)', Handelingen van de Koninklijke Commissie voor Geschiedenis 143, 1977, pp.207-57.

28. Pirenne, Histoire du meurtre de Charles Ie Bon, c.106, p.152. 29. F.L. Ganshof, 'Les origines du concept de souverainete nationale en Flandre',

Revue d'Histoire du Droit 18,1950, pp.135-58. 30. See J. Van der Grinten, 'Het Plakkaat van Verlatinge', in Bijdragen Vaderl.

Geschiedenis 01 Oudheidkunde, 5th series, II, 1932, pp.161-78; J.P.A. Coopmans, 'Het Plakkaat van Verlatinge (1581) en de Declaration of Independence (1776)" in Bijdragen en Mededelingen Geschied. Nederlanden 98, 1983, pp.540-67.

3l. See SJ. Fockema Andreae, De Nederlandse Staat onder de Republiek (Amsterdam: Noord-Hollandse Uitgevermaatschappij, 1961, 3rdedition, 1969), pp.3-5.

32. See the classic survey in Ganshof, 'La Flandre', and the recent detailed monograph by S. Dauchy, De processen in beroep uit Vlaanderen bij het Parlement van Par!js (1320-1521). Een rechtshistorisch onderzoek naar de wording von staat en souvereiniteit in de Bourgondisch-Habsburgse periode (Brussels: Paleis der Academien, 1995, Verhand. Kon. Acad. Wetensch., Kl. Lett., Jg. 37, no. 154).

33. See F.L. Ganshof, Vlaanderell onder de eerste graven (Antwerp: Standaard, 1944).

34. F.L. Ganshof, 'Trois mandements perdus du roi de France Louis VI interessant la Flandre', in Handelingen Genootschap Emulation de Bruges, 87, 1950, pp.llS-33; F.L. Ganshof, 'Le roi de France en Flandre en 1127 et 1128', Revue historique de droit franfais et itranger, 4th series, 27, 1949, pp.204-28.

35. See F. Dickmann, Der Westfiilische Frieden (MUnster: Aschendorff, 1965). 36. R.C. Van Caenegem, An Historical1ntroduction to Western Constitutional

Law, pp.142-S0. 37. H. Pirenne, Les anciennes democraties des Pays-Bas (Paris: Flammarion, 1910)

was published in English as Belgian Democracy: Its Early History (Manchester, 1915) and in paperback as Early Democracies in the Low Countries: Urban Society and Political Conflict in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance (New York: Harper and Row, 1963). See, on Pirenne, B. Lyon, Henri Pirenne: A biographical alld intellectual study (Ghent: Story-Scientia, 1974); R.c. Van Caenegem, 'Henri Pirenne: Medievalist and Historian of Belgium', in Van Caenegem, Law, History, the Low Countries and Europe, pp.161-78.

38. D. Lambrecht (ed.), Acta Processus circa Synodum: Proces gevoerd door Brugge, D0111111e en het Vri,je tegen de bisschop van Doon1ik voor de officialiteit te Rei111S en de Curie te Rome 1269-ca. 1301 (Brussels: Ministerie van Justitie, 1988, Kon. Com. Oude Welten. Verzameling van de Oude Rechtspraak in Belgie, 7th series).

132 Foundations of Democracy in the European Union

39. Text in J. Van Der Straeten, Her charter en de raad van Kortenberg, II (Leuven: University of Leuven, Brussels, 1952), no. I, pp.12-14, and in H.P.H. Camps, Oorkondenboek van Noord Brabant, I (The Hague: Nijhoff, 1979), Rijks Geschiedkundige Publicatien 883, pp.1074ff. See the comparative-historical comments in B. Lyon, 'Fact and Fiction in English and Belgian Constitutional Law', Medievalia et Humanistica, 10, 1956, pp.82-1O 1.

40. See, for a survey in English by a famous historian, P.C.A. Geyl, The Revolt of the Netherlands 1555-1601 (London: Williams and Norgate, 1932); see also Chapter 3, this volume, by E.H. Kossmann. For the rise of protestantism in Flanders see J. Decavele, De dageraad vall de Reformatie in Vlaanderen (1520-1565),2 vols (Brussels: Paleis der Academien, 1975, Verhand. Kon. Acad. Wetensch., Kl. Lett., Jg. 37, no. 76). The reader will find an interesting collection of texts (1570-87) in M. Van Gelderen (ed.), The Dutch Revolt (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993, Canlbridge Texts in the History of Political Thought).

41. C. Brinton, The Anatomy of Revolution (New York: Random House, 1965). 42. See, for a general but brief survey, R.C. Van Caenegem, 'Reflexions on the Place

of the Low Countries in European Legal History', in Van Caenegem, Legal History, pp.149-63.

43. When we say that in the Burgundian Netherlands the state came before the nation, the reader may wonder why we, following Ganshof, already speak of 'national sovereignty' at the time of Galbert of Bruges; but it should be realised that a national feeling in the respective principalities, such as Flanders, Brabant and Holland, had existed for centuries before those provinces were lifted, in Burgundian times, into a wider pan-Netherlandish statehood and a new, wider political identity.

44. H.G. Richardson and G.O. Sayles, Parliaments and Great Councils in Medieval England (London: Stevens, 1961); E.B. Fryde and E. Miller (eds), Historical Studies of the English Parliament, 2 vols (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1970); G .0. Sayles, The Functions of the Medieval Parliament of Eng/and (London and Ronceverte: Hambledon Press, 1988).

45. D. Lambrecht and J. Van Rompaey, 'De staatsinstellingen in het Zuiden van de 11de tot de l4de eeuw', in Algemene Geschiedenis der Nederlanden, III, Haarlem, 1982, pp.129-34.

46. For Thierry, see Nationaal Biografisch Woordenboek, XIII (Brussels: Paleis der Acadamien, 1990), cols 224-42 (by Th. De Hemptinne). For Philip, see ibid., IV, 1970, cols 290-329 (by H. Van Werveke). For Baldwin IX, see ibid., 1,1964, cols 224-37 (by W. Prevenier).

47. See R.C. Van Caenegem, 'Reflections on the History of England', in Van Caenegem, Law, History, the Low Countries and Europe, pp.37-54.

Chapter 3: Republican Freedom against Monarchical Absolutism: The Dutch Experience in the Seventeenth Century

1. Staatsregeling voor het Bataafsche volk (I mei 1798): 'Het Bataafsche volk, zig vornemende tot eenen ondeelbaaren Staat .. .'.

2. L. de Gou (ed.), Het on twerp van COl1stitutie van 1797, vol. 1, pp.l73--4 (The Hague: Rijks Geschiedkundige Publicatien, Kleine Serie 55,1983).

Notes 133

3. For a synopsis of the problem, see H. Daalder, 'Oud-republikeinse veelheid en democratisering in Nederland' (1987), reprinted in H. Daalder, B.A.G.M. Tromp and J. Th. J. van den Berg, Politiek en Historie: opstellen over Nederlandse politiek en vergelijkende politieke wetenschap (Amsterdam: Bakker, 1990), pp.64-80.

4. Printed in English translation in E.H. Kossmann and A.F. Mellink, Texts Concerning the Revolt of the Netherlands (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1974), pp.165-77.

5. Ibid., pp.216-28. 6. R. Fruin and H.T. Colenbrander, Geschiedenis van de staatsinstellingen in

Nederland tot den val del' Republiek (The Hague: Nijhoff, 190 I, 2nd edition, 1922, reprinted by Martinus Nijhoff with an important introduction by I. Schaffer, 1980) is still the best compendium, though S.J. Fockema Andreae, De Nederlandse staat onder de Republiek (Amsterdam: Noord-Hollandse Uitgevermaatschappij, 1961, 3rd edition, 1969) has distinct merits. Jonathan I. Israel's recent The Dutch Republic: Its Rise, Greatness and Fall, 1477-1806 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1995, pb 1999) gives lucid surveys of the institutions and offers original interpretations of their working.

7. Cf. I. Schaffer's lively inaugural lecture, Ons tweede tijdvak (Leiden, 1962), reprinted in his Veelvormig ver/eden (Amsterdam: De Bataafsche Leeuw, 1987), pp.15-25.

8. See the detailed analysis by the Canadian historian F.G. Oosterhof, Leicester and the Netherlands 1586-1587 (Utrecht: HES Publishers, 1988).

9. Kossmann and Mellink, Texts, pp.272-3. 10. Ibid., Texts, pp.274-81.

Chapter 4: William III, the Glorious Revolution and the Development of Parliamentary Democracy in Britain

I. See Mark Goldie, 'The Revolution of 1689 and the Structure of Political Argument', Bulletin of Research in the Humanities 83 (1980), pp.473-564; Richard Ashcraft, Revolutionary Politics and Locke's Two Treatises of Government (Princeton, NJ/Guildford: Princeton University Press, 1986), pp.39-74,6oo.

