FM 10-27

CHAPTER 1SUPPLYING THE THEATER OF OPERATIONS

Section IPRE-WAR SUPPLY SUPPORT

WAR RESERVE STOCKSWar reserve stocks are stocks acquired in peace-time to meet the increased military requirementsthat occur when war breaks out. War reservessupport mobilization requirements and sustainoperations until resupply can be established andexpanded. War reserve stocks include decrementedstocks, contingency stocks, and the types of itemsfound in the various theater reserve stocks. AR 11-11cites required stockage levels. An example is pre-positioned materiel configured to unit sets main-tained in oversea areas. Policies and proceduresfor the management of war reserves are describedin AR 710-1.

Pre-Positioned War Reserve StocksIn a theater, the theater commander manages pre-positioned stocks. According to DA policy and guide-lines, war reserve stocks may be pre-positionedoversea, on ships, or in areas within CONUS.

Oversea war reserves. These war reserves arepositioned throughout a potential theater. Theysupport post D-day combat consumption untilsupplies arrive from CONUS or other theater stor-age areas. Most war reserves are positioned in theCOMMZ. A maximum of 10 days of supplies arepositioned in forward deployed corps andTAACOM units for the transition to war. Duringpeacetime, these stocks are controlled by a theaterarmy. At or near the start of hostilities, they arereleased to the corps and TAACOMs where theyare stored.

Supplies pre-positioned on ships. As part of theNear-Term Pre-Positioning Force, the US has char-tered merchant ships which remain on station.These ships will join with the equipment pre-positioned at sea and then proceed to troublespots. Vessels and cargo undergo cyclic inspection

and maintenance to ensure good readiness posture.They can also provide selected sustaining sup-plies for Air Force and Army units.

CONUS war reserves. War reserves are held inCONUS when they cannot be pre-positioned at ornear the point of probable conflict. Reserves maybe held in CONUS depots for a specific force,area, or operational project. They may also be heldfor use as contingency support stocks.

Other War Reserve Materiel StocksThese stocks consist of all other war reserve items.They include Class VII major end items, secondary enditems, and repair parts. These assets will have purposecodes of C, D, or E, as explained in AR 725-50.

DeploymentDuring the early portion of the mounting phase,supplies must be brought up to required levels.Assault forces must be self-sustaining until theywithdraw or link up with ground forces. In theevent of a contingency or airhead operation, divi-sion elements deploy with prescribed amounts ofall classes of accompanying supplies. These sup-plies are taken into the objective area by bothassault and follow-on echelons. Three days ofsupply are desired in the airhead. The minimumsafety level is two days. During the initial phaseof deployment, this is the only source of resupply.Emergency resupply will likely be limited to ClassI, III, and V items. Before beginning an operation,commanders should ensure that--

Equipment shortages are made up. Reserve stocks of critical items are estab-

lished. Priorities are established for issue of float

stocks and other controlled Class II, IV, and VII items.

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Procedures and policies are establishedfor aerial supply of Class I, III packaged, and V items.

Procedures and channels for recovery,evacuation, and disposition of captured or aban-doned items are reviewed.

Data on availability and capability of trans-portation is available.For more details on logistics preparation of thebattlefield, see FM 10-1, Chapter 2.

PRE-POSITIONED MATERIELCONFIGURED TO UNIT SETS

Pre-positioning part of a CONUS-based unit’sequipment in an oversea theater reduces strategiclift requirements. This results in a quicker reac-tion time for a combat unit to meet a contingency.POMCUS items, consisting primarily of ClassVII weapons systems, are located at storage sites,which are manned by a US Army combat equip-ment group.

INITIAL PREPLANNED SUPPLY SUPPORTInitial preplanned supply support is the combat-essential materiel required early in a militaryoperation. Precut requisitions are maintained atCONUS NICPs or TAMMCs. When alerted fordeployment, a unit directs the NICP, MMC, orDAAS to release preplanned increments of 5 to 15DOS. These increments help sustain deployedforces between the time accompanying supplies andpre-positioned stocks are exhausted and demand-supported resupply starts in a theater of operations.For more details, see AR 725-50, Chapter 12.

HOST-NATION SUPPORTHNS is the civil and military assistance providedby host nations to allied forces and organizations.This support may occur in time of peace, transi-tion to war, or war. As a rule, the location of forceson the battlefield determines whether you can useHNS. The rearmost areas are ideal for this sup-port. Corps rear areas and echelons above corpsare more static and lend themselves to HNS. How-ever, in an undeveloped theater, HNS may be usedwherever needed. AR 570-9 has DA policies andresponsibilities for HNS. In the past, US forces

relied on organic support. Today, logisticians mustkeep abreast of agreements on how their allies canhelp support the battle logistically.

AgreementsInternational agreements document commitmentsfor HNS. Through agreements, the host nationsets forth its intent and willingness to support USrequirements. For example, will host-nation civil-ians remain at war reserve storage sites after hos-tilities begin? Is the host nation to retain territo-rial responsibility and control of supply ports, railfacilities, and airspace? It may be that the hostnation will turn over control of MSRs to anothernation or alliance. Host-nation transport could beused to move supplies from seaports to GSUs andbeyond. Support available in a given theater willdepend on the host-nation’s political climate; na-tional laws; industrial development; and military,civilian, and commercial resources. Laundry, tex-tile renovation, and CEB are CSS services which hostnations could provide. These services would, in turn,affect Class II stockage and supply flow procedures.

Reasonably Assured HNSSupport based on signed national agreements,plans, or other acceptable documents maybe con-sidered reasonably assured support. Such supportaffects the size and composition of our forcesupport structure and, in turn, affects deploymentplans, demand forecasts, and supply stockage levels.

Prudent Risk HNSThis is the risk that we accept as to the amount ofsupport which may be provided to US forces.Army staff officers must consider the minimumforce structure needed to meet and remain respon-sive to mission requirements. The theater com-mander, in coordination with HQDA, must deter-mine the types and levels of HNS that can beaccepted without placing mission accomplishmentat an unnecessary risk.

Contingency ContractingSupplies and services may be available in somenations where no HNS agreements are in place.

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Contingency contracting may provide this source.Whereas HNS represents government-to-governmentagreements, contingency contracting is conducteddirectly with local businessmen or firms. Recentexperiences have shown the value of local con-tracting to support the initial deployment phase ofUS forces. All the limitations noted above forHNS remain valid, however; and contingency con-tracting must be considered as primarily a short-term source.

TRANSITION TO WARThe transition phase begins with advance warningof an impending war. It continues until SEALOChave been reopened and the necessary logisticsstructure is in place to sustain war. During thetransition phase, all supplies and logistics func-tions nonessential to the war effort must be elimi-nated. The SSA initiates selective cancellationaction on requisitions deemed nonessential forcombat and unnecessary for individual health andwelfare. For example, certain health and safetyitems, such as toilet paper, though not in the pre-positioned war reserve materiel stocks and notcoded combat essential, must be requisitionedbecause they are essential for health reasons. Pro-cedures for preparing and processing cancellationdocuments are covered in AR 725-50, Chapters 3and 4. Canceling nonessential requisitions lessensthe strain on ADP equipment. It also reduces thenumber of requisitions on CSS units which mustdistribute CONUS war reserves, fill unit short-ages, and equip all forces on deployment alert. Onmobilization day, selected general supplies areremoved from storage and transported to forwardareas. Initially, combat forces must rely on ac-companying basic loads, oversea war reserves,and air delivery of Class IX and maintenance-related Class II items. An emergency airlift ofgeneral supply items, normally shipped by SEALOCand surface transport, will probably be necessary.

Corps Transition SupportForward deployed corps, COSCOM, andTAACOM units stock a maximum of 10 days of

pre-positioned war reserve materiel stocks whichconsist of Class I supplies; selected Class II, III,IV, V, and VII supplies; and Class IX items notdelivered by air. This enables the corps to supportunits through D+10. After these stocks are ex-hausted, the corps requisitions from the TAMMC,which directs the TAACOM to issue from itstheater army area GSUs. These war reserves be-come the corps initial wartime ASL. The corpsthen becomes the source of surface resupply fordivisional and nondivisional DSUs. The corpsalso makes the transition to war with a 30-daysupply of essential, air-eligible, maintenance-relatedClass II, III packaged, and IX items.

TAACOM Transition Support

At the direction of the theater army commander,the TAMMC releases preplanned packages of surface-delivered supplies to the TAACOM. TAACOMGSUs are the main source of surface supply forTAACOM DSUs and for units passing through theCOMMZ. Though managed by the TAMMC, warreserves are stored in TAACOM GSUs. Like thecorps, the TAACOM goes to war with a 30-daysupply of GS, maintenance-related Class II andClass IX items delivered by ALOC. These sup-plies support materiel operating in the COMMZand repair of items evacuated to the rear.

Requisition and Materiel FlowIn peacetime, divisional, COSCOM, andTAACOM DS and GS units are resupplied by DSS from CONUS. During the transition-to-war phase, the units are resupplied from the 30 days of sus-taining theater army stocks in TAACOM GSUs.As required, the TAMMC calls forward preplannedsupply packages from CONUS depots. As thetactical situation changes, the TAMMC may re-quest modifications in these supply packages.

Requests. In the BSA and the DSA, using unitssubmit requests to the supply point run by theirsupporting DSU. If possible, high-priority re-quests are filled, and the DMMC is notified of thefill. All other requests are transrnitted to the DMMC. If

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a request is for a controlled item, the DMMC transmitsa requisition through the CMMC to the TAMMC.

