chapter 1: introduction · web view2020. 11. 14. · social media word of mouth reaches more...
TRANSCRIPT
IMPACT OF SOCIAL MEDIA ON SPORTS MARKETING – A CASE OF NIKE UK
[Name of Student]
[Name of University]
Social Media and Sports Marketing 2
Abstract
The aim of this study was to analysis the impact of social media advertising on sports marketing
within the context of Nike in the UK. Using the statistics exhibited, this inquisition substantiates
that social media content is most important element of digital marketing success of Nike. This
study conducted mixed method research process with 100 marketing professionals in the UK as
survey participants and 10 marketing professionals as interview participants. It can be observed
from the survey results that there is significant impact of social media marketing on sports
marketing. The social media affects sports marketing through content, celebrity endorsement and
through positive word of mouth. The results of this study are generally consistent with those of
past literature.
Social Media and Sports Marketing 3
Table of Contents
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................5
1.1 Background............................................................................................................................5
1.2 Problem Statement.................................................................................................................9
1.3 Aims and Objectives..............................................................................................................9
1.4 Research Questions..............................................................................................................10
1.5 Research Organisation.........................................................................................................10
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW.......................................................................................11
2.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................................11
2.2 History of sports marketing.................................................................................................12
2.3 Social networks within sports marketing.............................................................................14
2.4 Background of Sports Marketing.........................................................................................15
2.5 The Product of Sport............................................................................................................17
2.6 Sports Marketing Strategies.................................................................................................21
2.7 Theoretical Framework........................................................................................................23
2.8 Conceptual Framework........................................................................................................24
2.8.1 Content Marketing........................................................................................................24
2.8.2 Celebrity Endorsement.................................................................................................25
2.8.3 Word of Mouth.............................................................................................................27
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY.................................................................................................29
3.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................................29
3.2 Research Philosophy............................................................................................................29
3.3 Research Approach..............................................................................................................30
3.4 Research Methods................................................................................................................31
3.5 Research Strategy................................................................................................................32
3.6 Data Collection Methods.....................................................................................................33
3.7 Data Collection Instruments................................................................................................34
3.7.1 Questionnaire................................................................................................................34
3.7.2 Interviews.....................................................................................................................36
3.8 Sampling Strategy................................................................................................................37
3.9 Data Analysis Techniques...................................................................................................38
Social Media and Sports Marketing 4
3.10 Reliability and Generalisability.........................................................................................39
3.11 Ethical Considerations.......................................................................................................39
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND ANALYSIS................................................................................41
4.1 Introduction..........................................................................................................................41
4.2 Questionnaire Results..........................................................................................................41
4.2.1 Frequency Trends Analysis..........................................................................................41
4.2.2 Correlation Analysis.....................................................................................................52
4.2.3 Regression Model.........................................................................................................54
4.2.4 Reliability – Cronbach’s Alpha....................................................................................56
4.3 Interview Results.................................................................................................................56
4.3.1 Focus of Content of Social Media Marketing by Nike.................................................56
4.3.2 Engagement by Nike.....................................................................................................58
4.3.3 Entertainment................................................................................................................60
4.4 Impact of Social Media........................................................................................................61
4.5 Chapter Summary................................................................................................................63
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS...................................................64
5.1 Conclusion...........................................................................................................................64
5.2 Recommendations................................................................................................................65
5.3 Future Research...................................................................................................................67
References......................................................................................................................................69
Appendix A – Survey Questionnaire.............................................................................................79
Social Media and Sports Marketing 5
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
Throughout history, the successive introduction of new technologies has operated as a
generator of social change. The digitization of information and the convergence of this
phenomenon with that of its network distribution have brought with it a new era of human
development of historical dimensions. Since the appearance of the Internet, and more specifically
with the advent of web 2.0, the world of communication has undergone great transformations
(Horák, 2016), thus consolidating the idea that the history of communication is closely linked to
the history of technology. The linear theoretical model of mass communication in which a sender
(source) transmits a message through a channel (media) destined for a receiver (public), for
many years has been the dominant paradigm in studies on the information and communication
(Nufer, 2016). Since information and communication is an important aspect of business,
therefore, related technologies such as social media have also gained their importance which is
the main aspect of this research study.
Today, the social media admits certain revisions in favor of a more reticular than linear
model, with which the traditional flow of information basically one-way "from one to many" has
been changed to a flow of multidirectional cut "from many to many". In short, some old
explanatory models of mass communication have already been overtaken by novel approaches
(Huang and Hsu, 2017).
The strictly technological, while being fundamental, is not the only key element of this
process that many already qualify as a “paradigm shift” and in which, as in all revolutions, there
is another unavoidable protagonist, i.e. the individual. The great difference between new media
and traditional media lies in the greater interactive potential of the latter. The Internet and the
Social Media and Sports Marketing 6
rest of new social media allow the multidirectional flow of messages and greater possibilities for
selection, expression and communication (Erzikova, et al., 2016). There are those who interpret
that the Internet is not so much a technology as a cultural production, because it is a truly social
construction, in which users are simultaneously consumers and producers of content
("prosumers"). It is the people themselves who shape this new lattice model through their
contributions, through their actively creative participation and through their collaborative
attitudes (Hsu and Hunang, 2017). Based on these arguments, this study aims to focus on the
social media and how it is shaping the business communication particularly marketing
communication in modern world.
McCarthy (2016) pointed out a few years ago that the media would improve if they
somehow emulated the way people communicate in face-to-face conversations. Machines alone
have not been and are not capable of generating a full interactive discourse, but they are
necessary tools for users to develop their relationship skills. The individual has thus taken a
leading role in the formation and growth of this interactive network culture that has opened the
human mentality to dialogue and to a continuous approach in a scenario of multiple
participations like never before. According to Saari and Tuominen, (2016), Internet users seek to
dialogue, discuss, confront, support and, in one way or another, establish a relationship with
others. In short, as powerful as it is, technology is only an enabling tool that gains its true
strength in the hands of (connected) people. Therefore, the focus of this research has been set on
the social media which is an important networking internet based tool.
Both quantitatively and qualitatively speaking, the emergence of online social channels
(social media) is perhaps the most significant phenomenon that has occurred in the Internet
environment in recent years, so that the interaction of people in real time, regardless of the
Social Media and Sports Marketing 7
location they have become one of the star activities of the moment in the online world,
something of which some data give a good example (Hoffrén, 2019). 90% of Internet users
already belong to some social network; social media has already surpassed the consumption of
other online services and material such as entertainment music, video, etc. Majority of the
businesses are using social media such as LinkedIn to recruit employees and, the rate of minors
accessing social networks on the Internet from smart mobile phones increased exponentially
(Newman, Peck, and Wilhide, 2017).