2. See the excellent recent essay by W.A. Speck, 'Britain and the Dutch Republic', in K. Davids and J. Lucassen (eds), A Miracle Mirrored: The Dutch Republic in European Perspective (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp.173-83.

3. Ibid., p.176. 4. Ashcraft, Revolutionary Politics, pp.59l-6oo. 5. J.1. Israel, 'The Dutch Role in the Glorious Revolution', in Jonathan I. Israel

(ed.), The Anglo-Dutch Moment. Essays Oil the Glorious Revolution alld its World Impact (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), pp.l38-60.

6. In fact, 'one school' here is something of a misnomer as the tendency to deny that anything significant happened in 1688-89, which has long been the view of marxist historians such as Christopher Hill, is also the view of some particularly right-wing revisionists such as Jonathan Clark: see the discussion of 1688 in J.C.D. Clark, English Society, 1688-1832 (Cambridge: Cambridge

134 Foundations of Democracy in the European Union

University Press, 1985); see also W.A. Speck, 'Some Consequences of the Glorious Revolution', in D. Hoak and M. Feingold (eds), The World of William and Mary (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1996), pp.29-32.

7. 'Whatever modifications we may make to the classical Whig interpretation', observes Hugh Trevor-Roper, 'in the end it is difficult to contest Macaulay's thesis, that the English Revolution of 1688 saved England from a different kind of revolution a century later.' See H.R. Trevor-Roper, 'The Glorious Revolution of 1688', in H.R. Trevor-Roper, From Counter-Reformation to Glorious Revolution (London: Secker and Warburg, 1992), p.247.

8. Israel, 'The Dutch Role', pp.123-46; Robert Beddard, A Kingdom without a King. The Journal of the Provisional Government in the Revolution of 1688 (Oxford: Phaidon, 1988), pp.17-31; Tony Claydon, William J1/ and the Godly Revolution (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp.122-4. On the weakness of James's field army on Salisbury Plain and estimate of its size at about 12,000 men, see BJ MS Add. 34510, 'Van Otters to States General', London, 7 December 1688.

9. Israel, 'The Dutch Role', pp.126-31; J.1. Israel, 'William III and Toleration', in O.P. Grell, J.I. Israel and N. Tyacke (eds), From Persecution to Toleration: The Glorious Revolution and Religion in England (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991), pp.146-9.

10. See Claydon, William J1/ and the Godly Revolution, pp.26-8, 228-36; see also Tony Claydon, 'William Ill's Declaration of Reasons and the Glorious Revolution', The Historical Journal 39 (1996), pp.87-108.

11. On the orchestration of William Ill's propaganda campaign in the autumn of 1688, see Jonathan I. Israel, 'Propaganda in the Making of the Glorious Revolution', in Susan Roach (ed.), Across the Narrow Seas: Studies in the History and Bibliography of Britain and the Low COllntries presented to Anna E.c. Simoni (London: British Library, 1991), pp.167-77; Israel, 'The Dutch Role', pp.121-4.

12. Edmund Bohun, The History of the Desertion (London: 1689), p.123. 13. His Majesties Gracious Letter to the Meeting of the Estates of His Ancient

Kingdom of Scotland (dated 17 May 1689), (Edinburgh: 1689), p.1. 14. His Majesties Most Gracious Speech to both Houses of Parlial1lent, on Friday

the Fourth Day of November 1692 (London: 1692), p.4. 15. The Declaration of the Lords and Commons Assembled at Westminster,

presented to their Highnesses the Prince and Princess of Orange, at Whitehall the 13th of February, 1688/9, p.2; see also Lois Schwoerer, 'Propaganda in the Revolution of 1688-9',American Historical Review 82 (1977), pp.843-74.

16. For a reminder that Parliament and the people were 'incouraged to the demand of their Rights by the Declaration of his Highness the Prince of Orange', see A Letter to Doctor Lancaster, Wherein The Resistance of the People Under the Conduct of the Prince of Orange And the Placing of King William on the Throne Are Vindicated from the Odious Imputation of Usurpation ([nd Rebellion (London: 1697), p.7.

17. Israel, 'The Dutch Role', pp.160-2. 18. For comparisons between the armada of 1588 and that of 1688, see Jonathan I.

Israel and Geoffrey Parker, 'Of Providence and Protestant Winds: the Spanish Armada of 1588 and the Dutch Armada of 1688', in Israel, The Anglo-Dutch Moment, pp.335-64.

Notes 135

19. Israel, 'The Dutch Role', pp.117-20. 20. K.H.D. Haley, The British and the Dutch (London: George Philip, 1988),

pp.136-41; J.L. Price, 'William III, England and the Balance of Power in Europe', Groniek. Gronings Historisch Tijdschrift 101 (1988), pp.68-9.

Chapter 5: The United States Constitution and its Roots in British Political Thought and Tradition

I. Michael Kraus, The Atlantic Civilization: Eighteenth-Century Origins (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1949), p.26.

2. Edmund Burke, quoted in H.T. Dickinson, 'The Eighteenth-Century Debate on the Sovereignty of Parliament', Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 5th series, 25 (1976). p.199.

3. Gareth Jones (ed.), The Sovereignty of the Law: Selections from Blackstone's Commentaries 011 the Laws of England (London: Macmillan, 1973), pp.71-2; J.G.A. Pocock, Politics, Language alld Time (London: Methuen, 1972), p.132.

4. Gordon S. Wood, The Creation of the American Republic, 1776-1787 (Chapel Hill , NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1969), pp.49-50.

5. J.G.A. Pocock, The Machiavellian Moment (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1975), esp. pp.506-52.

6. David L. Jacobson (ed.), The English Libertarian Heritage (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1965). pp.106, 131,91.93; David N. Mayer, 'The English Radical Whig Origins of American Constitutionalism'. Washington University Law Quarterly 70 (1991). pp.131-207.

7. James Burgh. Political Disquisitions (3 vols) (London: 1774-75). Ill, pp.277-8; i, pp.3-4.

8. Colin Bonwick, English Radicals and the American Revolution (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1977), pp.17-26.

9. Thomas R. Adams, American Independence: The Growth of an Idea (Providence, RI: Brown University Press, 1965); H. Trevor Colbourn, The Lamp of Experience: Whig History and the Intelleclual Origins of the American Revolution (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1965).

10. John Dickinson, 'August 13, 1787', in Max Farrand (ed.), The Records of the Federal Convention of 1787 (revised edition in 4 vols) (New Haven, CT:Yale University Press. 1937), II, p.278.

II. Richard Bland, in Merrill Jensen (ed.), Tracts of the American Revolution: 1763-1 776 (indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1967), p.125.

12. William Riker. 'Dutch and American Federalism', lournal of the History of Ideas 18 (1957), pp.495-521; Robert A. Rutland et a1. (eds), The Papers of lames Madison. vols IV and X (Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 1975, 1977): IX, pp.I I-18; X. pp.81 , 82-3n, 88, 89n, 101, 189,210,274, 320-4, 364, 406.

13. Winton U. Solberg (ed.). The Federal Convention and the Formation of the Union of the American States (New York: The Liberal Arts Press, 1958), p.9; S.E. Morison (ed.), Sources alld Documents Illustrating the American Revolution, 1764-1788 and the Fonnatioll of the Federal Constitution (2nd edition; Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1929), p.33.

136 Foundations of Democracy in the European Union

14. Alfred H. Kelly et aI., The American Constitution: Its Origins and Development (6th edition; New York: W.W. Norton, 1983), p.27.

15. Dumas Malone, Jefferson and His Time (6 vols) (Boston: Little, Brown. 1948-81), pp.70-2.

16. Bernard Bailyn, The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution (Cambridge, MA: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1967), pp.55-6.

17. James Madison in Marvin Meyers (ed.), The Mind of the Founder (Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill, 1973), p.512; John Adams in Lester J. Cappon (ed.), The Complete Correspondence Between Thomas Jefferson and John Adams (2 vols) (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1959), II, p.463.

18. William Hooper in Elisha P. Douglass, Rebels and Democrats (Chicago, IL: Quadrangle Books, 1965 [1955]), p.123.

19. Jack P. Greene, Peripheries and Center: Constitutional Development ill the Extended Polities of the British Empire and the United States, 1607-1788 (Athens, GA: University of Georgia Press, 1986), p.I73; quotation from Peter Onuf, Origins of the Federal Republic: Jurisdictional Controversies in the United States, 1775-1787 (Philadelphia, PA: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1983), pp.21-2.