Issue. Supplies are issued from the lowest level. Ifthe item is on hand in a DSU, the MMC cuts anMRO directing the DSU to issue the item. (Mainsupply points may be directed to issue the item toa forward supply point. ) If the item is not on handat a DSU but is on hand at a GSU, the MMC directsthe GSU to issue the item to the DSU.

Requisition. When the item is NOT on hand in theDSA, the DMMC prepares and transmits a requi-sition to the CMMC. When the item is NOT onhand in the corps rear area, the CMMC transmits

the requisition to the TAMMC which queries theTAACOM MMC. When the item is not availableat a TAACOM GSU or DSU, the TAACOM MMCtransmits the requisition to the TAMMC. TheTAMMC transmits replenishment requisitions andany requisitions for items not on hand in thetheater to the appropriate NICP. The NICP cuts anMRO directing a depot to issue the item. In anemergency, the item may be airlifted to the the-ater. However, most general supply items areshipped by surface transport to the theater. Whenpossible, supplies are throughput to DSUs. Otheritems are transported by HNS or transportationcommand assets to a TAACOM GSU. For moredetails and graphics, see FM 10-1, Chapter 5.

Section IISUPPLY SUPPORT DURING SUSTAINED OPERATIONS

WARTIME SUPPLY STOCKAGE LEVELSAdequate stockage levels help the transition towar and ensure sustainability during hostilities.DA prescribes stockage objectives for the theaterin terms of DOS. Initial stockage is based onexpected usage rates. After the war begins, rangeand depth of stockage are adjusted to meet war-time demand criteria. Quantities are computedbased on actual or expected demand, OST, andsafety levels. GSUs normally maintain a wartimesustaining level of 5 to 10 DOS plus OST for allclasses except Class II and IX items to be deliv-ered by ALOC. However, to provide sustainedsupply support, the theater army commander mayallow up to 30 days of critical Class II and IXitems to be stocked.

Direct Support UnitsDSUs at all levels in division, corps, and TAACOMstock an RO for general supplies consisting of a30-day operating level, a 5-day safety level, andactual OST by item. Stockage levels for all otherclasses are prescribed by the theater army com-mander. Stockage levels at corps and TAACOM

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GSUs vary depending on the class of supply. AR 710-2shows the DOS for each class of general supply.

War Reserve Stockage ListThe war reserve stockage list identifies itemswhich are to be maintained as war reserve stocks.The list is used to compute war reserve require-ments essential to sustain combat and to supportsudden mobilization requirements.

DIRECT SUPPORT SYSTEMGeneral supplies, Class II, III packaged, IV, andVII, are distributed through a DSS. This supplydistribution system is described in FMs 38-725-1and 63-4. Under this supply distribution system,supplies are throughput from CONUS wholesaledepots to the requesting SSA. Throughput re-duces the need for an intermediate supplylevel. Theater SSAs supported by the DSS includeDSUs and GSUs. For related automated proce-dures, see the appropriate 38-series TM. Unitssend requests to their SSA. Requisitions are trans-mitted from the SSA to the MMC. They are edited

FM 10-27

for validity and PD. For selected items, theTAMMC screens theater assets to determine ifrequisitions with PDs 01 through 03 and NMCSrequisitions can be filled from assets on handwhich are below the 30-day safety level or warreserve stockage level. If there are safety level orreserve stocks on hand in the theater, the requisi-tions are filled. Partial issues can also be made.CMMCs, TAACOM, MMCs, and TAMMCs trans-mit requisitions to CONUS NICPs. An imagecopy of all transactions is maintained in the LIFdata bank. The inventory control point thentransceives an MRO to the supporting distributiondepot when depot assets are available. An MRO iscut only on assets reported on hand. Consolida-tion and containerization points pack cargo ac-cording to theater distribution plans. Container-ized shipments are then moved to the port ofembarkation. Class IX and maintenance-relatedClass II DSS cargo is transported by ALOC. Allother cargo is shipped to the theater by surfacetransportation. When supplies reach the theaterport, MCCs coordinate with MMCs on routing.Routing instructions are based on transport assets,routes, and the tactical situation. Shipping con-tainers or pallets are then transported to the requi-sitioning SSA or supply point. If possible, ship-ments are routed directly to the requisitioner.Containerized cargo en route at the outbreak ofhostilities may be diverted to the appropriate GSU.

SEALIFT AND CONTAINERIZEDSURFACE DISTRIBUTION

The logistics of rapidly supplying and sustainingforces and other US government agencies de-ployed in areas where little or no pre-positionedmateriel is on hand or where no HNS is assured isstaggering. More than 90 percent of all wartimecargo tonnage will go by sea, regardless of wherethe conflict is. With the exception of Class IX andmaintenance-related Class II items, general sup-plies arrive in the theater through seaports in 20-and 40-foot general cargo containers. Nearly allgeneral supplies are shipped to the theater andtransported within the theater in containers. Closeto 75 percent of Class IV items can be containerized.

Only 20 percent of Class VII items can be shippedin containers.

ContainerizationIntermodal container service is the preferredmethod of shipping DOD-sponsored surface cargo. Container resources of the commercial transporta-tion industry are used when they are responsive tomilitary requirements. When commercial contain-ers do not meet military requirements, DOD-ownedor leased containers may be used. Therefore, Army-owned containers and container-handling equipmentmust be compatible with commercial containerships, transporters, and handling equipment. Ad-vantages in shipping supplies in containers in-clude:

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Shorter time required to prepare shipments.Lower freight cost.Less breakage.Reduced documentation.Less pilferage.Better accountability.Less ADP effort.

Seaport FacilitiesFixed-port terminals provide suitable facilities tooff-load containers and transfer them to inlandtransportation modes. Use fixed-port facilities tothe maximum extent possible. They can dischargemany containers rapidly, are equipped with container-handling equipment, and are located close to in-land transportation hubs. Logistics over-the-shoreoperations can be used with fixed-port operationsif berthing space is limited. See FM 55-17 formore details on terminal operations.

Fixed-port terminals. Equipped with modernMHE, these terminals are usually located at ornear rail- or truck-loading sites. Commercial op-erators handle military container operations atfixed ports. The host nation may continue to oper-ate existing facilities during wartime. For plan-ning purposes, container ships may be dischargedand back loaded at the pier in 24 to 48 hours.Transportation terminal service companies areorganized to discharge and load containers. A

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shore-based crane can pick up and position con-tainers in three varying amounts per day depend-ing on its make. The most efficient cranes canposition as many as 40 containers per hour.

Logistics over-the-shore operations. Extra timeand resources are needed to move containers fromships to and across the beach. Crane ships off-loadcontainers to lighters. Lighters transport cargo toa beach transfer point. Terminal service compa-nies are assigned the mission of discharge, loading,and beach operations. Trailers transport contain-ers from the beach or shore to container marshal-ing areas and long-haul truck-loading points.

Roll-on, roll-off cargo ships. Fully loaded trail-ers maybe driven aboard especially designed cargoships. This type of container ship can transport900 to 1,500 containers. Trailers are hooked up totractors and driven ashore at the oversea terminal.

Supply DistributionMost of the cargo unloaded at seaports will bemoved initially to TAACOM GSUs whose stocksare managed by the TAMMC. Some cargo may betransported to TAACOM DSUs. Whenever fea-sible, supplies should be throughput from seaport ormarshaling areas to corps and division supply echelons.

Container Surface DistributionCommercial and military containers (20 and 40foot) transport supplies from CONUS directly toGSUs in the COMMZ and corps rear area and toDSUs throughout the theater. Part of the 30-dayCOMMZ general supplies may be temporarilystored in containers. Twenty-foot containers areused primarily in intratheater loops between GSUsand from GSUs to DSUs and DISCOM units.High-priority cargo and intensively managed high-cost Class VII items may be shipped in containersfrom CONUS and transported by truck directly toDSUs and DISCOMs. Units have 48 hours to stripand return containers to the transportation system.

Automated Control and SupportThe DA Standard Port System-Enhanced providesautomated support for water terminal operations

during war as well as during peace. It provides manage-ment data on inbound and retrograde shipments. Thetheater army MCA maintains information on thelocation and status of all containers in the theater.It coordinates with the TAMMC on priorities forcontainer shipments and reconsignment.

RAIL NETWORKS ANDINLAND WATERWAYS

Road networks may be inadequate for the volumeof traffic required to move units and sustainmentforward and to evacuate damaged equipment andcombat casualties. Using host-nation rail networksand inland waterways to move a portion of re-quirements can help alleviate potential conges-tion. Movement planners should plan for the use of railand inland water modes when available and feasible.

Rail NetworksThough vulnerable to enemy aircraft, guerrillaactions, and sabotage, rail is the best mode tomove large quantities of supplies and equipmentover extended distances. For more details on railoperations, see FM 55-20.

Inland WaterwaysInland waterways help suppliers move cargo froman ocean terminal to an inland transfer point notaccessible to ships with a deep draft. Using inlandwaterways relieves congested road networks andreduces the number of vehicles required to supplycombat forces. For more details on Army watertransport operations, see FM 55-50.

AIR DELIVERY OF SUPPLIESAir transportation is a flexible and essential ele-ment of the transportation system. It becomesincreasingly important as the intensity, depth,and duration of operations increase. Both theArmy and Air Force provide air transportation.Army aviation in CSS air movement operationsincludes:

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Support for intratheater airlift.Logistics over-the-shore operations.Troop and personnel movements.Aerial preplanned and immediate resupply.

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Movement of critical Class IX and maintenance-related Class II supplies.