According to Hale, (2016) an overwhelming majority of mobile phone users who connect
to the Internet from their mobile phones do so to access social networks. Perhaps the definitive
proof of the strength and successful social implantation of the latest technologies and the
phenomena of use associated with them is the amazing speed with which they have succeeded,
because as Haemers, (2016) points out to achieve the 50 million users, the radio needed 38 years,
television required 13 years, Internet required 4 years, the iPod required 3 years, but for
Facebook it took just nine months to reach its first 100 million users (Ehrenberg and da Costa
Bueno, 2016). Since social media has gained increasing importance for both consumers and
businesses therefore there is a need to continuously gather empirical evidence and this study
contributes towards this notion.
The latest technical means of communication have revolutionized the traditional way of
seeing the world. Now there is a balance in which, on the one hand, we have the structured and
controlled information offered by the traditional media and, on the other, a collective citizen
action that generates its own content and places it on platforms of theoretically universal access
(Ristevska-Jovanovska, 2017). At the same thing happens in institutional settings, the internet
has made it easier for companies and institutions to create their own "media", thus breaking the
Social Media and Sports Marketing 8
traditional difference in roles between the media that "inform others" and the social subjects of
information (Fetchko, Roy, and Clow, 2018). Social media as therefore become an important and
unique communication channel between businesses and consumers and this study aims to
explore its potential through a case study of Nike, which is considered to be leader in social
media marketing.
Placing the focus of these initial reflections in the field of sport, the influence that the
latest information and communication technologies are having on it is also indisputable, and vice
versa. In order to understand the evolution of sport throughout history with a holistic vision, it is
necessary to attend in parallel to the changes experienced by the media and the evolution of
information technology itself (Manna, 2019), because the osmosis between sport and
communication goes beyond the extremely important role that the media has played - and is
playing - in the financing of sports, fundamentally, but not exclusively, in its professional sphere.
The media have spectacularized the sport to the point of molding spectators and athletes
themselves a particular experience of it (Schmidt, et al., 2018).
Ristevska-Jovanovska, (2018) posited that there is no longer sport without television, nor
television without sport. Furthermore, the study pointed out at the dawn of the 21st century that
in a context of profound changes in the system of production and distribution of communication,
sport has become a representative social practice of the processes of convergence that occur in
the information society between technological, cultural and social factors, and that this
convergence should not be considered, therefore, as an isolated phenomenon, but as a direct
consequence of the transformations that are taking place in the communications system and in
the new processes of cultural mediation in the information society (Hazari, 2018).
Social Media and Sports Marketing 9
1.2 Problem Statement
In sports industry, the NIKE brand has marked an incomparable importance when
evaluating the incidence of different brands on the perception and behaviour of sports
consumers. Supporting this is the plethora of marketing research that explains the evolution that
Nike and other sporting brands have had over time and how they have standardized a prototype
of comfortable and practical sports merchandise in global society. It also explains the success
and positioning that these brands have had worldwide by offering quality, innovation and
continuous improvement in their products (Caetano, 2019).
One of the key success factors of Nike is its effective marketing strategy. Nike, like other
sporting brands, makes heavy investment in marketing and advertising. Furthermore, there has
been significant research about the way Nike has used social media and has become the leading
sporting brand on Twitter as well as other social media platforms (White, White, and White,
2017). This study is aimed to understand and explore the impact of social media on sports
marketing by conducting the case study of Nike as case study. The aim is to assess and stress
upon the use and impact of social media in sports marketing in the UK.
1.3 Aims and Objectives
The research would like to evaluate the impact of social media advertising on sports
marketing.
• To Study the concept of social media advertising and sports marketing
• To identify the key factor pertaining to social media that influence sports a marketing
• To study the impact of social media on sport marketing in light of Nike UK.
• To provide recommendations to Nike UK on deploying effective social media strategies
to enhance sports marketing.
Social Media and Sports Marketing 10
1.4 Research Questions
The research questions formed for achieving the aim of study are as follows:
• What is the concept of social media advertising and sports marketing?
• What are the key factors pertaining to social media that influence sports a marketing?
• What is the impact of social media on sport marketing in light of Nike UK?
• What are the social media strategies Nike UK can deploy to enhance sports marketing?
1.5 Research Organisation
The organisation of this study has been divided into five main components. The first part
is the introduction and rationale for research phenomenon, research problem, aims and
objectives. The second part is the secondary data collection and analysis results in the form of a
comprehensive literature review. The literature review also developed a conceptual framework
that serve as the foundation for primary data collection and analysis methods. The third chapter
provides complete details and rationale for each methodological step undertaken during the
course of the study. In the fourth component the researcher presented results and analysis of
primary empirical evidence. Finally the study ends with conclusions and recommendations.
Social Media and Sports Marketing 11
CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
Despite the fact that the first scores between business and sport were already visible at
the beginning of the 20th century, it was not until the 70s of the last century when marketing
settled definitively in the world of sports. Thanks in large measure to radio and television, which
were the main means of announcing the products of the different brands. Nike, Adidas and Puma
took advantage of this wave and in just ten years they grew exponentially (Cornwell, 2016). One
of the visible and most prominent heads at the beginning was Phil Knight, founder of the sports
company Nike. Considered the father of sports marketing, he was able to quickly make a name
for himself in the commercial world thanks to the sponsorship he offered to athletes such as
Michael Jordan or the Brazilian soccer team (Madej, 2019).
Today, and taking advantage of the revolution that social media has brought, it is much
easier to make yourself known. Additionally, companies target a much broader audience. The
objective, without a doubt, is to establish a brand-athlete and public-brand relationship. And this
is the main change that this sector has managed: to commercialize everything that surrounds
sport (Phua, et al., 2018). For Nikodimou and Dimitrakopoulou, (2019) practically everything is
marketed and highlights that clubs and athletes are aware of the media platform they have
become and seek to obtain the greatest possible economic return for their activity.
Real Madrid or Football Club Barcelona may be charging around 100 million euros per
season from their sponsor. It would be unreasonable to think that a high-level team could be
entering these amounts of money. But taking the beginnings of marketing as a reference, there is
no doubt that he took sport as an object to continue growing and that he does it more and more
(Burton, 2019).
Social Media and Sports Marketing 12
2.2 History of sports marketing
Despite the fact that there are some glimpses of the relationship between advertising and
sport in the second half of the 19th century, it was not until the 20s of the last century when this
contact was made. It originated in the United States and gradually spread throughout the world.