20. Wood, The Creation, pp.260-l. 21. Mayer, 'English Radical Whig Origins', p.I44. 22. Morison (ed.), Sources and Documents, p.149. 23. The Bill of Rights, 1689, 1 Will. & Mar. Sess. 2, c.2.; US Constitution and

Amendments I to X. 24. K.M. Stampp, 'The Concept of a Perpetual Union', Journal of American History

65 (1978), p.1l. 25. Forrest McDonald, Novus Ordo Seclorllln: The Intellectual Origins (~f the

Constitution (Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 1985), p.209. 26. Greene, Peripheries, p.213. 27. Theodore Lowi, The Personal President (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press,

1985), p.24. 28. Walter Bagehot, The English Constitution, ed. R.H.S. Crossman (London:

Collins, 1963), p.94. 29. Daniel J. Boorstin, The Mysterious Science ~fthe Law (Gloucester, MA: Peter

Smith, 1973 [1941]), pp.3-4. 30. J .R.T. Hughes, Social Control in the Colonial Economy (Charlottesville, V A:

University Press of Virginia, 1976), p.86. 31. Colin Bonwick, 'The Regulation of Political Power', in R.A. Burchell (ed.), The

End of Anglo-America (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 199 I), pp.I-23.

Chapter 6: Proudhon and Anti-jacobin Federalism

1. See, in particular, Daniel Mornet, Les Origines illtellectuelles de la Revolution frmu;aise (Paris: Colin, 2nd edition, 1934), part 3, ch. viii; A. Aulard, Histoire politique de la Revolutionfram;aise (Paris: Colin, 3rd edition, 1905), pp.19ff.

2. Le Moniteur, vol. XVII, p.252. 3. 1.-J. Rousseau, Du Contrat social, II-IV.

Notes 137

4. P.-J. Proudhon, Letter of 17 May 1845, Correspondance: edition Langlois (paris: Librairie internationale A. Lacroix, 1874-75).

5. P.-J. Proudhon, Premier 11le11l0ire sur la propriete, 1840 (reprinted Paris: Librairie Marcel Riviere, 1926), p.346.

6. P.-J. Proudhon, De l'utilite de la celebration du Di11lanche, 1839 (reprinted Paris: Riviere, 1926), p.61.

7. P.-J. Proudhon, Syste,ne des Contradictions econ011liques Oil Philosophie de la Misere, 1846 (reprinted Paris: Riviere, 1923). Marx's ironic and unfair riposte, The Poverty of Philosophy, was published in the following year.

8. P.-J. Proudhon, Idee generate de fa Revolution au XIXe siecle, 1849 (reprinted Paris: Riviere, 1923), p.395.

9. See Max Stirner, Der Einzige lind sein Eigentu11l (Berlin: 1845). 10. Proudhon, Premier memoire, p.13 J. 11. P.-J. Proudhon, De la Justice dans la Revolution et dans l'Eglise, 1858, much

enlarged 2nd edition, 1860 (reprinted Paris: Riviere, 1930), and P.-J. Proudhon, Corpus des oeuvres de philosophie en langue fra/1l;aise (Paris: Fayard, 1988).

12. P.-J. Proudhon, Les confessions d'zlIl Revolutionnaire, 1849 (reprinted Paris: Riviere, 1920).

13. Proudhon, Idee generate de la Revolution. 14. Proudhon, De la lustice. 15. Proudhon, Premier memoire, p.144. 16. P.-J. Proudhon, La GI/erre et la Paix, 1861 (reprinted Paris: Riviere, 1927). 17. Proudhon, Correspondance, X, pp.38-9, 1860. 18. P.-J. Proudhon, Du Principe federatij et de la necessite de reconstituer Ie Parti

de la Revoilltioll, 1863 (reprinted Paris: Riviere, 1959). 19. P.-J. Proudhon, De la Capacite politique des classes ouvrieres, 1865,

posthumous (reprinted Paris: Riviere, 1924). 20. Proudhon, Du Principe federat(f, p.319.

Chapter 7: Anglo-saxon Influences and the Development of German Democracy after World War Two

I. Walter Vogel and Christoph Weisz (eds), Akten zur Vorgeschichte der BUlldesrepublik Deutschland /945-1949, vol. 1, Hrsg Bundesarchiv und Institut fiir Zeitgeschichte (MiinchenIWien: R. OJdenbourg, 1976), pp.125-6.

2. Ibid., pp.15 Iff. 3. See Anthony Glees, 'The British and the Germans, 1945-92, From Enemies to

Partners', in Christian Soe and Dirk Verheyen (eds), The Germans and their Neighbors (Colorado: Westview Press, 1993, pb 1995).

4. Noel Annan, Changing Enemies: The Defeat and Regeneration of Germany (London: HarperCollins, 1995), p.211.

5. See Anthony Glees, Re-invel1ting Germany: German Political Development since 1945 (Oxford: Berg, 1996).

6. See Dick de Mildt, In the Name of the People: Perpetrators of Genocide il1 the Reflection of their Post- War Prosecution in West Germany (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1996). Some recent German research concludes, moreover, that West Germany's successful overcoming of Nazism probably owed more to the determination of Germany's western occupiers than to the Germans

138 Foundations of Democracy in the European Union

themselves and singles out British action against old and new Nazis as an important case in point. Following the initial process of de-Nazification, the Allies' latent threat to intervene if necessary had an effect on the development of the Federal Republic that can hardly be exaggerated; see Norbert Frei, Vergangenheitspolitik: Die AI~fiinge del' Bundesrepublik und die NS­Vergangenheit, 2, durchgesehene Auflage (Munchen: C.H. Beck, 1997), pp.368-72, 376-84, 400. See also Anthony Glees, 'The Making of British Policy on War Crimes: History as Politics in Great Britain', Contemporary European History, vol. I, no. 2, 1992, pp.171-97, and 'War Crimes: the Security and Intelligence Policy Dimension', Intelligence and National Security, vol. 7, no. 3, July 1992, pp.242-67.

7. Quoted in Robin Day, But with Respect: Memorable Interviews with Statesmen and Parliamentarians (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1993), pp.123ff.

8. Wolfgang Krieger, General Lucius D. Clay und die amerikanische Deutschlandpolitik 1945-1949 (Stuttgart: Klett-Cotta, 1987), p.11. See also Jeffry M. Diefendorf, Axel Frohn and Hermann-Josef Rupieper (eds), American Policy and the Reconstruction of West Germany, 1945-1955 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993); Ralph Willett, The Americanization (4 Gennany (London: Routledge, 1989); Hans Wallenberg, Report on Democratic Institutions in Germany (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1956); Edward N. Peterson, The American Occupation of Germany (Detroit, MI: Wayne State University Press, 1978).

9. Interview with Robert Lochner, Berlin 6 December 1995. 10. See Vogel and Weisz, Akten zur Vorge schichte. II. Ibid., pp.32, 59. The authors suggest the British were always 'more careful and

distant' in their dealings with German political leaders. 12. See Roger Morgan, The United States and West Germany 1945-73: a study in

alliance politics (London: Oxford University Press, 1974), pp.16-17. 13. See Krieger, General Lucius D. Clay, esp. pp.31Off. 14. Ivone Kirkpatrick, The Inner Circle: Memoirs of Ivone Kirkpatrick (London:

Macmillan, 1959), p.205. See also Anthony Glees, Exile Politics During the Second World War (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1982), pp.142-3. Interview with Sir Frank Roberts, 28 June 1979.

IS. Annan, Changing Enemies, p.157. 16. Ibid., pp.I84, 185,215. 17. Curt Garner, 'Public Service Personnel in West Germany in the 1950s', The

Journal of Social History 29,1995/96, pp.25-80. 18. See Michael Balfour, West Germany (London: Benn, 1968), pp. 1 88-90. 19. For the drafting of the Basic Law, see Kurt Sontheimer, The Government and

Politics of West Germany (London: Hutchinson, 1972), pp.29-32; Alfred Grosser, Germany in our Time (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1974), pp.J08-13; Glees, Re-inventing Germany, pp.58-63.

20. Morgan, The United States and West Germany, pp.l6-17. 21. Annan, Changing Enemies, p.215. 22. See John Ford Gorlay, The FOllnding of the Federal Repuhlic of Gemlany

(Chicago, IL: Chicago University Press, 1958), ch. II, esp. pp.96-108.

Notes

Chapter 8: The European Parliament and the Idea of European Representative Government

139

I. Altiero Spinelli, L 'Europa non cade dal cielo (Bologna: II Mulino, 1960), p.IS. 2. Altiero Spinelli, Come 110 tentato di dive/1tare saggio: 10, Ulisse (Bologna: I1

Mulino, 1984), pp.307-8, translation from Richard Mayne and John Pinder, with John C. de V. Roberts, Federal Union: The Pioneers (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1990), p.84.