Retrograde of reparables.Pre-positioning of fuel and ammunition.

• Movement of low-density and high-costmunitions when time, distance, situation, or con-dition of the roads inhibits ground transportation.Air Force airlift and airdrop supplement the Army’stransportation capability. They can be viable modesfor CSS movement requirements under certaincircumstances. However, they require much longerlead times to plan and coordinate than Army airliftassets. Army aviation assets are allocated by thetheater army, corps, and division commanders tosupport CSS air movement operations. Once allo-cated, these assets are committed by the TAMCA,MCC, and MCO. Air Force aircraft are appor-tioned by the joint force commander. The AirForce provides the aircraft, civil air patrol ser-vices, and the personnel and equipment to load theaircraft. The Army provides the supplies, rigsthem as necessary, transports them to the airfield,and off-loads them from ground transport. TheQM airdrop equipment repair and supply companysupplies airdrop equipment. The light and heavyairdrop supply company prepares supplies for air-drop. FM 10-512 shows how to prepare and rigtypical supply loads of bulk material on platformsfor airdrop.

Airlift RequestsFM 100-27 shows the flow of requests for airlift ofsupplies. FM 55-10 provides detailed request pro-cedures for both Army and Air Force airlift. Re-quest formats vary by oversea command based onstandardization agreements, but generally containthe data elements found on DD Form 1974.

Sling-Load OperationsFM 55-40, Appendix G, describes responsibilitiesfor loading equipment in support of air transportoperations. Supporting unit personnel requisitionslings, A-22 bags, cargo nets, and containersneeded for sling-load operations. The supportingunit selects the pickup zone and provides groundcrews to pack, rig, and inspect loads and to hook

up the loads to the helicopter. It also provides thereceiving unit with derigging and disposition in-structions. The using unit selects the landing zone,derigs the load, and coordinates the recovery of airdelivery items with the supporting unit. The usingunit also inspects and maintains the slings.

Recovery and Evacuationof Air Delivery Equipment

Airdrop operations require special rigging equip-ment to deliver supplies. Air delivery equipmentis expensive, in short supply, and hard to replace.Increased requirements for air delivery dictatethat air delivery equipment be recovered and evacu-ated to the QM airdrop equipment repair andsupply company. Recovery and evacuation priori-ties are listed in TM 10-500-7.

GROUND MOVEMENT OF SUPPLIESMovement control organizations at all echelonsplan the movement of supplies by all surfacemodes. Planning has two parts. First is the devel-opment of the distribution pattern, which consid-ers the location of supported units, supply activities,and transportation units and facilities. Second isthe development of the transportation networkand movement programming to satisfy the dailyprogrammed and unprogrammed requirements.More details on ground movement of supplies arein FM 55-10.

Transportation PlanningTransportation planners must consider the physi-cal transportation network and facilities avail-able, the size and disposition of the supportedforces, and the location of the primary in-theatersupply activities in their plans. They should selectseaports, aerial ports, and rail and road networksto make it easy to distribute personnel and mate-riel into the area of operations. The facilities andnetworks selected must accommodate the expectedvolume of movement. When the facilities or net-works are not well developed, the planner mustinfluence the placement of the supported force andthe location of supply and maintenance activitiesso that the operation can be supported with the

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transportationtransportationfollowing:

resources available. The size of thesupport structure depends on the

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Size of the force to be supported.Expected tonnage to be received and moved.Number of facilities (water ports, aerial

ports, mode transfer points, and trailer transferpoints) used.

Physical size of the area to be supported.

Movements Plan and ProgramThe movements program is a result of movementsplanning. The program is prepared jointly by theMCC and the MMC at each echelon.

The movements plan. The movements plan in-cludes a forecast of movement requirements andthe available transport capability. Both require-ments and capabilities are in general terms. Whenthe plan is coordinated and approved, specifictransportation resources are allocated against spe-cific movement requirements. The movements planthen becomes the movements program. The threemajor logistics levels (division, corps, and TAA)shouldgrams.

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have mutually supporting movements pro-The seven basic steps in planning are:Assessing the distribution pattern.Determining movement requirements.Determining transportation capabilities.Balancing requirements against capabilities.Determining shortfalls.Recommending solutions.Coordinating, publishing, and distributing

the plan.

The movements program. The movements pro-gram period varies with the stability of the situa-tion and the ability of supply and personnel man-agers to forecast their requirements. Forecastsmust be submitted far enough in advance for thetransportation and supply systems to adjust theirresources to carry out the program. A desirablecycle for the program is 14 days, for which there is a firmforecast of requirements for the initial 7-day period anda tentative forecast for the succeeding 7-day period.

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Daily adjustments should be made only for urgentunforecasted requirements.

Movement ControlThe MCC or MCA controls transportation assetsin the theater. The theater army MCA, MCC, andMCO control transportation assets by allocatingand committing available transportation resourcesto satisfy movement requirements. They allocateand commit based on their commander’s priori-ties. Transportation priorities are established byrequired delivery date, the issue priority of thecargo, or by preestablished command priorities byunit or commodity. When movement requirementsexceed capabilities, movement planners requestsupport from higher headquarters.

Movement control teams. MCTs are assigned tothe corps MCC and TAMCA. They are positionedin the corps and COMMZ to allow close andconstant coordination with the units they support.In the corps, MCTs are collocated with each CSG.They also operate in a geographic area or at spe-cific sites to expedite, coordinate, and monitortraffic moving through the transportation system.MCTs process movement requests and arrangetransportation for moving personnel and materiel.They receive and process programmed andunprogrammed transportation requests. They com-mit mode operators for programmed movementsor select the mode for unprogrammed movements.The MCTs support highway regulation by receiv-ing and passing clearance requests for movementon controlled MSRs. They also enforce movementpriorities, monitor container use, and help customers.

Highway regulation. Highway regulation is aresponsibility of the commander having area ju-risdiction. He and his staff plan, schedule, route,and direct the use of highways. The MCC’s high-way traffic division regulates highway traffic.Subordinate highway regulating point teams carryout highway regulation plans. MPs support high-way traffic regulation by performing traffic, strag-gler, and refugee control activities. Regulatedmovements include convoys, oversized or overweightvehicles, vehicles moving by infiltration, and troop

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movements on foot. Responsibilities of the high-way traffic division and its highway regulatingpoint teams include circulation planning, routing,and scheduling of traffic. The traffic plan portraysthe road network and how it is to be used andmaintained. The plan normally includes restric-tive route features; route designations; directionof movement; and locations of boundaries, units,highway regulating points, traffic control points,

and major supply or shipping activities. Traffic isrouted over designated routes to balance the ve-hicle and route characteristics (road surfaces,curves, and bridge capacities) and to reduce trafficcongestion or conflicts. Traffic scheduling is thecoordination of times for movement along speci-fied routes to satisfy command movement priori-ties; minimize delays, conflicts, and congestion;and promote security and passive defense.

Section III

SUPPLY SUPPORT FOR DIFFERENT TACTICAL OPERATIONS

AIRLAND BATTLE DOCTRINEAirLand battle is the Army’s basic operationalconcept for fighting the next war. AirLand battledoctrine emphasizes the need for coordinated airand ground actions. It includes plans for threesimultaneous operations--deep, close, and rear.AirLand battle can enable a well-organized, smallforce to defeat a poorly organized, larger force.The four tenets of AirLand battle are initiative,depth, agility, and synchronization. See Table 1-1.These principles apply to all levels of conflict,including low-intensity conflict which primarilyinvolves peacekeeping and counteracting terroristactivities. For more details on AirLand battle, see

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provide support to AirLand battle by--• Ensuring continued logistical support.

Shifting support to different user unitswithout delay when directed by higher headquarters.

Reacting to any rear area threat.Pushing CSS forward to those who can

benefit most from the overall battle plan.

COVERING FORCE OPERATIONS

The covering force is normally the first groundmaneuver force to make contact with the enemy. Itoperates between the forward edge of the battle

FMs 100-5 and 100-10. QM supply companies can area and the forward line of troops.

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Operational Concept Supply SupportThe purpose of the covering force is to weaken anddelay the enemy as it prepares to attack divisionsand separate brigades in the main battle area. Thesize and makeup of the covering force depend onthe terrain, the mission and mobility of the force,and the number of troops available. As a rule, thecovering force does not have the strength or fire-power to defeat the enemy. Instead, its mission isto disrupt enemy operations by harassing, disor-ganizing, deceiving, and delaying enemy forces.The covering force slows down the attack, givesdivisions and separate brigades needed maneuverspace and reaction time, and provides informationabout the enemy’s strength, location, and direc-tion of attack.

Supply Support

Supply support in the covering force area is pro-vided by forward supply companies. The coveringforce must sustain itself until it is resupplied. Itcarries basic loads of Class I operational rations,Class II and IV items, and Class II and V sup-plies. If there is enough transportation available,more supplies can be moved. If Class III and Vstocks are pre-positioned, transportation assetscan be used for Class II, III, IV, and VII items.Critical Class VII items may be pre-positioned ina “ready-to-fight” condition. Details uncoveringforce operations are in FM 63-1.

CLOSE BATTLE AREA OPERATIONS

The close battle area is between the covering forceand the brigade rear boundary. This is the areawhere heavy fighting takes place.

Operational Concept

The role of our forces in the close battle area is torepel, to counterattack, and to seize the initiativefrom enemy forces. Our forces must be able toshift locations and firepower to stop enemy at-tempts to break into our lines of defense. FM 71-100covers operational concepts used in close battle todefeat enemy forces.