It was in the year 1923 when the Wilson Sporting Goods company began to sponsor the golfer
Gene Sarazen (Toffoletti, 2016). At first, the agreement stood at $ 6,000 per month and an extra
of the same amount for expenses on their trips. The Wilson company, founded by Thomas E.
Wilson, is well known today for being the sponsor of high-level tennis rackets like Roger
Federer or Serena Williams (Gadiraju, 2016).
Years later and already in 1928, Coca Cola decided to bet heavily on the Amsterdam
Olympics. They managed to sell more than 1,000 cases of bottles and it was the main drink of
many of the athletes who gathered there. In addition, the Coca Cola logo was already visible on
some posters of the event and since then its relationship with the Olympic Games has increased
considerably, being one of the most important official sponsors (Billings, et al., 2017).
The radio also took advantage of this type of strategy and began to establish its first
advertising spaces. However, this method was definitively implemented with the appearance of
the then journalist Phil Knight, one of the founders of the Nike brand in 1964. His company has
since been dedicated to the design, development, manufacture and marketing of balls, footwear,
clothing, equipment, accessories and other sports items. Knight also managed to establish a
millionaire contract in the 80s with the famous basketball player Michael Jordan, creating at that
time the Air Jordan sneakers (Sobande, 2019). Like radio, television and the media in general,
they served as a voice so that all these companies began to market their products and grew little
by little. In 1951, the American television channel National Broadcasting Company (NBC),
Social Media and Sports Marketing 13
began to broadcast the main sporting events that had repercussions nationally and worldwide.
Companies, especially Americans, began to value and saw the opportunity to include their brand
in these events, observing the effect they had (Bohnsack, et al., 2016).
Following this line, in the 60s sports companies continued to see the media as a
fundamental piece when promoting their products. In addition, the fight between the most
famous sports brands began: Nike, Adidas and Puma. From the 70s, many athletes are already
included as the protagonists of numerous spots or advertising campaigns. The campaign moved
politically. Adidas wanted to highlight how the Argentine country was at that time: lifting of the
prohibition of Peronism, the Farc, the corruption of many military personnel, the lack of unity of
the people (Prather, 2018). With the motto Representatives of the new Argentina: strong and
elegant united took football as a starting point to reverse that situation through sportswear. In
addition, the campaign also included the company Gatic, founded in 1953 and which was
licensed by the Adidas company from Germany to manufacture sports products in Argentina
(Schlereth and Frederick, 2017).
In the 80s, the inclusion of athletes themselves in advertising spaces was strengthened.
Even many brands that did not sell sports products also saw selling their product via athletes as
viable. One of the most famous advertising campaigns of the 80s was carried out by Diego
Armando Maradona and promoted by the Generalitat de Catalunya, when the Argentine
footballer was at Fútbol Club Barcelona. The spot promoted sports in addition to showing its
refusal to use drugs (Diers-Lawson and Croucher, 2017).
The irruption of companies not linked to the sports world established a relationship with
those that did, with the objective of mutual benefit. Nike's relationship with football grew
exponentially from the 90s and its ads began to become authentic works of art. One of them was
Social Media and Sports Marketing 14
the announcement that featured the Brazilian soccer team in '98, one of the best in history. The
spot was shot at the end of 97 and was published the following year on the occasion of the 1998
World Cup in France (Cottingham and Petersen-Wagner, 2018). The chosen setting was the
Galeao Airport in Rio de Janeiro. Soccer players such as Ronaldo or Rivaldo, among others,
toured the entire airport with dribbles, watermarks, ball kicks, all the beauty of Brazilian football.
The announcement is remembered as one of the best in football history (da Silva and Las Casas,
2018).
Already in the 21st century, more and more brands are taking sport to sell their products
or to be the official sponsor of a club. Without going any further, the flight company Fly
Emirates, is the official sponsor of Real Madrid Club de Fútbol or Rakuten, the largest online
store in Japan, which is the Fútbol Club Barcelona. This, linked to the rise of social networks,
has turned sports into an industry that continues to grow (Sande, 2019).
2.3 Social networks within sports marketing
Create a hashtag, upload a video or carry out raffles. Launch surveys, conduct contests or
do a live show. More than 90% of companies have carried out any of these actions. Social
networks have allowed brands to go further and retain more people. Also, they have allowed you
to follow a live match of a team through their platform or find out about the latest signings.
Features such as immediacy or feedback allow you to connect the brand with the public. In this
case, the companies are sports teams, with the aim of establishing a closer relationship with fans
(Sanderson and Siegfried, 2018). An example of this is creating attractive content, the task of the
Community Managers, and that this content goes viral. One of the most recognized in Spanish
football is the Community Manager of Club Deportivo Leganés. His creativity and close contact
Social Media and Sports Marketing 15
with the followers of the Madrid team has made his content go beyond simple information and
has made the followers feel part of his publications (Scelles, et al., 2017).
The creativity of the Twitter simulating a Champions League match by the time and day
of the match against Real Madrid went viral in a few hours. Also connecting with the athletes
themselves is also a success of social networks. Beaming or sharing a content at important events
reiterates that feedback between players and fans (Stavros and Smith, 2019). We can feel their
feelings, their sensations after having played a game or simply their day to day within a sports
team. On the other hand, we can highlight that companies are targeting a young audience, given
that adolescents tend to spend a lot of time on social networks and are waiting for new sports
products at the last minute (Chisam, 2019).
By having a wide variety of platforms (Twitter, Instagram, Facebook, etc.), one can know
the likes of our followers through surveys or just by responding to the publications made by the
company (for example: uploading an image of some new sneakers). In addition, by publishing
this type of content, the company can increase its sales within its website with online payment,
without having to make its buyer go to the physical store (Rowe, et al., 2019). According to
Geurin and McNary, (2020) social networks are very important. In my opinion perhaps
advertising in mainstream media is overrated. Brands were always fighting to be in prime time
and reach a larger audience, but today social networks allow you to segment a target audience
and reach it directly causing greater impact than, for example, television.
2.4 Background of Sports Marketing
In the twentieth century, the emergence of sport as a professional practice is perceived
and, at the same time, it begins to have a powerful presence as the axis of thematic content in the
mass media, modifying the level of traditional symbolic practice: a new and double synergy
Social Media and Sports Marketing 16
between communications and sports. Until the late 1960s, sport maintained relative autonomy
from the mass media (Budraitis, 2016). But the influences came when the media flooded the
field of sports information to become protagonists with live and direct broadcasts. From that
moment, they became natural and genuine co-authors (Phillips, 2019). Sports fields and stadiums
were the new television studios. The growth of the relationship between television and sport has
been so significant and marked that even | Study carried out by the Chicago Tribune revealed
that between 1900 and 1975 sports pages had gone from 9 to 17% of the newspaper (Deshinge,
2020).