3. See Walter Lipgens, A History of European Integration, 1945-1947 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1982), p.612.

4. See Mayne and Pinder, Federal Union, p.lOO. 5. Altiero Spinelli, 'II Documento di Lavoro di Jean Monnet', in L'Europa non

cade p.76, (reprint of an article written in July 1950). 6. Resolutions of the Congress of Europe, The Hague, May 1948 (Brussels: The

European Moveni.ent, May 1988), p.42. 7. Martin Posselt, 'The European Parliamentary Union: 1946 to 1952', in Andrea

Bosco (ed.), The F ederalldea, vol. 2 (London: Lothian Foundation Press, 1992), p.187.

8. Etienne Hirsch, Ainsi va la vie (Lausanne: Fondation Jean Monnet pour I'Europe, 1988), p.107.

9. Jean Monnet, Les Etats-Unis d'Europe ont commence: la Communaute de Charbon et de I 'Acier - discours et allocutions (Paris: Robert Laffont, 1955), pp.57-8.

10. Debates of the Common Assembly, September 1952, p.21 (author's translation). II. Hendrik Brugmans, in Le Parlement europeen: pouvoirs, election, role, .filtur,

Colloque of the Institut d'Etudes Techniques Europeennes (IEJE), University of Liege, 1976, p.287 (author's translation).

12. Ibid., p.l67 (author's translation). 13. Georges Vedel, 'Mythes de I'Europe et Europe des Mythes', Revue du Marche

Commun, October 1967 (author's translation). 14. The development of the role of MEPs, together with other aspects of the

European Parliament's development, is analysed in Richard Corbett, The European Parliament's Role in European Union Integration (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1998).

15. See Commission of the European Communities, 'The Budget: Facts and Figures', in SEC(93), (Brussels: Commission, 1993), p.l3.

16. Miriam Camps, European Unification in the Sixties: From the Veto to the Crisis (New York: McGraw-Hili, 1966), p.59.

17. Debates (!f the European Parliament. 24 May 1984. 18. Report of the Ad Hoc Committee on Institutional Affairs ('Dooge Committee'),

Bulletin of the European Communities 3-1985, p.102. 19. EP document A2-0332/88, 'Report drawn up on behalf of the Committee for

Institutional Affairs on the strategy of the European Parliament for achieving European Union' (rapporteur Mr F. Herman), voted on 16 February 1989, Official JOlll11al of the European Communities 69, 20 March 1989, p.145.

20. EP Minutes. II July 1990, Official Journal of the European Communities 23, 17 February 1990, p.97.

140 Foundations of Democracy in the European Union

21. EP Minutes, 10 February 1994, Official Journal of the European Communities 61,28 February 1994, p.l55.

Chapter 9: Foundations for Democracy in the European Union

1. Robert A. Dahl, Democracy and its Critics (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989), pp.2, 18-20, 316-20; David Held, Democracy and the Global Order: From the Modem State to Cosmopolitan Governance (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1995), pp.32, 73, 143,227.

2. Dahl, Democracy, p.31. 3. E.H. Kossmann, 'Freedom in seventeenth-century Dutch thought and practice',

in Jonathan 1. Israel (ed.), The Anglo-Dutch Moment: Essays 011 the Glorious Revolution and its World Impact (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991), pp.29 1-2.

4. Jonathan 1. Israel, 'The Dutch role in the Glorious Revolution', in Israel, The Anglo-Dutch Moment, pp.120-3; and 'General Introduction', in Israel, ibid" pp,17-19.

5. Israel, 'The Dutch Role', p.161. 6. Hans Daalder, Ancient and Modem Pluralism in the Netherlands, The 1989

Erasmus Lectures at Harvard University (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1989-90),pp.13-14.

7. Dahl, Democracy, pp.2, 30, 317-18. 8. Israel, 'General Introduction', p.30. 9. Israel, Ibid., p.38.

10. Israel, Ibid., p.25. 11. See, for example, John Keane, Tom Paine: A Political Life (London:

Bloomsbury, 1995), pp.108-29, 304-44 and ch. 10. 12. Cited, in notes from Lord Acton's unpublished manuscripts, in G.E, Fasnacht,

Acton '.I' Political Philosophy (London: Hollis and Carter, 1952), p.243. 13. Dahl, Democracy, pp.2, 319. 14. David Held, Models of Democracy (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1987), pp.254-99;

citation from p.299. 15. See Laski's letter of 2 November 1919 to Bertrand Russell, in Russell, The

Autobiography of Bertrand Russell 1914-1944, vol. 2 (London: George Allen and Unwin, 1968), p.1l3, in which he wrote that Proudhon's DII Principe federatif and De La Justice dans la Revolution were 'two very great books' .

16. Held, Models of Democracy, pp.72ff, 200, 282-99. Held cites in particular the works of C.B. Macpherson, Carole Pateman and Nicos Poulantzas.

17. Dahl, Democracy, p.2. 18. Held, Democracy and the Global Order, p.97. 19. Declaration by Robert Schuman, French Foreign Minister, 9 May 1950. 20. Jean Monnet, 'Discours au Seance d'!nauguration de la Haute Autorite', in

Monnet, les Etats-Ullis d'El/rope o/1t commence: la Commlllwute Europeenne de Charbon et de I 'Acier- discollrs et al/ocutions (Paris: Robert Laffont, 1955), pp,56-8.

21. Louis Joxe, Victoires sur fa Iluit: Memoires 1940-1946 (paris: F1ammarion, 1981), cited in Henri Rieben, Des Guerres Europeenlles a l' Union de f 'Europe

Notes 141

(Lausanne: Fondation Jean Monnet pour l'Europe, 1987), pp.352-3; and personal information.

22. Altiero Spinelli, Diario Europeo 1948/49, a cura di Edmondo Paolini (Bologna: II Mulino, 1989), p.142.

23. See Chapter 8, this volume. 24. See Sergio Pistone, 'II ruolo di Altiero Spinelli nella genesi dell'art.38 della

ComunWt Europea di Difesa e del progetto di Comunita Politica Europea', in Gilbert Trausch (ed.), The European Integration from the Schuman Plan to the Treaties of Rome (Baden-Baden and Brussels: Nomos Verlag and Bruylant, 1993).

25. Article 31 ECSC; Article 164 EEe. 26. T.e. Hartley, The Foundations ofCommullity Law (Oxford: Clarendon Press,

1994, I st edition, 1981), p.55. 27. See Dahl, Democracy, p.320. 28. Jean-Victor LOl,lis, 'La constitution de I'Union europeenne', in Mario Telo

(ed.), De,nocratie et Constitution Europeenl1e (Brussels: Editions de l'Universite de Bruxelles, 1995), pp.332-3.

29. This is suggested in Dahl, Democracy, pp.338-9 and Held, Democracy and the Global Order, p.280.

30. Held, Models, p.289. 31. Held, Democracy, pp.22-3. 32. For a review of those policies, see John Pinder, 'The European Community and

Democracy in Eastern Europe', in Geoffrey Pridham, Eric Herring and George Sanford (eds), Building Democracy? - The International Dimension of Democratisation in Eastern Europe (London: Cassel, 2nd edition, 1997; 1st edition London: Leicester University Press, 1994); and Pinder, 'Community against Contlict: The European Community's Contribution to Ethno-National Peace in Europe', in Abram Chayes and Antonia Chayes (eds), Preventing Conflict in the Post-Communist World: Mobilizing International and Regional Organizations (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1996).

33. Literature on this subject is reviewed and references are given in Eric Herring, 'International security and democratisation in Eastern Europe', in Pridham et al., Building Democracy?