Combat units in the close battle area rely on theirCSS elements and on DS backup units for battlesupport. Corps CSS units can be located in theBSA to support the majority of corps field artil-lery units being employed in the brigade area.Nondivisional combat units get both DS and GSfrom corps CSS units. Corps CSS units providebackup DS and GS to divisions. An FSB employedin the BSA provides DS to each division maneu-ver brigade. FM 63-20 provides information onFSBs. Though based in the DSA, an MSB pro-vides support forward, as required, to includebackup support to the FSB. CSS units that supportthe close battle area must be able to gather anddistribute supplies and equipment rapidly. Theymust perform needed support functions in thebattle area and in corps forward areas. Corpsground and air transportation elements provideresupply and emergency supply deliveries in theclose battle area.

REAR OPERATIONSThe rear operations area of the AirLand battlecovers the area from the brigade rear boundary tothe division rear boundary. The corps rear areagoes from the division rear boundary to the corpsrear boundary. Each echelon has its own area andits own rear operations commander.

Operational ConceptRear area operations may be directed againstthreats ranging from sabotage to airborne or airassault operations. The deputy corps commanderin the corps rear CP coordinates with the RAOC.In the rear area, CS and CSS units are generallygrouped together in bases or base clusters forprotection or to support a specific mission.FMs 71-100, 100-5, and 100-15 explain the coor-dination and services provided by rear area units.These FMs also explain how CSS operations ef-fect the AirLand battle.

Supply SupportSupply points and CSS units are scattered through-out the rear area. In the DSA, an MSB provides DS

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to division units in the division rear. FM 63-21covers the MSB. A CSB supports nondivisionalforces employed in the division sector.Nondivisional units obtain DS and GS from CSGs.Forward CSGs also provide reinforcing DS main-tenance, field services, and GS supply to divisionforces. Depending on the task organization offorward CSGs and CSBs, they could provide GSpetroleum, GS ammunition, and GS general sup-plies to division forces. GSUs provide Class II, IIIpackaged, IV, VII, and IX supply support fordivisional and nondivisional DSUs. Corps unitsand above provide air and ground transportationneeded to deliver new equipment, supplies, EPWs,and other personnel to forward areas. They alsoback haul disabled equipment to a backup DS unitin the corps or to a GS maintenance unit beyondthe corps rear boundary. The rear area may be-come a battlefront just like the forward edge of thebattle area. CSS soldiers must be trained to defend andprotect themselves as well as provide mission support.

CONTINGENCY FORCE OPERATIONSContingency force operations are those conductedwith a rapid response to a sudden crisis. Unitsmust be prepared to deploy rapidly and on shortnotice. HNS may be questionable. Local third-countryforces may be poorly trained and poorly equipped.

Operational Concept

Operations begin with a rapid show of force.Heavy reliance is placed on support from the otherservices. The scope and nature of the operationdetermine the force organization and operations.Forces should be more mobile than the enemy.Commanders should also use economy of force,surprise, and bold aggressive actions.

Supply SupportForce planners have reduced support to the essen-tials. There will be limited or no prestockage ofsupplies. Because of austere base development,DS and GS supply companies are often requiredearly in contingency operations. FM 63-6 covers

logistical support of contingency operations. Supportis divided to provide accompanying and follow-on supplies.

Accompanying supplies. Sufficient supplies mustaccompany the assault force to enable it to sustainitself until it is resupplied. Accompanying andfollow-on supplies for contingency force opera-tions will be uploaded in modular unit-ownedcontainers. They must not exceed the force’s abil-ity to carry and secure them. Supplies are usuallylimited to basic combat loads and a limited num-ber of items critical to the operation. Class IVbarrier and fortification materials are often criti-cal to the initial phases of a contingency operation.

Follow-on supplies. Follow-on supplies must re-plenish combat losses. Airports and seaports maybe few and far from CONUS. How the contin-gency force is deployed will indicate how it willbe resupplied. If the force is deployed by sea, itwill probably carry its initial supplies and beresupplied by SEALOC with critical items pro-vided by air. If the force is airdropped or airlanded,initial supply would probably be by air. Resupplywould be by ALOC until SEALOC and surfacesupply were established. Local transportation net-works may be primitive. Therefore, enough trans-portation units must be assigned to ensure thatairports and seaports do not become clogged withsupplies. Until SEALOC can be established, re-placement of Class VII weapons systems will belimited to those systems which can be recoveredand repaired.

SPECIAL OPERATIONSSO are military operations of a sensitive natureconducted by specially trained, equipped, andorganized DOD forces. These forces are commit-ted against strategic or tactical targets in pursuitof national, military, political, economic, or psy-chological objectives. These operations may beconducted during periods of peace or during hos-tilities. They may support conventional opera-tions, or they maybe used independently when the

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use of conventional forces is either inappropriateor unbearable.

RequirementsSO forces of the US Army have both standard andmission-peculiar supply requirements. More de-tails on SO are in FMs 31-20, 90-8, and 100-25.

Standard supply requirements. Standard supplyrequirements are supported by the CSS GSU taskedto support the theater army special operationssupport command. The TASOSC is subordinate tothe theater or unified SOC or SOTF. All support-ing supply requirements of a standard nature areconsolidated by the ARSOC and forwarded to thesupporting GSU. Certain SO assets, normally psy-chological operations and civil affairs units, aretraditionally attached to infantry, armor, andmechanized units at battalion, brigade, and divi-sion level as well as to corps headquarters. Theseunits receive support for standard supply require-ments directly from the organization to whichthey are attached.

Mission-peculiar supply requirements. Mission-peculiar supply requirements are supported throughSOC or SOTF logistical channels. CSS GSU person- nel furnish the support to the employed SO elements.

Supply SupportAll supply requirements are planned for and coor-dinated by the SO units concerned prior to deploy-ment. Plans for support of unit supply require-ments are approved at the SOC and coordinatedthrough the ARSOC.

Accompanying supplies. Sufficient supplies willaccompany each SO unit to sustain it until the unitcomes under ARSOC subsequent to deployment.Accompanying supplies include those required tosupport unit personnel and organizational needs.These supplies must not exceed organic transportcapability. The unit must acquire and preparesupplies for deployment.Force supplies. These supplies back up accompa-nying supplies. Force supplies include all classesof supplies. Force supplies are planned for by the

units concerned. The ARSOC coordinates andsupervises forward positioning of force supplies.

Reserve supplies. Reserve supplies are primarilyfor emergency use. Reserve supplies are plannedfor by the units concerned. The ARSOC coordi-nates and supervises the forward positioning ofthese supplies.

Follow-on supplies. Follow-on supplies are sup-plies which may be required to support employedSO assets. They include major backup items ofequipment, Class V, and repair parts. They canalso include those supplies anticipated for use byindigenous groups. Follow-on supplies are deliv-ered into the operational area on an on-call or apreplanned basis. These supplies are maintainedat the primary bases of the SO units concerned. Levelsand amounts are determined prior to deployment.

Automatic follow-on supplies. Automatic follow-on supplies are delivered on a preplanned basis attimes and locations coordinated prior to employ-ment of SO assets. Al1 classes of supplies are included.

On-call, follow-on supplies. On-call, follow-onsupplies are delivered upon request to SO assets inthe operational area. They are usually of a contin-gency nature and are delivered when and wherethe using unit requests. On-call, follow-on sup-plies include all classes of supplies and are plannedfor prior to employment.

Routine supply requirements. Routine supplyrequirements are supplies requested and deliveredthrough normal supply procedures. They are initi-ated following deployment. These supplies areissued on a routine basis except in emergencies.The ARSOC monitors routine supply requirements.

AIR ASSAULT OPERATIONSAir assault operations involve using helicoptersto deploy over extended areas. Air assault opera-tions can be conducted anywhere in the worlddepending on weather conditions. More details onair assault operations are in FMs 10-27-2 and 10-27-3.

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Operational ConceptIn air assault operations, supplies, troops, andequipment are moved throughout the battlefield inaircraft, usually helicopters. Air assault opera-tions may involve airlifting units for combat op-erations, shifting and relocating units within thecombat zone, or moving and delivering suppliesand equipment. Airlift in support of air assaultoperations is classified as either CS or CSS, de-pending on the mission and the kind of cargo airtitled.

Request ProceduresRequests for air assault support can start at anylevel of command. There are two types of supportrequests: requests for preplanned, immediate op-erations and requests for emergency airlift combatsupport. Both types are sent through operationsand logistics channels to the commander with theauthority and capability to approve them. FM 100-27and the air delivery information in this chapterexplain each request procedure. The unit request-ing the support is generally responsible for plan-ning, obtaining, and coordinating the supplies andpersonnel to be airlifted.

Supply SupportBecause air assault forces must be able to deployrapidly, they carry only essential supplies andequipment with them. These supplies need to bereplenished frequently. Supplies and equipmentnot needed for survival or combat should be left inthe rear and moved forward when needed. Supplysupport is generally provided by an independentunit with CSS elements attached.Support for ground forces. Ground forces in anair assault operation carry enough essential itemsto sustain them for a limited time. GS items areprovided by CSS units and other ground forces.Routine resupply items should be delivered asclose as possible to ground forces instead of beingstockpiled at a central location. This will helpforces deploy more rapidly and relocate morequickly. Emergency ground force resupply shouldinclude prepackaged, mixed loads so that if theforce gets only a few of the requested loads, it willget a mixture of essential supplies.