Most importantly, in 1975, sports commentaries occupied almost 50% of the local,
national and international press together. Editors had realized that readers wanted more sports,
more comics, more fun, and less news. In fact, in 1984 an expert detected that the sports section
occupied 30% of all the circulation of a newspaper in a big city (Fried and Mumcu, 2016). In
1990, sports fans in the United States were able to purchase their own sports newspaper, "The
National" daily. Although this newspaper has already disappeared, a new one will probably
appear soon. Based on the above, it is noted that the increase in sports information in the
different media had an impact on the birth of sports marketing (Youn and Jin, 2017).
Legg and Dottori, (2017) say that in the specific case of basketball in the United States of
America. It was suggested to the NBA the increase in downtime to have more advertising spaces,
in tennis a new scheme was created, later called a tie-break to reduce the duration of games; in
volleyball a system called rally point appeared, where it is not necessary to have the serve to add.
And in soccer, even the change of shirt was forced during the game to improve the visualization
of the teams. Shortly before 1972, the great changes did not take long to arrive, mainly to the
market of the brands that offer sports products and services; The “revolution” of the clothing
Social Media and Sports Marketing 17
companies appears on the scene with a strong accent and the so-called brand war is introduced to
sport (Nichols, Cobbs, and Tyler, 2019).
According to Mittal and Manavalan, (2017) in 1978 Advertising Age used the
terminology of Sports Marketing to describe the activities of the consumer, the product of the
industry and those responsible for marketing who began to use sports excessively as a vehicle for
promotion
2.5 The Product of Sport
Hand in hand with what is defined as a product in traditional marketing, Wolfsteiner,
Grohs, and Reisinger, (2019) affirm that a vital step in sports marketing is recognizing that you
are dealing with a special product. Given the preeminence of this product in our culture, we
understand that the organisations that offer sports to their consumers form the industry. If a
product can be described as a set or combination of qualities, processes and attitudes (material,
services, and / or ideas) that the buyer expects to bring him satisfactions, it is a peculiar aspect
that distinguishes the sport. In this aspect, the sport product offers the consumer the satisfaction
of some basic desires or needs such as health, fun or sociability. This advantage has to be
redefined by the person in charge of marketing in an organisation (Maderer, Parganas, and
Anagnostopoulos, 2018).
Gajek, (2016) approached sport as a product, they set out to show some components that
in this research are grouped in the following table and that are part of the same for detail the
elements that belong to its constitution, then define the following:
Components of the Sport Product.
COMPONENTS DEFINITION
The way of play by itself Each sport includes a form of play, where a
Social Media and Sports Marketing 18
winner or loser pattern is created. All sports
have different characteristics, which make
consumers see an appeal. For example
basketball for its speed, agility and precision.
Similarly, the defense of American football
makes marking very difficult and this avoids
scoring and spectators pay close attention to
what happens on the scoreboards. Marketing
must identify the innate attractions of the game
so that attendance remains stable (Lyons,
2017).
The event and its stars It has been identified that a tennis
championship, the essential product is the stars
who play it, it is not surprising that tennis
players have a higher percentage of attendance
than men. Everything will depend on the index
of stars that are competing or the event that
generates for consuming an emotional bond.
For this reason, the marketing manager must
take into account whether he is going to invest
in stars of a nature either for a game or a
championship during that season or longer,
evaluating the return on investment
Social Media and Sports Marketing 19
(Vredenburg and Giroux, 2018).
The entrance The entrance to a sporting event brings income,
indicates to the public its locations, shows the
forms and purchasing conditions. Many teams
use tickets as an advertising medium by selling
or promoting on the reverse side of tickets a
business or corporation that disseminates their
message or product. Often, ticket reversal
rights are sold to fast food restaurants, which
offer discounts, plus the chance to win a prize
(Popp and Woratschek, 2016).
The organisation The NASL conducted a study where I observed
one of the most significant factors that help the
feeling of a team in the sense of fidelity. The
fan must be convinced that the team belongs to
their community and will remain there. The
marketing manager naturally tries to foster that
loyalty, and both community efforts and public
relations work serve to foster this support
(Gillooly, Anagnostopoulos, and Chadwick,
2017).
The installations Sports organisations need specific facilities;
Since these are a tangible element of the sport
Social Media and Sports Marketing 20
product and in most cases these are used by the
owners to sell advertising space to obtain more
income (Schoombee and Bick, 2018).
Material, wardrobe, fashions The material surrounding the sports product is
fundamental to any organisation, including a
study carried out on the sports material
represented almost a third of the gross national
domestic product. Sports clubs have found that
retail stores are important revenue-generating
centers that encourage the exchange of
information on fashion equipment and its use.
Sports licensing and merchandising have
rapidly entered this product area, closely
interacting with material, clothing and fashion
companies.
Personnel and processes The staff is always influenced in any service
that is performed to the client, The different
processes that involve sports personnel such as
collecting tickets, being in front of the
reception, controlling the changing rooms,
concession operations, instructional techniques
and ground maintenance they are essential
characteristics of the product. They should not
Social Media and Sports Marketing 21
be overlooked and taken for granted (Zhang, et
al., 2018).
The image Refers to the image corresponding to the
facilities and the location of the same as they
are factors of great importance for the success
of the sport product. To do this The product
image concerns each industry segment of any
sports organisation. Each segment obtains
results related to the image, although the most
important are very similar (Barroilhet, 2016)
According to Vimieiro, (2017), sport is a product and a service that many people around
the world enjoy playing, observing and participating. While there has been a great deal of global
media attention at sporting events such as the Olympics and the World Cup of world football,
there appears to be a lack of integration between sports marketing and international business
disciplines, both from one point from a practical and academic point of view. There is enormous
potential to link sports marketing and international business literature through focusing on
corporate sports businesses that occur around the world. Finlay, (2018), demonstrated the need to
adopt an international perspective of sports marketing and business relations to deal.
2.6 Sports Marketing Strategies
According to Cornwell and Kwon, (2019) sports marketing strategies vary according to
the type of company and the business in which they operate, but in general they are focused on
the consumer of sports products, seeking to find a differentiating and sustainable advantage.
Social Media and Sports Marketing 22
before the competitors. Given this new panorama, sport has become a source of symbols and
social representations with great influence, so companies do not hesitate to use advertising
campaigns to create new needs and influence people's behaviour. In order for a brand to position
itself above another in the minds of consumers, it is important that companies identify with the
values and attributes of their brands and thus be able to search for the most appropriate channels
and marketing strategies, to reach they consumers more directly and effectively (Pourazad,
Stocchi, and Pare, 2019).