Index

Abjuration, Act of (1581), 22-3,108, 129n absolutism, 1,33-4; divine right, 33; in

Italian city-states, 16-17; oligarchic, 30; and property, 62; rejected by Dutch Republic, I, 22, 109, III; of Spain in Netherlands, 13, 14, see also monarchy

accession treaties, to EC, 99, 102 accountability, 3; in EU, 93, 100, 124 Acton, Lord, 114 Adams, John, 42, 46, 47, 49 Adenauer, Konrad, 78-9, 84, 85, 89,117;

and European parliamentary Assembly, 90, 91

Agnelli, Susanna, MEP, 96 Albu, Austin, MP, 80 America see United States of America American War oflndependence, 13,56 Amsterdam Treaty (1997),104,105,121,

123 anarchy, Proudhon's use of word. 63, 64 Annan, Noel, 72, 80 Antwerp, fall of (1585), 13 arbitration, in mediaeval Flanders, 9 Aristotle, 44 armed forces, and state sovereignty. 54. 125 Arndt. Rudy. MEP. 96 Aron, Robert. 68 AItevelde. James van. 6 assemblies. popular, 6, 107 assent procedure. European Parliament, 99,

102, 105 association agreements, with EU, 99 Athens, city-state, I, 44, 112 Attlee, Clement, 73 Australasia, 119 Austria, 99, 102. 118-19 autocracy: in Italian city-states. 16-17;

revolutions against. 13-14 autonomy: democratic, 115, 125-6; local,

116; of nation-states. 3, 31; and nationality, 66; organisational, I, 2, 63-4, 66-7, 115-16, see al.w provincial autonomy; sovereignty

Bacon, Francis. 43 Bagehot. Waiter. 56 balance of power, William III's policy, x. xi Baldwin IX. IS Balfe. Richard. MEP. 96

Bangemann. Martin. MEP. 96 Bank of England, III Batavian Republic (1798-1813).19-20 Bavaria. political parties. 79 Belgium, 7; and Europe. 97. 100. 106. 122 Berlin, blockade and airlift, 76-7. 117 Beveridge, Sir William. 83, 87 Bevin, Ernest, 80, 81 Bill of Rights (1689). x, 38. 52, III. 112 BilI of Rights, American, 52, 58 Bismarck, Otto von, 116 Blackstone, Sir William: on British

Constitution, 43-4. 113; theory of sovereignty, 45-6, 51, 56

Blair, Tony, UK Prime Minister, 104 Bland, Richard, 47 Bockler. Hans. 82 borough charters,S bourgeoisie, in France. 60. 61 Bourlanges, Jean-Louis. MEP. 103 Brabant. 7, 12. 129n Bracton. Henry de. 51 Brandt. Willy, MEP, 96 Brissot, Jacques-Piene. Girolldin leader. 60 Blitish Constitution, 1.7.43-4; checks and

balances. 36, 43-4; codification of. 55-6; compared with American, 55-7; and myth of anglo-saxon purity. 45. 49

Brok. Elmar. MEP. 103 Bruges, 6. 11-12. 129n Brugmans. Hendrik. 91 Brussels Treaty (1948), 84 budget see parliamentUry control of budget Buffon, Comte de. 42 Burgh. James, Political Disquisitions. 46 burghers: Dutch Republic, 109. 130n, see

also regents Burgundian Netherlands: as federal

monarchy, 7-8. 16. 130n. 132n; provincial autonomy. II, 16; self govemment in. 107-8

Burgundy, House of. and unification of Low Countries, 6, 7-8

Burke, Edmund, 43

Cahiers des doleances (1789 l. 60 Calvin, John, 42 Canada. 119 Canute IV, King of Denmark, 4 capitalism, and democracy, 79

142

Index 143

Cartwright, John, 46 Colo's Letters 0721-22), 45--ti Central Europe, 119, 126 centralism: Bismarckian Gennany, 116; in

France, 59, 61 Charles the Bold, 6, 15, 130n Charles the Good, count of Flanders, 4, 5, 9,

11 Charles I, King, 33 Charles II, King, 35, 110 Charles Y, Emperor, 7, II, 17 charters: American colonial, 48; as

legislative texts,S, 12-13, see a/so Kortenberg; Magna Carta

Christian Democrats (CDU) (Gennany), 81, 82, 84, 85, 117

churches, organisational structure, 45, 51 Churchill, W.S., 68, 73, 89 Cicero, 44 citizens' rights, 107, 121 city-states: Athenian, I, 44, 112; direct

democracy in, 125: Italian, 6, 15-17, 107

civil rights: in Dutch tradition. 29; as insufficient, 116

civil society, I, 114 Clarke, Jonathan, 133n Clay. General Lucius D .. 70-1, 76, 77-8.

79; and West Gemmn constitution. 84, 117

Clito. William. 4, 5, 9 co-decision procedure see European

Parliament co-operation procedure see European

Parliament Cold War, 73 colonial government (BIitish): in America,

47-8: federalism and, 84-5; principle applied to Gennany, 80

Commission of the EC/EU see European Commission

common agricultural policy (Eq, 94 common law, 14.51; American adoption of

principles. 48, 52. 56, 112 compact: Calvinist doctrine of. 51; Lockean,

51-2, see a/so contract conciliation procedure. between European

Parliament and Council. 95, 101 Confederation, Articles of ( 1781), 50. 52,

113 conscience, freedom of, 22, 31 consensus, Netherlandish tradition of, 16, 20 consent see government by consent Constant, Henri, 61,115

constitutionalism,S, 15; American compared with British, 57-8; British model of, 48; of William III's Declaration, 37, 39-40

constitutions: 'anglo-saxon', 45; approved by people, 50, 53, 85; based on colonial charters, 48; early national, 15; written, 19, 41, 50-1, 55, see also European constitution

contract: between prince and people,S, 9-10,21, 108; Proudhon's rule of, 63-4, 66, see also compact

cosmopolitan democracy 126 Coudenhove-Kalergi, Richard, 88 Council of Europe 88-90 Council (of Ministers), 68, 89, 97-8; co­

decision with Parliament, 93, 97, 105; and co-operation procedure, 99; and ConmlUnity budget, 93, 105; conciliation procedure, 95; executive powers of, 87, 121; indirect represen­tation, 122, 124; legislative powers of, 121-2,124; and Maastricht Treaty, 10 1-2; and Parliament" s participation in IGC, 103; pre-democratic nature of, 121; pressure for majority voting, 100, 104, 106; unanimity procedure, 92-3, 122

Court ofJustice (of EU), 105, 120, 121, 124; ruling on Parliament's delaying powers, 95-6

Cromwell, Oliver, 33 crowned republic, Britain as, 41, 56, 111 culture: Anglo-American links, 42-3;

British policy in Gennany, 83 currency: Gennan refonn (1948),76;

monetary union in Burgundian Netherlands, 8; single European, 100, 106,123

custom: as ancient freedoms. 14; codification of, 51; reference to, 21, 31, 43; superseded by law-making, 8-9,108

Dahl, Robert A., 1,2, 112, 114, 119 Dandieu, Arnaud, 68 Dankert, Piet, president of European

Parliament, 97 De Gasperi, Alcide, 68. 120-1 de Gaulle, Charles, French President, 94 De Guch!, Karel, MEP 96 decentralisation, 2, 116; of postwar

Gennany, 70-1, 73-4, see also Proudhon; provincial autonomy

144 Foundations of Democracy in the European Union

decision-taking, in European Community, 87,100

Declaration of Independence (American), 52,58

Declaratory Act (1766), 49 Delors, Jacques, 68 demilitarisation. of Germany, 71, 73 democracy: at local level, 15.27; at national

level, 15; beyond nation-state see democratic transformations; continuing development, 2. 125, 127; direct, 6, 125; in Europe, 1; and German postwar constitution. 118; indirect, 6, 7, 122, 124, see also repre­sentative institutions

liberal, I, 107, 118; parliamentary, I, 107, 111-12; and popular sovereignty, 29, 32, 113-14, see also democratic transformations; participatory democracy

democratic accountability see accountability democratic transformations, 1,2-3; first

(city-stutes), 1,112; second (represen­tative within nation-state), 112-19; third (beyond nation-state), 2-3, 106, 107, 114, 125, see also cosmopolitan democracy

democratisation, of Gennany, 73, 84 Denmark,98 Dickinson, John, 46, 47, 48 Dutch Refonned Church, 45 Dutch Republic, x, 2, 19, 21--4; character of,

23--4.26-7,32; federal elements, II, 22, 24---5, 47; historical perspectives on, 26-7; influence on American constitution, 45, 47; provincial autonomy under, 10; role in Glorious Revolution, 38-40, 110; role of Stadholder, 25-6, 30. 38-9, 108-9; States General. 24-5; success of, 30--2, 109; and threat of France, 39, 110, see also Revolt of the Netherlands

East German state, 72, 86, 116 Eastem Europe, 119, 126 economic and monetary union (EU), 100--1.