Support for the air element. The air element of anair assault operation requires special aircraft repairparts, supplies, and services. Generally, these areprovided by a supporting aviation unit. A forwardarming and refueling point may need to be set upto help sustain the aviation element of the opera-tion. Special needs must be coordinated betweenthe ground element and the aviation force com-manders during the planning phase.

AIRBORNE OPERATIONSAn airborne operation involves moving and deliv-ering forces, supplies, and equipment by air intoan objective area. In addition to being airlanded intocombat, airborne forces can parachute into combat.

Operational ConceptDivisional airborne brigades receive supply sup-port from a forward supply company located ineach BSA. Logistics units from the division basecome under the control of the S&T battalion. Aseparate brigade receives CSS from the brigadesupport battalion. A separate brigade will bea satellite on a support command for CSS.FMs 10-27-2 and 10-27-3 explain the composition andorganization of airborne and air assault brigades anddivisions.

Supply SupportUntil CSS units join ground forces during thefollow-up operation, all supply support for anairborne operation is preplanned by the G4. TheG4’s estimates are based on the three phases ofsupply requirements involved in an airborne operation.

Accompanying supplies. Individual soldiers carrythese supplies into the assault area. They includethe supplies airdropped with the deploying unit.Maneuver units in airborne and air assault divi-sions normally carry a basic load of ammunition,a three-day stock of Class I and III packagedsupplies, and a prescribed load of fast-movingrepair parts. Accompanying supplies are the onlysource of supply during the first stages of theoperation. They include unit, force, and reserve

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supplies. Unit supplies include the basic loads ofammunition and the prescribed loads of the otherclasses of supply. The rigging, loading, recovery,issue, and control of unit supplies are the responsibilityof the airborne unit. Force supplies are bulk sup-plies that act as backup for unit supplies. Forcesupplies include all classes of supply. The S4 ofthe deploying unit is responsible for controllingthese supplies. Reserve supplies are set aside andstored at the division for later use. Also, they areused for special or emergency missions. TheDISCOM is responsible for issuing and control-ling reserve supplies.

Follow-up supplies. These supplies are deliveredby air after the unit has made its initial assault.They help the unit operate until normal supplyprocedures can be set up. Follow-up supplies in-clude all classes of supply. They are generallyprepackaged, rigged, and stored at the beginningof the operation for immediate distribution. Quan-tities are based upon the G4’s estimate of theunit’s daily requirements. The battalion S4 re-quests follow-up supplies for the battalion. Ifmore than one battalion requests follow-up sup-plies at the same time, the commander decideswhich has priority. A two-day level of extra stocks,including Class IV and a small stock of criticalrepair parts, is often kept near the departure air-field. These stocks are delivered automatically oron call. Automatic follow-up supplies are deliv-ered on a preplanned schedule, normally once aday beginning with D+2. The amount delivered isbased on an estimate of the quantities of suppliesused daily by the requesting unit. Automatic follow-up supplies are either airdropped to the unit orairlanded at a central supply point. Because quan-tities are preplanned, they may not include theexact amounts of particular items deploying forcesneed. On-call, follow-up supplies are deliveredto the deployed unit as needed. They are generallyused for emergency purposes or to fill a routinerequest for a specific item. Emergency suppliesmust be delivered within 24 hours. On-call,follow-up supplies of a routine nature are delivered on

a flexible schedule, generally between 24 and 72hours after being requested.

Routine supplies. These supplies are requestedand delivered through normal supply procedures.Routine supply generally begins once a CSS unitis attached to the airborne operation. After routinesupply begins, the airborne unit generally doesnot request follow-up supplies, except in emer-gencies. The DISCOM commander decides whenroutine supply deliveries should begin. He baseshis decision on the tactical situation and the sup-ply status of the division.

LOW-INTENSITY CONFLICTLIC is a political-military confrontation betweencontending states or groups. It is less than conven-tional war and more than the routine, peacefulcompetition among states. It frequently involvesprotracted struggles of competing principles andideologies. LIC ranges from subversion to the useof armed force. It is waged by a combination ofpolitical, economic, informational, and militaryinstruments. LICs are often localized, generally inthe Third World, but contain regional and globalsecurity implications.

Operational ConceptLIC does not describe a specific operation. Opera-tions in a LIC environment are divided into fourgeneral categories: • • • •

Support for insurgency and counterinsurgency.Combating terrorism.Peacekeeping operations.Peacetime contingency operations.

Supply SupportAs a rule, there are not enough logistics and healthservices in a LIC. CSS elements may precedecombat or CS units into the area of operation ormay be the only military force deployed. CSSelements may provide support for US governmentor allied civilian agencies as well as US militaryor allied forces. CSS elements may also providehumanitarian and civic assistance. Because CSSunits must be tailored to fit the assigned mission

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DEEP OPERATIONS

and situation, they must remain flexible. Moredetails on LIC are in FMs 63-6 and 100-20.

RETROGRADE OPERATIONSA retrograde operation is a movement to the rearor away from the enemy. Such an operation maybe forced or voluntary.

Operational ConceptRetrograde operations gain time, preserve forces,avoid combat under undesirable conditions, ordraw the enemy into an unfavorable position.Commanders use them to harass, exhaust, resist,delay, and damage an enemy. Retrograde opera-tions are also used in operational maneuvers toreposition forces, to shorten lines of communica-tions, or to permit the withdrawal of another forcefor use elsewhere. All retrograde operations aredifficult, and delays and withdrawals are inher-ently risky. To succeed, they must be well orga-nized and well executed. A disorganized retro-grade operation in the presence of a strongerenemy invites disaster.

Supply SupportSupply efforts during a retrograde operation mustbe concentrated on the most critical supplies:Class III, V, and IX. The key to providing respon-sive supply support during a retrograde operationis to project force supply requirements throughoutthe operation and to distribute these supplies ac-cording to the projections. When projections aremade, provisions are made to move forward onlyessential supplies. All other supplies are movedrearward to the new support areas. To avoid de-stroying or evacuating supplies unnecessarily inany retrograde action, commanders must controlthe flow of supplies into forward areas. Whencommanders contemplate a delay, withdrawal, orretirement, they should plan for early removal ofexcess supplies and early displacement of logis-tics facilities. By positioning supplies along routesof withdrawal, CSS commanders can simplifysupport and can reduce the enemy’s ability tointerfere with logistical operations. More detailson supply support are in FM 63-6.

Deep operations are operations directed againstenemy forces not in close contact. They are de-signed to influence the conditions in which futureclose operations will be conducted. At the opera-tional level, deep operations include efforts toisolate current battles and to influence where,when, and against whom future battles will befought. At the tactical level, deep operations aredesigned to shape the battlefield to assure advan-tage in subsequent engagements.

Operational ConceptBecause of the relative scarcity of resources withwhich to perform deep operations, they must bedirected against those enemy capabilities whichmost directly threaten the success of projectedfriendly operations. They must be attacked deci-sively, with enough power to assure the desiredimpact. Deep operations include--

Deception. • • •

•

•

Deep surveillance and target acquisition.Interdiction (by ground or air fires, ground

or aerial maneuvers, special operating forces, orany combination of these).

Command, control, and communicationscountermeasures.

Command and control.

Supply SupportThere are two ways to sustain deep operations.The force can carry with it all the resources neededthroughout the mission, or it can be sustained overa LOC. Sustaining deep operations forces dependson the situation. You must consider depth andduration of the operation, the size and organiza-tion of the force, the enemy situation, and theweather and terrain. Sustainment over surfaceLOC has the advantage of the capability to carrylarge tonnages of supplies and equipment to spe-cific destinations. It is less subject to weather thanALOC. A disadvantage is that LOC extend farbeyond the FLOT into territory that is subject toenemy influence and control. Sustainment overALOC has the advantage of being fast and responsive.

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It has the same disadvantage as sustainment oversurface LOC. The LOC must be either temporarilyor continuously secured. This requires temporaryor continuing air superiority or, at least, parity.These conditions require close interservice coop-eration, because much of the airlift capabilitybelongs to the Air Force. More details on supplysupport in deep operations are in FM 63-2.

HEAVY-LIGHT ANDLIGHT-HEAVY OPERATIONS

There are many who will argue that light forces donot have a role on a mid- or high-intensity battle-field against a mobile enemy. History has demon-strated that heavy-light combined arms forces canengage and decisively defeat such a force whenemployed properly.

Operational ConceptThe key to effective employment of heavy andlight forces as a combined arms team is to maxi-mize the capabilities of both parts of the force anduse the advantages offered by each to offset thevulnerabilities of the other within the frameworkof METT-T. Light forces are particularly effectivewhen used as part of the combined arms team.Also, light forces are effective in economy offorce operations and operations with the intent ofdenying terrain to an enemy force. Light forces,

with proper augmentation based on METT-T, allowthe maneuver commander freedom to employ ar-mored and mechanized forces elsewhere on thebattlefield. Light forces can be employed by heavyforces to conduct raids and ambushes, operationsin restricted urban terrain, and rear operations.

Supply SupportHeavy forces use a combination of supply point orunit distribution systems to sustain the force incombat. Light forces are not structured to use thesame system as a heavy force. Heavy-light opera-tions require more logistical planning and coordi-nation for both the heavy and light portions of theforce than independent operations. Logistical plan-ning and coordination for a light force is done atthe brigade level. The light battalion, unlike aheavy battalion, does not have the organizationalstructure or capability to plan for its logisticalrequirements. Requiring a light infantry battalionor company to conduct its own logistical planningand support diverts its attentions and resourcesfrom its primary combat mission. A heavy brigadethat has a light force must be prepared to plan andprovide logistical support for the unit. This in-cludes all classes of support and supply fromcasualty evacuation to food, water, and maintenance.Logistical support for a heavy-light force must beplanned for and pushed to the force. FMs 63-2,63-20,and 63-21 have details on support of heavy-light mixes.