Nufer, (2016) adds that in any organisation or type of company, the customer is the
starting point, since the objective of an efficient service strategy is to keep current customers
satisfied and attract potential customers, This must be considered when designing the marketing
or marketing plan. Generally, customer satisfaction is used as a tool in quality management
planning. Every organisation must have a marketing plan (Oliveira, 2019).
According to Brown, Anderson, and Dickhaus, (2016) currently many countries have
soccer teams that focus their sports marketing strategies, towards four main objectives:
• Increase the number of partners, through campaigns for fans to bond with the team.
• Sale of tickets and subscribers for all the games of the season, offering special benefits
to the fans, to get resources through important assistance to the stadium.
• Sale of television rights and advertising space in the stadium in each of the games
played.
• Obtain sponsorship agreements with companies seeking exposure of their brands, as an
important source of income for the team's operation.
King, et al,., (2012) argue that loyalty is another key variable within the marketing that is
applied in sports clubs, the authors propose the importance of applying defensive marketing
Social Media and Sports Marketing 23
strategies to loyalty to consumers and not an offensive marketing that only aims to motivate new
consumers by snatching them away from the competition. The same authors point out that they
often make the mistake of neglecting current customers to attract new ones, investing money in
consumer attraction campaigns (Volozova, 2016). According to the experts mentioned at the
beginning of this paragraph, it is much more difficult to conquer new clients than to retain
current ones, this last strategy being more advantageous, since loyalty of current clients could
without further effort captivate new consumers only through word of mouth (Bigsby, Ohlmann,
and Zhao, 2019).
Recently, sports activities involving people with limited capacity in their sports staff have
become important within the sports industry and the same has led to the massification and
attractiveness of events of this magnitude, from the perseverance and discipline that these
athletes They print in their profession, and the same seeks to raise awareness among those with
the same disabilities to start a sports career (Abeza, et al., 2017).
2.7 Theoretical Framework
For Moragas (1985 cited in Serazio, 2019), the uses and gratifications approach create an
exploration of individual behaviour towards the media, because they create and gratify their
needs. Many of the needs studied may be related to the media but others are independent of
them. For his part, Klevtcova, (2018) between the end of the 1950s and the second half of 1970,
developed the approach in which he analyzed not only the content of the media, but also the
audience that became partially active. The normative theory of social responsibility used
especially the theory of ‘uses and gratifications’. In this theory, individuals choose according to
their personal goals and needs to satisfy them. But it assumes that each member of the audience
Social Media and Sports Marketing 24
is isolated, has different needs, and therefore uses the media with different objectives and
interests and also in a different and selective way (Popp, Horbel, and Germelmann, 2018).
Likewise for Kunkel and Biscaia, (2020) the theory of uses and gratifications arises
directly from functionalism. This theory is based on the fact that gratifications come not only
from media content, but from the type of exposure to the medium and from the social context of
gratifying consumption. In other words, this theory believes that the audience becomes an active
element, since it chooses the means to satisfy its needs and gratifications. On the one hand,
Chanavat and Desbordes, (2017) according to the Theory of Uses and Gratifications, the mass
media satisfy some needs, such as cognitive, aesthetic-affective, entertainment and integrative.
The audience stops being passive to become active, which was not the case with other theories.
There will be those who for their part want to see the Simpsons, while there will be those who
choose the news programs. There will also be those who prefer show programs, etc. It is simple,
people have power and it is with the use that they give to the means that satisfy certain needs. On
the one hand, the needs that seek to be satisfied can be those of entertainment, informational,
recreation, etc. (McKelvey and Grady, 2017).
2.8 Conceptual Framework
2.8.1 Content Marketing
In case of digital marketing and specifically in social networks within its sports
marketing strategy, the content is considered to be most important aspect. According to Hoffrén,
(2019) the firms should carry out a coherent content strategy to meet its objectives. The
published content is considered to be most influential factor (Hoffrén, 2019). Though, the
content is considered to be most influential aspect of digital and social media marketing, but it
Social Media and Sports Marketing 25
cannot be the centre of sports marketing strategy for any firm. Since a content if it is not intended
for a specific type of audience or target will not be successful. If it also does not meet the issuer's
objectives, not only will it not be successful, but it will also comply with the strategy set by the
institution, so there will be no Return on Investment (ROI) that marketers require (McCormick,
2018).
Therefore, what is meant at this point is that the first thing the firm must do is to be clear
about what the objective as a firm will be, what strategies will be followed to achieve those
objectives, and above all, who or who are the targets that we want to impact with the content
(Cornwell, 2016). Once the objectives have been established, the different audiences with
different interests should be identified. This means that the generated content must be of interest
to those audiences so that they cause the effect which has been marked in the club's sports
marketing plan (Jones, 2019).
2.8.2 Celebrity Endorsement
Social networks have fundamentally changed the way people are connected to each other.
The same applies to the way in which brands communicate with their customers and prospects.
News reaches users of Twitter, Facebook and other social networks as it unfolds, much faster
than any other media and more and more of our free time is devoted to consulting our mobile
phones on which social networks are enthroned. Therefore the social networks of sports
celebrities strategic for the brand marketing plan (Richelieu, 2016).
Sport produces passions, presents itself as a source of well-being, a health asset and a
synonym of positivism. On a certain level, sport unites millions of people under a single shared
will, whatever their beliefs, their socio-professional categories and their lifestyle. The
communities gathered around sports celebrities such as world stars like Cristiano Ronaldo, Kobe
Social Media and Sports Marketing 26
Bryant or Michael Phelps present numbers that create confusion (Sanderson and Siegfried,
2018). No less than 63 million fans on Facebook for Ronaldo and 21 million followers on
Twitter! This is how brands like Babolat, for example, have bet on a global sports icon, Rafael
Nadal, to promote its products, instantly communicating with 5.2 million followers on Twitter
and more than 12 million fans of the tennis on Facebook (Austin and Jin, 2017).
The social media allows brands to communicate quickly to an attentive and enthusiastic
target audience, it is essential to remember that they are not like other means of communication.
The power of Twitter, Facebook and other Instagram lies in the relevance of the message
transmitted and its credibility, which must be linked to the sports celebrity to which the account
belongs (Fried and Mumcu, 2016). As such, perfect compatibility between the brand, its image,
its products and the sportsperson is one of the key elements for the success of a digital influence
campaign with product placements, as demonstrated by the successful activations of Cristiano
Ronaldo and Nike his sponsor, on social networks (Carson, 2018).