106, 123 economy: EU federal powers on, 105-6;

German reconstruction. 75-6; Proudhon's federalisation of, 63-4, 67, see also economic and monetary union; single European market

Eden, Anthony, 89 Edward III, King of France, 6

Edwards. Jonathan, 42 Eisenhower, General Dwight, 77 elections, 30, 44. 53; to European

Parliament, 91-2, 120, 122; to Gernlan Lander assemblies, 70, 71, 117

Eliot, T.S., 83 Elizabeth I, Queen, 27-8 England: attack on United Provinces (1672),

30, 38-9. 110; compared with mediaeval Low Countries, 14---15; eighteenth-century political model, 2; ideological divisions, 33--4, 39; as unitary nation-state, 14; war against France. 36, see also Blitish Constitution; Glorious Revolution; Parliament; United Kingdom

English Civil War, 14,33 Enlightenment, the, 68, see also Scottish

Enlightenment equality: of all men, 46; deemed essential to

liberty, 45, 62, 115, 116; French passion for, 59-60; and pmlicipatory democracy, 125-6

Erhard, Ludwig, 76, 78, 79 estates (assemblies of): in England, 43-4,

53; France, 60-I; in Low Countries, 7, 14,30, 108, 130n

Estates General (in Low Countries), 7, 11, 14, 30, see also States General

EU member-states: and control of EU budgets, 94; six founders, 120; inequality among, 126; market economies, 126-7; and suppmt for draft EU treaty, 97, 122; support for single market, 123

Europe: federalist movement, 68, 91; influence of British parliamentary government, 112; inter-governmental view of, 89, 90; links with revolution­m)' America, 42, see also European Community; European Union

European Central Bank, 102 European Coal and Steel Conmlllnity

(ECSC), 68, 88, 119-20, 123; High Authority of, 90, 120

European Commission, 90, 91; European Parliament's powers over, 90, 91, 93, 96, 105, 124: executive powers, 90, 93, 124; Parliament's vote on choice of President, 102, 104, 123

European Connnunity (EC): common agricultural policy, 94; democratic accountability in, 93; EEC, 90, 91, 121; and principle of subsidiarity, 92,

Index 145

100; provision for 'own resources'. 94-5. see also European Union

European constitution, 88. 96. 102 European Council: and draft treaty. 97. 98:

and Single European Act. 98; and Maastricht Treaty. 100. 10 I: and Amsterdam Treaty, 102. 103. 104

European Defence Community (1954), 91. 120--1

European Parliament. 87. 89; and 19961GC, 103-4; assent procedure, 99; co­decision procedure. 93. 97, 100. 101 , 104. 105, 123-4; and competences of European Community. 92, 100: conciliation procedure. 95. 10 I: and control of EC budget. '94-5. 123; cooperation procedure, 99, 10 I. 102; development of. 3, 90--3. 122-4; direct elections to, 91-2, 120. 122; and draft treaty for EU. 96-9, 122-4: Institutional Committee. 100. 102

powers, 91-2. 105: delaying. 95-6: legislative, 95, 122-3; over Commission. 90, 93, 96. 102. 123; relating to European Central Bank, 102; of scrutiny. 102; pressure for constitutional revisions, 100--1. 102; and process of European integration, 87, 90-1; relations with Council, 92-3, 97.123-4; and role of Commission, 93; Rules of Procedure. 96, 99; selection of ombudsman, 102; and treaty revisions, 99-105, 122-4

European Parliamentary Union, 88 European Union (EU), xi-xii, 106, 126;

draft treaty, 96-9. 122; economic powers, 105; enlargement of. 126-7; federal powers of, 105''{); Oligins of, 119-20; powers on security, lOS; pre­democratic nature of, 3, 121-2; subsidiarity in. 68-9. see also Council; Court of Justice; European Conununity (EC); European Council; European Parliament

European Union of Federalists, 68 executive: in American constitution

(presidential), 53. 87; in British constitution. 44: in colonial America, 48; parliamentruy. 44. 85. 87. see also Council; European Commission

federal democracy: Gernmn commitment to, 8S"{). 106. 116-18, see also federalism

federal executives: Europe. 87; Germany, 84-5: US administration, 53, see also European Commission

federal monarchy. Burgundian. 7-8, 10-11, 16. 108, 130n

federal system: and division of powers, 54; Dutch Republic, I I. 22, 24-5, 47; European Union. 124-5; United States, 2, 41, 54-5, 67.113-14; West Germany, 84-5, 117-18

federal union. EU as. 106, 125 Federal Union movement. 87. 120 federalism: and European Parliament. 87-8.

89; and Girondins 60-1; Monnet' s concept. 88. 89. 120: Proudhon·s. 66-9; Spinelli's model for EU. 87-8, 96-9. 106, 120. see also federal democracy; federal monarchy; federal system; hamiltonian federalism; proudhonian federalism; provincial autonomy

Federalist, The. 46, 60. 120 Ferri, Enrico, MEP, 98 Finland. 99, 102 First International. 67 Aanders; early democratic elements. 4-8;

and provincial autonomy. 10, 108; rep­resentative institutions. 7. 14; urban nature of. 14, 15

Fontainebleau European Council. 97-8 Fortescue, Sir John, 51 France: centralism in, 59, 60-1; early

national government in. 16; British constitutional monarchy, respect for. 2.112.114

and Europe. 103. 106.121; budgetary control. 94; and draft EU treaty, 97, 122-3; enthusiasm for. 59, 123

and Netherlands: attack on (1672), x, 30, 38-9, 110; influence on modem Netherlands, 19-20. 26; and mediaeval Aanders, 6, 10-11

and postwar Germany. 75, 83, 116; policy on constitution, 84. 86, 117

see also Proudhon Franche-Comte, Swiss influence in. 62, 67 Franco-German partnership, 100-1, 118,

123 Franco-German Treaty (1963), 83 Franklin, Benjamin, 42 freedoms: ancient, 14.3 1; of conscience, 22,

31; four principles of Dutch Republic, 21,31-2.109

146 Foundations of Democracy in .the European Union

French Revolution, \3, 19-20; early aspirations of, 2, 60, 112, 114; tricentenary, 18

Friedrich, Bruno, MEP, 96 Fruin, Robert, historian, 26 Fuchs, Dr, 78 fundamental rights, 58, 121

Gaiotti, Paola, MEP, 96 Galbert of Bruges (diarist), 4, 9, 10 German Protestant states, 38, 112 Germany, 2, 71-2; American occupation

policy, 77-9; Basic Law and Constitution, 84-5, 118; Bundesrat, 84-5,95, \17-18, 122; civil service, 82-3; colonial-constructive paradigm, 71,72, 75-7;de-Nazification, 70, 72, 74-5,79, 116, 137-8n; decentralisa­tion of government, 70-I, 73-4; democratic tradition in, 70, 71, \16; economic restoration, 75-6, 79, 81; education, 83; elections to Lander assemblies, 70, 71, 117

and Europe, 95, 117-18, 122; and EU security, 106; support for draft EU treaty, 12,97; Franco-German partnership, 100-1, \18, 123

Lander governments, 78, 82, 85, \17-18; nature of occupation, 70-I, 72-3, 74,85-6; newspapers, 83, 117; Nuremberg Tribunal, 74-5; popular support for democratic constitution, 85-6, 118; and Potsdam Conference, 73-4; unification of, 65,116

Ghent, 6-7, 8, 129n Girondins, pluralism of, 60, 114 Globke, Hans, 82-3 Glorious Revolution, x, 18; Bill of Rights

(1689), x, 38, 52, Ill; and constitu­tionalism of Declaratioll, 37-8, 39-40, 110-11; effect on ideological divisions, 34-5; historical perspectives on, 34-8, 133n; role of Dutch army, 36,39, 110; tercentenary, 18, 35, see also Parliament, English

Gordon, Thomas, Cato's Letters, 45 government: as despotic oppression

(Proudhon), 64; limits on power of, 53; and theories of human nature, 46-7, see also state

government by consent, concept of, 5-6, 107 Greece, 98, 119 Grotius, Hugo, 44, 51

Guigou, Elisabeth, MEP, 103

Hague Congress, 68, 88-9 Hainaut, representative institutions, 7 Hamilton, Alexander, 46, 57, 67, 112-13,

120 hamiltonian federalism, 67, 69, 87, 113,

120, see also United States Constitution

Hansch, Klaus, MEP, 103 Held, David, 3, 115, 116; and democratic

autonomy, 125-6; and cosmopolitan democracy, 126

Henry I, King of England, 4 Henry V, King of England, 14 HernJan, Fernand, MEP, 98 Hesse, plebiscite, 79 hierarchy, in English society, 33 Hill, Christopher, \33n historical perspectives: on Dutch RepUblic,

26-7; on Glorious Revolution, 34-8, 133n, 134n

Holland (province of): dominance in Dutch Republic, 24, 25, 109; and representa­tive institutions, 7, 25,30

Holy Roman Emperor, in Italy, 16 human nature, theories of, 46-7 human rights, 1; in EU, 121; in Gemlan

Basic Law, 84, 1 J 8; in mediaeval Low Countries, 11-13; in US, 58, 1\3

Hume, David, 46, 112 Hutcheson, Francis, 46 Hynd, John, Minister for Gennany, 80

ideology: and American constitution, 43-7, 57; Whig, 33-4, 110

implied powers, doctrine of, 57 India, liberal democracy in, 119 individualism, 29, 64; in Locke, 44 infonnation technology, and direct

democracy, 125 inter-governmental conferences: on co­

decision and further integration, 102-4; on economic and monetary union, 100-1; on political union, 101; Reflection Group, 102-4; to revise EC treaties, 98-105

interdependence, among nation-states, 3, 112

Ireland, 33, 35, 38, 55 Italy, 65,119; city-states, 6,15-17; and

Europe, 100, 106, 120; and Single European Act, 99; support for draft EU treaty, 97,122