Section IVSUPPLY SUPPORT OF OPERATIONS

IN DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTS

NUCLEAR, BIOLOGICAL, ANDCHEMICAL OPERATIONS

Threat forces have specialized NBC troops and NBC attacks. FMs 3-3, 3-4, 3-5, and 3-100 haveunits. They also train all of their combat and CS details on NBC individual and collective protec-soldiers in NBC warfare. US forces must be pre- tive measures, contamination avoidance, andpared to fight in an NBC environment. Combat decontamination techniques. NBC warfare willunits cannot fight for long without support. The affect equipment supply routes, supply require-units that provide the support are prime targets for ments, and supply trains.

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Effect on EquipmentThe electromagnetic pulse from a nuclear detona-tion can damage ADP and communicationsequipment that processes supply requirements.Tape disks can be wiped out. Cover critical sup-plies and equipment with tarpaulins, shelter halves,or ponchos to protect them from contamination.Monitor items exposed to contamination beforeuse. Perform partial decontamination of unit equip-ment as far forward as possible. Onlymission-essential surfaces need to be decontamin-ated using on-board decontamination apparatus.Complete decontamination requires the aid ofbattalion decontamination teams or units autho-rized special decontamination equipment. Performcomplete decontamination only when absolutelynecessary. CSS units may need to get replacementequipment if their vehicles and MHE were dam-aged or destroyed during the conflict. Recoveryand salvage operations may be hampered by con-tamination of damaged equipment. The using unitdecontaminates damaged unit equipment partiallyprior to evacuation.

Effect on Supply RequirementsA nuclear blast can crush supplies. Thermal radia-tion can cause fires at supply points. NBC defensecompanies and forward CSS units must stay highlymobile so that they can support units in contami-nated areas on short notice. To ensure mobility,they carry a limited amount of protective items,replacement clothing, bathing supplies, and de-contaminating material. They also maintain a lim-ited ASL. Because of this, supporting units mayneed to stock greater quantities of protective over-garments than authorized in CTAs. As the NBCthreat increases, units often widen the distancebetween supply points and supported units. In-creased distances decrease the chances of morethan one unit being destroyed or contaminated atthe same time. The need for increased distancesplaces added pressure on CSS units in providingsupply support. Once an attack occurs, decon-tamination companies and the units they supportalso require increased deliveries of chemical anti-dotes and protective and replacement clothing and

equipment. FMs 63-1, 63-2, and 63-3 discuss CSSoperations and logistics support in separate bri-gades, divisions, and corps.

Class II. Commanders establish the level of MOPPgear that must be worn. Contaminated protectiveclothing must be burned, buried, or destroyed. Asthe threat of an NBC attack increases, units alsoneed extra quantities of tarpaulins, plastic sheets,and other materials to use as protective coveringsfor vehicles and equipment. Heat from a nuclearblast can melt and deteriorate plastic and rubberitems. CSS units will be called on to provide largequantities of protective and replacement clothingand equipment as well as decontamination materi-als and equipment. Class II items needed fordecontamination operations are listed in tables inFM 3-21. Contaminated items of individual equip-ment that cannot be decontaminated by the soldierusing the individual decontamination kit are de-contaminated by battalion decontamination teams.Contaminated uniforms and other clothing itemsmust be containerized or packaged to prevent thespread of contamination.

Class III packaged. Class III packaged suppliesinclude NBC decontaminates. Other than for suchitems, Class III packaged consumption does notincrease greatly during NBC operations. Heat froma nuclear blast can cause Class III packaged com-bustibles to ignite and lubricants and metalcontainers to melt. Flammable items should bekept separate from other supplies and equipment.Smoke screens generated by vaporizing fog oil inmechanical smoke generators and smoke pots mayreduce the heat and blinding effects of nuclear blasts.

Class IV. Since CSS units are scattered widelyduring NBC operations, there is a greater possibil-ity of theft, sabotage, and enemy attack. The needfor tighter security causes increased requests forbarbed wire, barrier materials, and other fortifica-tion supplies. Units also need more sandbags andbuilding materials to construct emergency sheltersand underground storage areas. After an NBC attack,CSS units supporting decontamination platoons need

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additional construction materials to build sumpsand decontamination sites.

CSS units operating in rear areas have the lowestpriority. MMCs divert supplies from their origi-

Class VI. Decontamination units need large quan-tities of bathing, shaving, and sanitation supplies.As a rule, these types of supplies are part of ClassI ration supplement sundries packs and are distrib-uted with subsistence items. Ration supplementsundries packs are normally low-priority items.Dry shaving powder, scissors, and disinfectantmay be added to the list of necessary Class VIitems. During NBC operations, these items couldbecome mission essential because they help en-sure proper fit of MOPP gear. To maintain troopmorale during sustained war, Class VI suppliesare sold by sales teams or AAFES exchanges setup in the COMMZ or corps.

Class VII. Class VII supplies include protectivemasks and NBC apparatus. Since weapons sys-tems and other Class VII equipment may bedamaged or destroyed during a conflict, consump-tion of Class VII supplies will increase accordingly. Replacement items come from war reserves andoperating stocks. They are issued first to units thatcan reenter the battle the quickest.

Effect on Supply RoutesMain supply routes may be blocked by fallen

trees, rubble, and debris caused by nuclear blasts.Earth-moving equipment may have to be used toclear routes. Alternate supply routes and sourcesare needed. However, alternate supply routes canresult in increased turnaround and increased needfor cargo vehicles. Other units may be using thesealternate routes to relocate to uncontaminated ar-eas. If alternate routes are not passable, some ofthe MSRs may have to be cleared or decontami-nated. This delay increases the OST for all sup-plies and equipment. Supplies may have to beairlifted to forward units. Resupplying by air hasthe advantage of flying over contaminated areas.

Effect on Supply TrainsDuring NBC operations, CSS units give support

first to combat units in forward areas. Next, theysupport CS and other CSS units in forward areas.

nal destinations to forward CSS units. Onlymission-essential supplies and equipment arestocked in the forward CSS units. Resupply tothese forward units is generally done at nightusing unit pile or truck-to-truck distribution so thatthe supplies can be issued as far forward as possible.

SMOKE OPERATIONSOur forces must be prepared to use smoke and tofight in a smoke environment against an enemywho may be better trained and better equipped forsuch operations. Smoke operations are covered inFM 3-50. Chemical smoke generator companiesgenerate smoke by vaporizing packaged Class IIIfog oil.

Operational ConceptSmoke screens support not only combat opera-tions but CSS operations as well. Smoke screenscan help conceal MSRs and mark supply points forair delivery of supplies. By screening our logisticssupport operations and positions, smoke opera-tions increase our battlefield effectiveness.

Supply SupportQM general supply companies, GS; S&S compa-nies, DS; and main supply companies supplychemical smoke generator companies with the fogoil needed to produce smoke.

NIGHT OPERATIONSOften the tactical situation is such that suppliesmust be delivered at night. Since the use of MHEis reduced by darkness, supplies should be pre-pared and loaded on trucks during the day fornight delivery to forward supply points. The sup-ply point external SOP should require supportedunits to send extra personnel to serve as walkingguides and to help load supplies onto the trucks byhand. Blackout procedures in the internal SOPmay require personnel to take the following actions:

Use flashlights that have lens filters.Black out doors and windows of storage

buildings.

• •

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•

•

•

Block light from large tents with salvagetentage.

Use ponchos as blackout flaps on othertents.

Use blackout lights on vehicles and fork-lift trucks.There are several factors to consider when yourunit moves at night. They include the rate ofmarch, vehicle density, and light discipline. In-struct your officers and NCOs on safety precautionsto be followed in a night move. See FM 55-30 formore details on night convoys, including advan-tages and disadvantages.

URBAN OPERATIONSUS forces must be prepared to fight in areas wherebuildings and man-made obstacles block LOC.When soldiers fight in urban areas, buildings andterrain limit the mobility and capabilities of weap-ons systems. Unlike jungles or deserts, urbanenvironments have no recurring physical feature.Units must be prepared to fight in small, moun-tain, farm villages and in densely populated cities.Combat operations are also hampered by civiliansremaining in fighting zones. Units may need toprovide food, shelter, and protection for interneesor refugees. This may require supplies and man-power normally used to support combat activities.Also, security must be tightened when civiliansare near, since sabotage, theft, and intelligenceleaks increase. Buildings, low visibility, civil-ians, and close combat make it difficult to applybasic tactical guidelines. FMs 90-10 and 90-10-1describe how to plan for and conduct operations inurban areas.

Effect on EquipmentCrowded and built-up areas limit the amount ofmovement and the use of combat equipment. Unitsshould rely more on hand-carried or easily trans-ported items. Limit recovery operations to movingdisabled equipment to guarded areas along supplyroutes. Often vehicles and equipment cannot beevacuated because of rubble. Instead, units willhave to rely on increased cannibalization. Units

may be able to get replacement items and partsfrom local civilian manufacturers.

Effect on Supply RequirementsUrban areas may have warehouses, sheds, andbuildings to use for storing and securing supplies.Units should use existing LOC and storage facili-ties as much as possible. This cuts down on theOST and reduces manpower and resources thatwould have been used to construct facilities.

Class II. Increase Class II stocks during urbanoperations to allow for those items that weredamaged, destroyed, or lost.