Product placement on sports celebrity accounts integrated more generally into a digital
influence campaign highlighting the benefits of a product or service is capable of having an
unequalled impact, from the moment when it is scrupulously planned and controlled. The
message, whatever it is - even if it is a sponsored communication (Cornwell and Kwon, 2019)
will have more value in the eyes of members of the sports community because it is more
authentic and more credible. Social networks give new impetus to celebrity marketing and
present themselves as a platform capable of multiplying the desired effect by a brand, both in
terms of awareness and results in terms of the sale of its products or services. The term Powerful
means within the reach of brands wishing to quickly reach their audience and influence their
behaviour (Leng, 2017).
Social Media and Sports Marketing 27
2.8.3 Word of Mouth
Word of mouth is an important aspect of social media marketing. The concept of word of
mouth is the recommendation made by satisfied consumers through content they create on social
media platforms. Loyal customers provide valuable positive as well as negative feedback about
products and services of the company and show their satisfaction (Volozova, 2016). They also
highlight unique characteristics of the products and services and they help to build and promote
brand over the internet. Taking advantage of the virality of the medium, the scope of the product
awareness can be exponential. Social media word of mouth reaches more audiences, more
effectively (Nufer, 2016). When combined with the effects of social media, what is said on social
media can go far beyond the scope of traditional marketing. Word of mouth resulting from
speech and activity will effect, change behaviour, and influence the actions of others (Kalu,
2019).
With the help of new social media services, companies can shape and lead positive
conversations over time and with desired results. It has been shown that digital influence is the
fundamental building block in the marketing and service of companies around the world. To help
make sense of how word of mouth becomes influence (Hazari, (2018), Caetano, (2019)
recommends to understand how reach and relevance fuel resonance. Resonance is a result of
scope and relevance and determines how long something stays alive in the stream before
attention dissipates. This is important because social media is a noisy world, and without
resonance, conversations evaporate quickly. As the activity that results from influence
campaigns is not only measurable, it reveals the elements of resonance that can be optimized. In
Social Media and Sports Marketing 28
order to measure results as a brand, they first have to be designed into the strategy and accounted
for in the supporting parameters (Belasen and Belasen, 2019).
Within this context, Connolly, (2020) highlighted the role of Buzz marketing, or word of
mouth marketing which is a technique, within viral marketing, whose objective is to generate
conversation among people towards a specific brand or product. To do this, it begins by inducing
product testing in a few specifically selected consumers, who discuss their experience with other
people, becoming not only transmitters of information, but also acquire the ability to influence
their purchasing behaviour (Madej, 2019).
2.9 Chapter Summary
The review above clearly indicates that sports marketing has seen gradual and significant
changes with the introduction of different marketing strategies such as celebrity endorsement as
well as adoption of new technologies such as social media. The fundamental aspect of sports
marketing, like marketing in any other industry, is to develop content that is favourable for the
firm, its brand, and its product. The ultimate aim is to influence the consumer behavior among
which one of the most important objectives is to encourage customers to spread positive word of
mouth. This study has combined these variables in the conceptual framework above to conduct a
primary survey questionnaire based empirical evidence to evaluate the impacat of social media
marketing on sports marketing within the context of Nike .
Content marketing
Celebrity endorsement
Word of Mouth (WoM)
Sports marketing
Social Media and Sports Marketing 29
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This part of the study is focused on discussion about methodological design and process
undertaken during the course of the study (Brannen, 2017). The discussion begins with
philosophical position and then continues to identify the research approach. The discussion then
carries on to identify alternate research methods and provides justification for the current choice.
The next section provides discussion about data collection instrument, data analysis techniques
and sampling techniques. Finally, the researcher also provides a brief discussion of ethical
considerations undertaken in this study.
3.2 Research Philosophy
Epistemological position in social research refers to the belief and perspective of
researcher regarding methods and ethos of research process to gain acceptable knowledge. There
are two basic contradictory schools of thought with respect to epistemology. One of them is the
positivism, which stands with the opinion that for the acquisition of acceptable knowledge, it is
critical to apply methods and ethos of natural sciences (Eriksson and Kovalainen, 2015).
Therefore, positivism requires quantification of social phenomenon. In contrast, the interpretivist
epistemological paradigm stress upon the idea that the subject matter of social sciences is
different as compared to subject matter of natural phenomena. Hence, instead of applying
methods and ethos of natural sciences, the social research process should be based on a separate
research strategy (Walliman, 2015). Hence, the interpretivist paradigm conducts social research
process from subjective perspective and does not quantifies phenomenon under consideration.
Finally, there is the hybrid of both interpretivist and positivist paradigm, which stands that both
Social Media and Sports Marketing 30
quantitative and qualitative aspect of a social phenomenon can be integrated to conduct social
research (Taylor, Bogdan, and DeVault, 2015).
This study is based on pragmatism paradigm, because the fundamental aim of the study is
to understand and explore the impact of social media marketing in sport marketing within the
context of Nike. The researcher believes that both quantitative and qualitative methods are
required to gain clear understanding of the impact and hence the researcher decided to posit with
the positivist pragmatism.
3.3 Research Approach
In social research community, the research approach can be classified either as deductive
or inductive. The deductive approach aims to use existing theories and test them within the
context of specific target settings. The purpose is to test the theory to ascertain that whether the
theory that is applicable in general settings can be used to explain the specific target settings also
(Silverman, 2016). In sharp contrast, the inductive reasoning based research approach aims to
develop new theories instead of testing existing theories. The inductive reasoning based
approach collects data from specific circumstances and then continues to identify common
patterns and similarities, based on which a theory is constructed and proposed (Bryman, 2016).
This study is designed with deductive approach. The justification to choose deductive
reasoning-based research approach is that the aim of the study is to test the impact of social
media in sports marketing within the specific content of Nike company. There is significant
theoretical debate regarding the impact of social media in sports marketing. Therefore this study
conducted a conceptual model from existing theories and then identified the factors that can be
used to explain the impact of social media. The researcher then collected data for the Nike as
Social Media and Sports Marketing 31
target settings and then applied the conceptual framework to analyse whether existing theoretical
relationships are applicable in case of Nike.