Index 147

I van of Aalst, 5

Jacobins, centralism of, 60-1. 114, 115 James II, King, 35, 36, 39, 110 Japan, liberal democracy in, 119 lay, lohn, 120 lefferson, Thomas, 42, 43, 46, 48, 49 lohn II, Duke of Brabant, 12 Johnson, Stanley, MEP, 96 judicial review, doctrine of, 5, 56, 57 judiciary, independent, 1,44 1 uliana of the Netherlands, Princess, 89 justice, 12; Proudhon's view of, 65

Key, Brian, MEl', 96 Kirkpatrick, I vone, 80 , Kohl, Helmut, 100 Kortenberg, Charter of (1312), 12-13, 15,

129n

Labour Party (Blair administration), 104 Labour Party (British postwar), centralising

tradition, 80-1, 117 Laski, Harold, 2, 115 Latin America, development of democracy

in,119 law, rule of see rule of law law courts, mediaeval, 9 leadership, of kings, x, 14-15 legislation: by German federal parliament,

117-18; in Low Countries, 8-9, 22, see a/so Council of Ministers; European Parliament

legislature: bicameral: American, 52, 53; European,

93,101,104,105,122,124 in colonial America, 48; elections to, 44,

53; independence of, 44 Leicester, Earl of. 27-8 Leiden, siege of, 13 Leonardi, Silvio, MEP, 96 liberal democracy see democracy liberal tradition, Dutch model, 18, 19,31 liberalism. in France. 59-60, 61 libelties, charters of, 12-13, 15 liberty, 18,31,32; as fundamental, 45; and

need for equality, 45. 115; and power, 20,49,65; and role of property, 115, see a/so freedoms; rights

local government: in Dutch Republic, 27; in England, 15; participation in, 2, 66, 116

Locke, lohn, 42, 43, 44, 45, 110; influence of, 60, 62, 112, 115; theory of compact. 51-2

Locker, Hans, MEP, 96 Lothian, Lord, 87 Louis Napoleon, King of Netherlands, 20 Louis VI, King of France, 4, II Louis XIV, King of France, xi, 38, 39, 110 Louisiana, Napoleonic code in, 56 Low Countries, 4, 14; liberal traditions, 7,

18, see also Batavian Republic; Burgundian Netherlands; Dutch Republic; flanders; Netherlands (modem)

Lower Saxony, 82

Maastricht, Treaty of, 101-2, 105, 121, 123 Macaulay, Catherine, History of Eng/and,

46 Macaulay, Thomas Babington, 134n Mackay, Ronald, MP, 89 Macmillan, Harold. 89 Madison, James, 46, 47, 49, 112. 120 Magna Carta (1215), 12, 13, 15 Mansholt, Sicco, 91 Marc. Alexandre, 68 market economy, 126-7 Marshall Aid, 76, 117 Marshall, lohn, US Chief Justice, 57 Martin, David, MEP, 100, 103 Marx, Karl, Proudhon and, 61, 63 Mary of Burgundy, 8 Massachusetts, state constitution, 48, 50, 52 Mitterrand, Fran<;ois, 97, 100, 122 monarchy: absolutist, I, 33-4; constitu-

tional, 1,7,23,26, Ill, 1l3; crowned republic, 41, 56, Ill; and democracy, 6,7; nature of sovereignty,S, 21, 23, 108; and popular sovereignty, 9-10; as unifying, 6-8, see also federal monarchy

Monnet, lean, xi, 59, 68, 90; and federal Europe, 88, 120

Montesquieu, Charles de, 44, 60, 112, 115 Montgomery, Field Marshal Bernard, 80 Moreau, lacques, MEP, 96 Morgenthau, Henry, 77 Munster, Peace of, 24 mutuality: in Proudhon' s vision, 64, 66,

115; in trade unions, 67-8

Napoleon Bonaparte, centralism of, 61, 114 Napoleonic code, 56, 62 nation, relationship to state, 14, 125, l30n

148 Foundations of Democracy in the European Union

nation-state, 119; Britain as early, 14; democracy in, I, 112; and beyond, 2-3, 106, 107, 114, 125

nationalisation of industry, in Germany, 79, 80-1

nationality: and autonomy, 66; in Burgundian Netherlands, 132n

national sovereignty see state sovereignty natural law, 45, 51 Nazism: in civil service, 82-3; criminalisa­

tion of, 70, 72, 74-5, 79, 116, 137-8n Netherlands, 7, 19-20, 119; and EC

budgetary control, 94, 123; influence on development of EU, xii, 97, 106, 122, see also Dutch Republic; Revolt of the Netherlands

New Hampshire Constitution, 50 New Ordinance (1433) (Netherlands), 8 New York, state constitution, 52 newspapers, in Germany, 83, 117 Newton, Sir Isaac, 42, 43 Nine Years' War (1688-97),36 Nord, Hans, MEP, 96 North, Lord, 44 North Rhine-Westphalia, 81, 82 Northern Ireland, 35 nuclear war, threat of, 73 Nuremberg Tribunal, 74--5

oligarchy: in Dutch Republic, 25-6; and nature of popular sovereignty, 29-30

ombudsman, European Parliamentary, 102 Orange, house of, 25, 108, see also William

III ordeal, trial by, 9

Paine, Tom, 113 Paley, William, 51 Parliament, English: effect of Glorious

Revolution on, 26, 36-7, 40, 111-12; House ofComruons, 122; origins and nature of, 14, IS; role in Glorious Revolution, 34--5, 38, llO-II; sovereignty of, 8, 43-4, 122

parlianlentary control of budget, 52; after Glorious Revolution, 26, III; in Dutch Republic, 26, 94, 123; in European Union, 93-5, 105, 123

parliamentary sovereignty, 43-4, 55, 107; rejected by Americans, 49, 113

parliaments: Estates General (Low Countries), 7, 14; of EU member states, 97, see also Parliament, English; European Parliament

participatory democracy, 2, 107, 116, 125; in economic and social organisations, 2, 116; need for equality, 125-6

particularism, 66 Patijn, Schelto, MEP, 91 Patton, General George, 79 Pearl Harbor (1941), 57 Pennsylvania, state constitution, 50, 53 people: as organic whole, 29, see also

popular sovereignty personalism, 115, 116 Pfenning, Gero, MEP, 96 Pflimlin, Pierre, MEP, 98 Philadelphia Convention, 52-3, 87, 88,

112-13 Philip of Alsace, Count, 9, 15 Philip, Andre, 90 Philip the Good, King, 7, I I Philip II, of Spain, 2, 7; his sovereignty

denied (1581), 20, 23, 27,108, 129n philosophy, AnglO-American links, 42 Pinckney, Charles, 48 Pinckney, Charles Cotes worth (cousin), 48 pluralism, I, 18,20,31, 116 political parties: in America, 56-7; and

MEPs, 92, 97; in postwar Germany, 78-9,81, 1l7, see also Tories; Whigs

Polybius, 44 popular sovereignty, 1-2,46; in American

Constitution, 50, 51-2, 53, 107, 113-14; and democracy, 29, 32, 113-14; in Dutch Republic, 21, 24, 28-9; in mediaeval Flanders, 9-10

popular unrest. Dutch Republic's approach to. 27, 32

P0l1ugal, 119 Potsdam Conference. 73-4 power: given by social contract, 114; and

liberty, 20. 49, 65; protection of. 60-1 powers: European ConmlUnity, 92, 100;

implied, 57; US federal, 52-3, 54, see also separation of powers

Prag, Derek, MEP, 96 Prague, communist coup (1948), 84, 117 pre-democratic institutions, I, 2; in

European Community and Union, 3, 120-5,127; in mediaeval Low Countries, 107-8, see also Dutch Republic; Flanders

pre-federal European institutions, 120, 124 Price, Richard, 46 Priestley, Joseph, 46 prope11y, absolutist view of, 62, liS

Index 149

Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph, 2, ch. 6 (passim), 115, 116; Dli Principe federatif, 2, 67; on function of state, 65-6, 115; on property, 62. 63. 115; rule of contract. 63-4; and self-government. 66. 67; use of word 'anarchy'. 63, 64

proudhonian federalism 2, 62-3, 66-9, 115-16

Prout. Sir Christopher. MEP, 99 provincial autonomy; in Dutch Republic. 22.

24-5,31; in mediaeval Flanders. 10-13,24, 108

public duty, 44-5. 46-7,51 public opinion: and Glorious Revolution.