Class III packaged. Using engineer and generator-powered equipment to clear rubble increases theneed for packaged POL, especially diesel fuel.Units should stock enough Class III packagedsupplies to cover supplies damaged or destroyedby fire or combat and to meet requirements forsmoke screens.

Class IV. Close combat and the need for increasedsecurity operations increase the need for Class IVmaterials. Units need increased amounts of barriermaterials, barbed wire, sandbags, and construc-tion supplies to build shelters and to fortify andsecure buildings and storage areas.

Class VI. There is no marked increase in sanita-tion and health items generated by operations inurban areas. Generally, the amount and type ofpersonal health items contained in Class I rationsupplement sundries packs meet the health andwelfare needs of most units. If additional or dif-ferent personal health items are needed, contact amedical supply support unit. In sustained war,Class VI items might be sold by sales teams orAAFES exchanges to support troop morale.

Class VII. Limited space and mobility in mosturban areas limit requirements for Class VII items.However, units should increase their stocks ofhand-held or portable weapons. In most cases,major equipment cannot be replaced or evacuatedto rear areas for repair. If parts are not available to repairClass VII items, cannibalize severely damaged USequipment or captured enemy items.

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Class X. Requirements for Class X items maydouble or triple during an urban conflict if unitsare responsible for providing clothing, food, shel-ter, and protection for civilians remaining in thebattle area. Because of this, commanders may befaced with the problems of where and how to getthese items, where to store them, and how todistribute them.

Effect on Supply RoutesAs a rule, urban areas have railroads, ports, high-ways, and pipelines already set up. Use them tohelp deliver and distribute supplies and equip-ment. Sometimes supply routes may be jammedby civilian refugees or blocked by rubble. Whenthis happens, you may have to set aside and securesupply routes for military use only. Use air sup-port to help locate new routes. Engineer units canhelp clear them. In emergencies, supplies can beairlifted. However, an airlift or airdrop should bereserved for high-priority or mission-essentialsupplies that will help sustain combat.

DESERT OPERATIONSAs a result of their natural resources and strategiclocations, desert areas are most important. Lim-ited concealment and cover in a desert environmentmake logistics facilities easy targets. FM 90-3 hasdetails on desert operations. It describes how toprepare for desert operations and how CSS unitsfunction in desert environments.

Effect on EquipmentThe desert puts an extra strain on equipment.Engines have a tendency to overheat. Plastics,lubricants, and rubber deteriorate. Dust and sandadd to these problems. Filters require frequentreplacement. Air and fluids expand and contractmore rapidly due to the extreme temperaturechanges. Desert winds can be destructive to largepieces of equipment. The harsh environment re-quires that equipment be carefully maintained.

Effect on Supply RequirementsSupply is vital in the desert, where water is scarceand mobility limited. Long distances betweenunits slow resupply and make LOC vulnerable.

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Units in the desert should keep stocks at higherlevels to cope with increased work loads. How-ever, quantities should not be increased to thepoint that mobility is affected. Units need to makearrangements for unexpected requirements andmission-essential equipment to be moved by air toforward sites.

Class II. Class II consumption increases in thedesert. Clothing exchange may not be possible inthe early stages of a desert operation. In forwardareas, it might not be possible at all. Increasedclothing supplies are needed due to limited CEBpoints. A greater variety of clothing is needed tocope with extreme temperature changes. Clothingrequirements will range from goggles and tropicalwear to sleeping bags and heavy sweaters. In harshrocky terrain, there will be a high demand forfootwear. There is also an increased need for neckscarves and canteens. Extra tents and tarpaulinsare needed to protect equipment from sand. Aneed for items such as tools increases becausethey tend to get lost more easily in the sand.

Class III packaged. The desert heat, dust, andsand increase the need for lubricants, oils, andantifreeze. High winds, dust storms, and air cur-rents rising from hot sands make it difficult tomaintain smoke screens generated from fog oil.However, it is possible to use fog oil to screenartillery positions and reduce muzzle flash in theearly morning and late evening. Make sure motoroils with proper specifications are on hand for ahot desert environment.

Class IV. Requirements for Class IV items, suchas sandbags and lumber, are increased to buildfighting positions in desert operations.

Class VI. There is a high demand for Class VIsupplies, especially for liquids and skin and eyeointments. Soap, toiletries, and disposabletowelettes will be needed for bathing when thetactical situation and water scarcity prevent bathservice. If transportation is limited, Class VI itemsare given low priority. Class I ration supplementsundries packs are needed in a desert environment.Medical units should receive priority for sundries packs

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issue when there is limited transportation space. Insustained war, Class VI items are sold by salesteams or by AAFES exchanges.

Class VII. The intensity of battle regulates thedemand for Class VII supplies in a desert environ-ment. Refrigeration equipment will be needed tomove remains to an area of interment.

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Effect on Supply RoutesMSRs in the desert are possible targets for ambushduring night operations. They are also subject tobeing mined. The following concealment tacticscan lessen the threat to supply routes.

Vehicles should not form a pattern whenstationary or moving.

Vehicles should follow existing tracks sothat the enemy cannot tell how many vehicleshave passed.

All vehicles of a given type should lookalike. This will allow water and fuel vehicles toblend in. Also, canopies will ensure vehicle dis-guise and help protect them from the sun’s heat.

Exhaust systems should be screened toreduce the chance of heat detection.

Noise should be muffled. Doors can beremoved to prevent them from being slammed.

Effect on Supply PointsSupply points that are widely dispersed are vul-nerable to attack by ground and air forces. Theirstocks should be kept as mobile as possible in theevent that rapid displacement is necessary. Stock-piling of vehicles should be kept to a minimum. Asupply point in the desert should be supported byadditional transportation units. This enablesgreater mobility. When supported units move, itmay be necessary to divide supply point opera-tions. Some personnel and equipment may be sentto establish a new position. The rest can carry onoperations at the original location until units moveout. Because supply points are vulnerable to at-tack, emphasize selecting positions that offerconcealment rather than tactical efficiency. Thisis especially true where air defense cover is lim-ited. Camouflage nets, pattern painting, and mud

covering on reflective surfaces help to ensuresurvival. To help conceal desert supply points--

Place stocks irregularly to prevent a defi-nite pattern from being formed and spotted fromthe air.

Follow the local ground pattern. The shapeof the area should not be square or rectangular.

Pile supplies as low as possible, and dig inif possible.

Cover stocks with sand, burlap, netting, oranything that blends with the terrain.

Mix contents of each supply point. Thisprevents a shortage of one item occurring fromdestruction of stocks.

Select a location where vehicles can useexisting trails.

COUNTERGUERRILLA OPERATIONSBecause CSS units stock large amounts of food,ammunition, fuel, and other mission-essentialsupplies, they are prime targets for guerrilla at-tacks. Generally, CSS units are isolated and donot have combat troops assigned for protectionand security. Therefore, CSS troops must performsecurity and defense activities in addition to theirsupport missions. Jungle and mountain terrainsmake it easy for guerrilla forces to attack.

Effect on Supply RequirementsTo lessen the effects of guerrilla attacks, CSSunits are scattered to help prevent mass destruc-tion. They also change locations frequently tomaintain security. Supplies may need to be trans-ported over roads that are not secure. Pack animalsor personnel may be used to transport supplies.Forward CSS units should keep only a minimumof essential supplies on hand. This will give themgreater mobility. It also reduces the number ofpersonnel needed to maintain and protect thestocks. Some supplies can be airlifted to CSSunits. However, airlift should be used only inemergency situations.

Class II. As sabotage and security operationsincrease, units need extra amounts of some Class IIitems. Also, Class II items are highly preferable,

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JUNGLE OPERATIONSand they will need to be replaced if destroyed. Usesecure radios to communicate so that the guerril-las cannot detect you.

Class III packaged. Class III packaged consump-tion does not increase greatly duringcounterguerrilla operations. CSS units should keepenough stocks of Class III packaged on hand toreplace losses caused by fires or damaged or de-stroyed containers.

Class IV. The need for barbed wire, barrier mater-ials, and sandbags matches the need for tightersecurity. Construction materials may be needed tohelp camouflage supplies and equipment or tobuild decoy items. Engineer support used to buildand repair bridges, sheds, and shelters also increasesthe need for fortification and construction supplies.

Class VI. Since only essential health and sanita-tion supplies are needed during counterguerrillaoperations, there is a decrease in Class VI supplyrequests. Generally, the only Class VI suppliesissued are in the Class I ration supplement sun-dries packs distributed with subsistence. Whenthe tactical situation permits, sales teams orAAFES exchanges sell Class VI items.

Class VII. One of the major aims of guerrillaactivities is to damage or destroy weapons sys-tems. This increases the need for Class VIIsupplies. Forward CSS units may need to rely onother noncombat unit stocks for exchange of ra-dios, small arms, and vehicles. Essential items areissued to units that can reenter battle first. GiveClass VII supplies transportation priority so thatfighting can continue.

Effect on Supply RoutesUse multiple supply routes. This makes it difficultfor guerrilla forces to know where and when to attack.

Effect on Supply TrainsDS units support counterguerrilla operations frombrigade trains. When a division is deployed, CSSunits operate in the DSA. Supply trains providesupplies and services to units in the brigade area.

Jungle regions are potential battlefields. Climate,terrain, and vegetation vary with location. Thejungle environment may include swamps, culti-vated areas, grasslands, or densely forested areas.Dense vegetation, high temperatures, and highhumidity require adjustments in supply supportoperations. Abundant rainfall can slow surfaceresupply operations. Climate and vegetation canrestrict movement, observation, communications,and target acquisition. The degree to which unitsare trained to fight and support in the jungle willdetermine success or failure. FM 90-5 providesguidance on fighting and surviving in the jungle.