3.4 Research Methods
The research methods are grouped as mixed method, qualitative method, and quantitative
method. If the researcher uses the quantitative method, the entire research process is based on
quantitative data only. The phenomenon under consideration is quantified and then data is
collected in the form of numbers, ratings, digits, etc. The distinguishable benefit of quantitative
method is that it provides higher reliability as compared to qualitative method because the data is
quantitative and thus has minimum personal bias (Eriksson and Kovalainen, 2015). However, the
major limitation in the quantitative method is that it lacks to provide in-depth details about
feelings, experiences, opinions of people. If qualitative methods are chosen for the social
research process, the entire process is based on qualitative and subjective data only. This type of
data can be text(s), speeches, pictures, or other forms excluding numerical data. The qualitative
method provides in-depth details about feelings, experiences, and opinions of people, and
overcomes the weakness in the quantitative method (Walliman, 2015). However, the qualitative
method is typically subjective and therefore it is often critiqued for its vulnerability to personal
bias of data sources. Finally, there is mixed method which is the hybrid of both quantitative and
qualitative method and thus the research process requires collection and analysis of both
quantitative and qualitative data. Although, the mixed method overcomes the limitations of both
mono-methods, yet the time and budget requirements of mixed methods are higher and therefore
it is considered to be a constraint (Taylor, Bogdan, and DeVault, 2015).
This study is based on mixed method. The primary rationale for choosing research mixed
method is that the choice is dependent upon the choice of research epistemology. The positivist
Social Media and Sports Marketing 32
paradigm is often paired with quantitative method and the interpretivist paradigm is paired with
qualitative method. Since this study is based on pragmatism paradigm, therefore mixed method
is considered to be natural choice for this investigation. In order to overcome the constraints in
mixed method, the research decided to minimize the sample size of both quantitative and
qualitative data collection processes. This was done to meet strict deadline from university and to
minimize the budget requirements.
3.5 Research Strategy
A number of strategies have been developed and implemented in social research
community which include, but not limited to, survey strategy, action research, ethnographic
strategy, etc. The survey strategy is based on collection of data from a sample of target
population at a specific point in time. It is a commonly applied research strategy as it provides
high level of time and cost efficiency (Silverman, 2016). In contrast, there is ethnographic
strategy in which the main requirement for researcher is to collect data as a member of target
population. There are multiple data collection processes at different time intervals (Bryman,
2016). The reliability of ethnographic strategy is considered to be high because it provides more
comprehensive analysis and larger empirical evidence. However, the ethnographic strategy has
very high time and budget requirements which make it unfeasible for small scale research
processes (Brannen, 2017).
This study is based on survey strategy. The research chose survey because the study was
based on mixed method and the survey strategy facilitated to manage time and budget
constraints. In addition, survey strategy allowed to collect large amount of data in relatively less
time and gathers statistically reliable and significant evidence within the specified time duration
(Walliman, 2015). The ethnographic strategy was also not feasible for researcher because it
Social Media and Sports Marketing 33
required to become a member of target population which meant that researcher needed to
become a professional marketer in the UK. This was not viable in current circumstances
(Silverman, 2016).
3.6 Data Collection Methods
Data collection methods are categorized on the basis of type or nature of sources of data.
Primarily, there are two groups, the primary data collection methods and secondary data
collection methods. The secondary data collection methods are those sources that are already
published and provide past evidence and information regarding research phenomenon (Eriksson
and Kovalainen, 2015). Typically, secondary data collection is considered to be highly time and
cost efficient because researchers are now able to collect large amount of data using digital
libraries and search engines. However, the primary critique on using the secondary methods of
data collection is that the sources provide past data only and therefore there is no fresh evidence
to gain new insights. In addition, secondary data and information are also considered to be less
reliable as they are vulnerable to potential bias of publisher, for example, government
publications and institutional publications may be politically biased (Taylor, Bogdan, and
DeVault, 2015).
This study used a number of secondary sources of data which include research articles in
published academic journals and libraries, text books, as well as literature and research published
by universities and other institutions. In order to minimize the personal bias problem, the
researcher used articles from credible and authentic only. Since articles are published after
editing and reviewing therefore personal bias is minimized. The purpose of using secondary data
and information was to identify existing theories and then develop a conceptual model to analyse
Social Media and Sports Marketing 34
specific target settings of Nike. The results of secondary data collection process have been
presented in previous chapter.
The primary sources are those that require researcher to collect fresh empirical evidence
from human participants. The main benefit of primary sources of data is that they provide new
data and evidence and thus provide the opportunity to gain new and innovative insights into the
research phenomenon (Silverman, 2016). However, the main constraint in using primary
evidence is that they are more costly and time consuming as compared to secondary data.
Primary data collection involves sampling from target population and then collection of data
using data collection instruments (Bryman, 2016). The details of data collection instruments used
in this study are provided in the following section.
3.7 Data Collection Instruments
Data collection instruments are devices or tools that are used to accumulate primary data
from participants in the study. Data collection instruments are chosen in accordance with the
research methods choice. There are several data collection instruments available for quantitative
and qualitative data (Walliman, 2015). Since this study was based on mixed method, therefore
two data collection instruments were conducted for data collection process. The details of each
of these tools are provided in following sections:
3.7.1 Questionnaire
For quantitative data collection, one of the commonly used instruments is questionnaire.
The questionnaire is grouped into standardized questionnaire/scales for measurement of social
phenomena or self-administered or customized questionnaires. The standardized questionnaires
are those that have been specifically developed to measure a specific data collection instrument
such as employee satisfaction surveys, customer satisfaction survey, service quality surveys, etc.
Social Media and Sports Marketing 35
(Taylor, Bogdan, and DeVault, 2015). The basic advantage of standardized tools are developed
and tested and have proven reliability and validity. However, they are standardized and therefore
may not meet the individual or unique requirements of target setting or particular research. The
self-administered questionnaires, on the other hand are those that are developed and formulated
by researcher to collect data within the specific research aims and objectives (Silverman, 2016).
Self-administered questionnaires enable the researchers to formulate questions that can provide
required data for the research process while also meeting unique requirements of each setting.
However, the reliability and internal consistency of self-administered questionnaire are
considered to be lower as compared to standardized tools (Bryman, 2016).
This study conducted a self-administered questionnaire. The researcher designed the
questionnaire in five sections. In the first section, the researcher formulated questions regarding
demographic characteristics of participants which include gender, education, and age groups.
Each of the characteristic was operationalized using a statement and relative multiple choice
answers that respondent could choose (Walliman, 2015). The next three sections in the
questionnaire were focused on accumulation of data for independent variables, i.e. content
marketing, celebrity endorsement, and word of mouth respectively. Each of these sections
contained four statements followed by Likert five point scale (Silverman, 2016). The respondents
were asked to show their degree of agreeability towards the statement from strong disagree to
strongly agree. Each of the items in the scale was assigned a rating which was used as
quantitative data. The last section of the questionnaire was focused on independent variable. The
structure of this section was the same as used in previous three sections.