34-5,37,38; and perception of European Parliament, 92

Pufendorf, Samuel von, 51,112.116 puritanism, influence in America. 44-5. 51

qualified majority voting, 100, 103. 104. 106, 122. 124

radicals, and American constitution. 46 Ramadier, Paul. 89 Reeve, Tapping. Judge. 56 Reflection Group. to prepare 1996 IGC,

102-4 Reformation. 13 regents. Dutch Republic. 23-7, 39, 40. 109 religion: in English ci vii wm·. 14; freedom

of conscience, 22; uniformity, 33, see also puritanism; William III

representative government. I, 18, 21; in Europe, 87, 93.121-2; and extension of democracy. 114; indirect (Council of Ministers). 122, 124; in US constitution. 53. see also democracy; European Parliament; Parliament

representative institutions: in British tradition. 14.30,113; in Dutch RepUblic, 24, 29-30; in Flanders, 7, 108, 130n; and participatory democracy, 125

repUblicanism: and concept of duty, 44-5, 46-7,51; as fundamental American principle, 44, 50; mediaeval, 6-7

Restoration (of English monarchy 1660),33 Revolt of the Netherlands, 7,13-14,21-3 Reynaud, Paul, 89 rights: in American Constitution, 52, 58;

citizens', 107, 121; of Englishmen, 48, 58,112,113-14; in European Union, 121; in Gennan Basic Law, 118; of people against government, 45, 46. see

also Bill of Rights; freedoms; human rights

Rittenhouse, David, 42 Robbins, Lionel. 87 Robertson, General Sir Brian, 80 Roman Republic, political traditions, 44 Rome, Treaty of, 90, 120-1 Roosevelt, F.D., 73 Rougemont, Denis de, 68 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 60, 114 rule of law, 4-5, 18, 107; and EU Court of

Justice, 87, 12l. 124; rights-based, I, 12-13

Russell, Lord, 33 Russian Revolutions (1917),13,68 Rutledge, John, 48 Rye House Plot (1683), 33

Saint-Simon, Claude de, 68 Sandys, Duncan, MP, 89 Scandinavia, 7, 119 Schaffer, Fritz, 79 Schleswig-Holstein, 82 Schumacher, Kurt, 80, 85 Schuman Declaration (1950), 119 Schuman Plan, for ECSC, 88 Schuman, Robert, 59, 68 science, Anglo-American links, 42 Scotland, 33, 55; William Ill's Declaration

for, 37 Scottish Enlightenment, 46 security, EU federal powers on, 10 I, 105-6,

124-5 Seefeld, Horst, MEP, 96 Seeler, Hans-Joachim, MEP, 96 separation of powers, 44, 46, 52; in

American constitution, 53, 54 Shaftesbury, 3rd Earl of, 34 Shawcross, Lord, 75 Single European Act, 98-9, 100, 105, 121,

123 single European currency, 100, 106 single European market, 98, 100, 123 Smith, Adam, 47 Social Chapter (Amsterdam Treaty), 104,

126 social contract, 51; Rousseau, 60, 114 Social Democrats (SPD) (Germany), 81, 82,

85,117 socialism, influence of Proudhon on, 68 South Carolina, state constitution, 50 sovereignty: concept of, 23; divided, 54; in

Dutch Republic 25-9, 108-9, see also parliamentary sovereignty; popular

150 Foundations of Democracy in the European Union

sovereignty; state (national) sovereignty

Soviet Union, 2; Berlin blockade, 76-7; and postwar Gemlany, 72, 84, 86, 116, 117

Spaak, Paul-Henri, 68 Spain, 7, 119; and Revolt of Netherlands,

13, 14, 108 Spinelli, Altiero: and European constitution,

96-9, 120, 122; federalism of, 87-8 stadholder: limits on, 26, 31; role in Dutch

Republic, 25-6, 30, 38-9; sovereign rights of, 25-6, 108-9

Stalin, Joseph, 73, 76-7, 84 state: relationship to nation, 14, 125, 132n;

role of, 5, 60-1, 65-6; sovereignty, 10, 119,125

states see EU member-states; nation-states; United States of America

States General (Dutch Republic), 24-5; and Act of Abjuration (1581), 22-3, 108; claim to sovereignty, 27-8, 29; relationship to provinces, 28; and William Ill's invasion, 39-40

states' house: Bundesrat, 84-5,117-18, 122; Council of Ministers, 87, 88-90, 93, 122, 124; US Senate, 53-4

Strang, Sir William, 80 Stuttgart Solemn Declaration, 98 subsidiarity, principle of, 68-9, 92, 100, 116 Sweden, 99, 102 Switzerland, 119; and federalism, 2, 47, 67,

115 Sydney, Algernon, 33

tariffs, EC common external, 94 taxation: Dutch Republic, 22, 24, 109, 129n;

limitations on, 12-13; in mediaeval Flanders, 5; US federal, 54, 113; William III and Parliament, 36, III, see also parliamentary control of budget

Templer, General Gerald, 71 Thierry of Alsace, 4, 15 Tindemans, Leo, MEP, 96 Tocqueville, Alexis de, 59, 61, 62, 114, 115 tolerance: in Dutch Republic, 31; England,

39; principle of, xi, 18, 20 Tories, principles, 33-4, 110 Tournai, bishop of, 12 trade unions, in postwar Germany, 81-2,

117, see also workers' movement transnational institutions, 119, 127 Trenchard, John, Cato's Letters, 45-6 Trevor-Roper, Hugh, 134n

Truman, Harry, US President, 73. 75-6. 77

unanimity rule: in Council of Ministers, 92-3, 105. 122; in Dutch States . General, 24. 109

United Kingdom: complexity of. 41, 55; as crowned republic. 41. 56. III

and Europe: and development ofEU Parliament, 89, 99. 103, 104. 106; and federal constitution. 88. 98, 120; inter-governmental view, 89; relations with ECIEU. 106. 122, 127

and postwar Gernlany, 71, 78. 79-84. 116; constitution. 84-5. 117; cultural policy. 83; de-Nazification. 138n; economic restoration. 75; state ownership of indusliy, 79. 80-1 ; trade unions. 81-2

refonus. political. 55-6; transatlantic links, 42-9. see also British Constitution; England; Parliament. English

United Provinces, Republic of see Dutch Republic

United States of America; and British tradition, 41, 42-9, 112-13; Civil War. 67; early Congress. 52; exceptional­ism. 41; federal system. 2. 4 I. 54-5. 67, 113-14; French Revolutionary view of, 60; political influences in. 45-7; political parties. 56-7

and postwar Germany: constitution. 84-5.86.117. 118; economic restoration, 75-7. 116-17; occu­pation policy. 70-1, 77-9, 116. 117

Stamp Act Congress (1765). 48; state constitutions. 50, 51, 52. 54-5, 113. see also United States Constitution

United States Constitution (1787). 50; checks and balances, 52. 53-4; civil society and, 114; Constitutional Convention (1787). 52-3; divided sovereignty. 54; doctrine of implied powers, 57; federal powers in. 52-3, 55; modification of. 55. 56-7; and popular sovereignty. 1-2,51-2.53. 107.113-14; powers of president. 56; conffi1on law in. 56; Senate and electoral college. 53; separation of powers in. 52

Utrecht, Union of (1579). 10. 22, 31

Vattel, Emmerich de, 44 Vedel. Georges. 91

Index 151

Verdun, Treaty of (AD 843), II Virginia. state constitution. 50 Virginia Declaration of Rights. 51 Vissentini, Bruno. MEP. 96 Voltaire, 42. 112 Vranck. Franchois. 28-9

Wales. 55 wars. British enthusiasm for, 14-15 Washington, George. 46, 56 Westphalia, Treaties of (1648), II; and state

sovereignty, 119 Whigs: ideology. 33--4. 110; view of

Glorious Revolution. 34-5. 110-11. 133n. 134n

Wieczorek-Zeul. Heidi, MEP, 96 Wilkes. Thomas. memorandum on

sovereignty (1587). 28 Willem I ('the Silent'). 25. 108 Willem III see William III

William III. King. x-xi . 35-{); constitution­alism of. 110, III; Declaration (October 1688), 37-8, 40; Declaratioll for Scotland. 37; Dutch traditions of. 18,19.26; and religious tolerance. 35. see also Glorious Revolution

Wilson. James, 49 Wogau. Karl von. MEP. 96 Wootton. Barbara. 87 workers' movement, Proudhon's influence

on, 67-8, 115

Ypres,6, 129n

Zecchino. Ortensio, MEP 96 Zeeland. provincial autonomy, 24 Zeeland. Paul van, 89 Zhukov. General. 81

bzdex compiled by Auriol Griffith-Jones