Effect on EquipmentLeather, canvas, and rubber are subject to moldand have a tendency to wear out quickly in the jungle.High temperature and humidity may cause equipmentto rot and may aid the growth of bacteria. Equipmentrequires daily cleaning in a jungle environment.

Effect on Supply RequirementsUse unit distribution to deliver supplies directlyto forward companies. Supplies can be movedmore quickly by air from field trains than overland from combat trains. Waterways can also bepart of a transport supply system. However, packanimals or humans are often the only means ofmoving supplies in jungle operations.

Class II. The tropical environment causes Class IIitems to deteriorate rapidly. Use tarpaulins toprotect equipment from the rain. Combat bootsand socks seldom last long. Extra stocks should bestored at supply points. Clothing may requiretreatment with fungicides and might have to beexchanged every five or six days. Wet weatherponcho liners may be needed. Screens and filtershelp keep insects from getting into equipment.

Class III packaged. Since there are only a limitednumber of vehicles forward during jungle opera-tions, supplying Class III packaged items is not agreat problem. Helicopters can supply the forwardpositions with 55-gallon drums of diesel fuel,motor fuel, and fog oil using cargo nets. Protective

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lubricants, lacquers, and varnishes are required tohelp prevent rust. In jungle operations, require-ments for fog oil increase when tactics call forsmoke measures or smoke screen countermeasures.

Class IV. Construction materials and special bar-rier equipment are heavy and bulky. Using largeamounts of Class IV materials creates transporta-tion problems. Lift helicopters are a practicalmethod of moving these items in a jungle environment.

Class VI. Lotions to protect personnel from insect bitesand poisonous plants are needed in a jungle environ-ment. Personal demand items help to build morale.

Class VII. Major end items need to be protectedfrom a jungle environment. Vehicles need to beinspected frequently. Major end items not in useshould be sent to the rear areas.

Effect on Supply RoutesIn the jungle, supply vehicles are easily ambushed,mined, or booby trapped. Road-clearing and mine-clearing operations should be repeated eachmorning before traffic starts to move. Patrolsprovide security against ambush and attack. Clear-ing vegetation near roads will help prevent ambush.If supply vehicles are ambushed, escort vehicles,combat vehicles, and attack helicopters shouldassist in countering the attack.

Effect on Supply TrainsSupply trains are located in the forward areas.Since most resupply is done by air, the combattrains may be located with the field trains in thebrigade trains area. Combat trains provide rations,ammunition, lubricants, medics, and a mainte-nance element. Field trains provide POL, vehicles,ammunition, rations, and an aid station. Airliftsupply allows fewer supplies to be stockpiled inthe combat trains.

AMPHIBIOUS OPERATIONSAmphibious operations involve assaults fromseacraft or aircraft against enemy shores. Usingsea vessels as bases increases force mobility. Since

forces are gathered aboard ships or in aircraft,there is a less noticeable buildup of troops, sup-plies, and equipment. This gives commanders anedge in choosing where and when to attack. Usinghelicopters and amphibious vehicles to move troopsand supplies from sea bases to attack points requiresdetailed planning and coordination. FM 20-12 de-scribes amphibious embarkation of landing forces.FM 31-12 tells how to plan, prepare, and train foramphibious operations.

Effect on EquipmentWater damage can be a major problem. Properwaterproofing will reduce equipment breakdownand damage. Commanders should set up areas toensure that vehicles and other equipment are re-turned to mission-capable condition.

Effect on Supply RequirementsInitial or assault supplies are carried in amphibi-ous vehicles or helicopters during the assault.These supplies provide initial support for landingforces and operations. Commanders should planon a 5- to 15-day stock of survival and mission-essential supplies. This will allow operations tocontinue until resupply can occur. Weather andsea conditions may hamper resupply operations.Assault supplies should be carefully selected andpacked to allow rapid unloading and distributionand to make the best use of transportation andstorage space. Careful packing will also serve toreduce congestion in beach support areas duringthe early critical stages of the assault. Only lim-ited amounts can be sent as assault supplies.Commanders should ensure that follow-up supplyquantities are increased to make up deficiencies.Resupply levels need to be high enough to lessenthe need for air delivery of emergency supplies.When setting resupply levels, commanders shouldincrease those supplies needed by CSS units aswell as those needed by combat or CS activities.Assault teams submit requests for emergency sup-plies to the division. Emergency supplies areairlifted to the landing area or beachhead or placedon floating dumps.

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Class II. The environment that amphibious forceswill face upon landing determines the need for anincrease or decrease in Class II supplies. In mostcases, units should consider increasing clothingand individual equipment and waterproofing substances.

Class III packaged. The quantity of Class IIIpackaged supplies which units need to stock de-pends on the area in which the amphibiousoperations take place. As a rule, large quantities of55-gallon drums of diesel and motor fuel are needed.Protective lubricants are needed to prevent rust.

Class IV. Units need increased amounts of con-struction materials and barrier equipment duringamphibious operations. Use these materials tosecure the beachheads and build temporary stor-age areas and shelters. Class IV stockage dependson the mission and the number of combat unitsassigned to accomplish the mission.

Class VI. Issue personal demand items as soon aspractical to build up morale. As a rule, these itemsare in Class I ration supplement sundries packsissued with subsistence. If more items are needed,units may contact medical support companies.

Class VII. Salt water can deteriorate and severelydamage Class VII items. Commanders must planfor replacement items for all mission-essentialequipment as well as possible airlift of essentialitems. Units should try to get as many replacementitems and repair parts as possible from cannibalizingcaptured enemy equipment or nonreparable US items.

Effect on Floating DumpsFloating dumps are supply points made up oflanding craft and amphibious vehicles. Shore par-ties depend on floating dumps until enough itemscan be stocked at the beachhead or until resupplyoperations can begin. When landing craft are avail-able, commanders should request them. Their speedincreases mobility. Landing craft are loaded withsupplies and equipment which shore parties needto carry out and sustain operations. There may be 6 to10 floating dumps per assault landing team. Each dump

should carry a basic load of mission-essential andsurvival supplies and equipment. Supplies aredelivered to the shore parties as they are needed.

COLD WEATHER ANDMOUNTAIN OPERATIONS

Cold weather and mountain operations pose aspecial challenge to CSS units. Winter and moun-tain weather increase the time required to performsupply support. Mobility in mountain or coldweather areas is difficult. Proper equipment isvital to successful operations. FMs 9-207, 31-71,and 90-6 provide guidance on mountain and coldweather operations. They describe how CSS unitscan plan for and support operations in this weather.

Effect on EquipmentCold weather, high altitudes, and rough terrainrequire special clothing and equipment. ArmyBDUs and combat boots wear out quickly in rockyterrain. Adequate stocks of clothing must be avail-able to replace damaged and worn-out items.

Effect on Supply RequirementsIt may be necessary to disperse support units inmountainous terrain. Though this reduces vulner-ability, it increases local security and commandand control problems. To ensure a continuousflow of supplies, CSS units must be well protectedagainst ground and air attack. Unit distribution isoften used in mountain operations. Deliver sup-plies as far forward as terrain and weather permit.Communication is limited. Airfields, good roads,and railroads are also limited. Their scarcity ham-pers supply flow. You may need pack animals,tracked vehicles, sleds, and skis to deliver sup-plies. Successful supply operations requireflexibility and advance planning on the part oflogisticians and supply class managers.

Class II. Rugged terrain increases the need forreplacement of clothing, boots, and other personalitems. Cold weather items such as parkas, liners,mitten inserts, sleeping bags, and goggles are alsoin high demand. White coverings or cold weather

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camouflage nets simplify the camouflaging of troops,equipment, and supplies in snow-covered areas.

Class III packaged. Increased stocks of Class IIIpackaged lubricants, antifreeze, and fuels areneeded. Tanks operating in mountainous terrainneed 30 to 50 percent more fuel and coolant. Fuelcans are frequently required to refuel vehicles inforward areas when terrain conditions restrict theuse of tank and pump units. Class III packagedgoods should be constantly checked for packagewarping and product deterioration resulting fromtemperature changes. Since smoke screens last longerunder extreme cold conditions, less fog oil is required.

Class IV. Using local materials reduces Class IVneeds and demands on the transportation system.Mountainous areas often contain trees which canbe used to erect fortifications and barriers andprepare cold weather shelters.

Class VI. Lip balm and skin lotion are needed.They combat the effects of cold weather.

Class VII. Transporting large end items to for-ward units is difficult in cold weather and mountainousareas. Therefore, emphasize maintenance, repair, and

return to user of such items rather than the use ofreplacement end items.

Effect on Supply RoutesRoutes to and through supply train areas are im-portant when deciding on site selection.Establishing a number of supply routes will helpreduce the amount of traffic and lessen the chanceof enemy attack. Cold weather or a mountainenvironment often provides ideal terrain for en-emy attacks and ambushes on supply route traffic.Enemy units can be dropped by air or can infiltratefrom the rear to seize important road junctions. Itmay be necessary to establish route patrols andobservation posts to secure MSRs. Observationposts along supply routes should have surveil-lance devices to help improve the ability to operatein bad weather and at night.

Effect on Supply TrainsLocate supply trains as far forward as possible. Toincrease dispersion, battalion trains are dividedinto combat and field trains. Combat trains may beset up in valleys or ravines on the near slope of theterrain that the unit is occupying. Keep trainssmall and mobile so they can be relocated quickly.

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