Social Media and Sports Marketing 36
3.7.2 Interviews
For qualitative data collection, the social researchers commonly use focus groups and/or
interviews. The focus group is a method that allow researcher to conduct a discussion about
research phenomenon with two or members of the target population. Each focus group typically
has three or four participants but could involve more. In contrast, the interview is a qualitative
data collection method in which the discussion is conducted between the researcher and one
respondent only (Bryman, 2016). The main advantage of focus group over interviews is that the
former provide large amount of data in relatively less time as compared to latter as there are
several respondents at the same time providing data. However, the limitation in focus group as
compared to interviews is that the former compromises the confidentiality and anonymity of
participants while the interviews provide complete anonymity (Brannen, 2017). However, since
interview discussions are one-to-one only, therefore the researcher has conduct several
interviews to collect sufficient data for research process and thus interviews are much time and
cost consuming (Walliman, 2015).
In this study, the researcher decided to conduct individual interviews because it was not
feasible for the researcher to gather two or more marketing professionals in the UK and conduct
discussion about sports marketing of Nike due to differences in their schedules and availability.
Individual interview was thus a feasible choice for researcher. In order to minimize time and cost
aspects of individual interviews the researcher decided to conduct structured interviews (Taylor,
Bogdan, and DeVault, 2015). The structured interviews are those types of interviews in which
there is a predetermined list of questions which are posed to all participants. The main benefit of
structured interviews as compared top unstructured interviews is that the former provide high
level of time efficiency as compared to latter. Furthermore, the focus of interviews questions and
Social Media and Sports Marketing 37
discussion is strictly focused on research objectives and thus highly relevant data and responses
are acquired (Silverman, 2016).
3.8 Sampling Strategy
Sampling techniques are defined as identifying a sub-set of population that can be used in
research process to represent entire population. The sample members are involved in data
collection process for empirical data, the analysis and results of which are considered to be
applicable on total population. General categories of sampling techniques are probability and
non-probability sampling techniques (Brannen, 2017). The basic difference between probability
and non-probability sampling techniques is that the former requires that the probability to
participate and get recruited is distributed equally in the entire population while the former is
free of any such restrictions. The main benefit of probability sampling techniques is higher
reliability while the main limitation is that the researcher must have access to complete target
population (Eriksson and Kovalainen, 2015). Since the target population in this study is
marketing professionals in the UK, therefore it is a huge and the researcher did not have
adequate means and channels to access all professionals in the UK. Hence probability sampling
techniques were not feasible in this study (Walliman, 2015).
The sampling in this study was done using the convenience sampling technique. The
convenience sampling can be used to access population members in the nearest vicinity and as
per own convenience of researcher (Taylor, Bogdan, and DeVault, 2015).
The sampling process for questionnaire participants began with interacting with
marketing professionals using social media channels and the researcher asked them to provide
email addresses. The researcher sent blank questionnaire, blank consent form and research
background in MS Word format to those participants who agreed to participate in the study. The
Social Media and Sports Marketing 38
researcher sent 156 emails and in response 100 complete questionnaire with signed consent
forms were gathered. The data collection process was stopped at 100 sample size as it is an
adequate sample size for statistical analysis. The same technique and process was applied for
interview participants. Each interview was conducted using one-to-one interviews through
multimedia applications in the smartphone. All discussions were recorded and then transcripts
were prepared using the MS Word format.
3.9 Data Analysis Techniques
The data analysis technique is defined as a process that converts raw data into meaningful
results and inferences and conclusions are drawn from results. Therefore are different data
analysis techniques for quantitative and qualitative data. In case of quantitative data, statistical
techniques are used (Silverman, 2016). The statistical techniques are highly appreciated in
research community as they provide results in the form of tables and graphs which makes it
easier to understand and analyse the data and interpret easily. However, statistical analysis
cannot be chosen for qualitative analysis and they provide limited inferences as compared to
qualitative data (Bryman, 2016).
This study used three statistical techniques commonly used in social research processes.
The frequency analysis, correlation technique, and regression model were used to understand and
analyse the quantitative data and explore the impact of social media marketing on sports
marketing within the context of Nike. The impact of each variable in the conceptual framework
was gauged using these techniques. The results and interpretations are presented in the following
chapter.
For qualitative data analysis technique, there are several techniques which include
thematic analysis, grounded theory, and content analysis, among others. In this study, the
Social Media and Sports Marketing 39
researcher used thematic analysis. Thematic analysis is a technique that enables the researcher to
choose a set of keywords and then search them in large pieces of text(s), such as interview
transcripts and sort the most relevant data called the categories. Once the relevant data is
collected, the researcher further refines the data and identify common patterns and similarities in
different pieces. These similarities and patterns are termed themes (Brannen, 2017).
The same technique and process was applied in this study. Since the interview questions
were formulated using keywords from objectives, therefore, the researcher used thematic
analyses and used the same keywords for search for themes in the interview transcripts. The
results of the thematic analysis are presented in the form of a narrative in following chapter.
3.10 Reliability and Generalisability
The reliability is one of the important aspects in research processes. This study assessed
the reliability by evaluating the internal consistency of the questionnaire survey. The internal
consistency was evaluated using the Cronbach’s alpha measure.
Although, the results of this study are generalizable on Nike consumers, yet they are not
necessarily applicable in case of all sports consumers. In addition, the results are limited to be
applicable on sports industry only and do not explain the behavior of consumers in other
industries.
3.11 Ethical Considerations
A number of ethical principles were observed during the course of this study. Firstly, the
author used Harvard referencing style to pay proper credit and credentials to all the works that
have been used. In addition, the researcher obtained consent from all participants during the data
collection process for the accumulation and use of data for academic purposes. Furthermore, the
researcher has maintained confidentiality and anonymity of all participants. Finally, the
Social Media and Sports Marketing 40
researcher used the data and information of participants for the academic use only and was not
put to commercial use.
Social Media and Sports Marketing 41
CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
4.1 Introduction
The primary research results are presented and analysed in this chapter. The first section
analyses quantitative results using frequency tables, correlation coefficients, and regression
model. The next section in the chapter summarises the results of interviews transcript analysis.
The interview results are organized in relation to the theme of each interview question. The
researcher has provided quotations from transcripts as supplementary evidence to inferences.
Furthermore, the results are also compared with past literature to check their consistency.
4.2 Questionnaire Results
4.2.1 Frequency Trends Analysis
The British marketing professionals were requested that they notify the gender. The
frequencies of questionnaire analyses indicated that 57% of the British marketing professionals
rated male and 43% of the British marketing professionals highlighted female.
The British marketing professionals were requested in the questionnaire that they identify
their age group. As per the frequencies the researcher showed that 24% of the British marketing
professionals marked 18-30 years, 18% of the British marketing professionals selected 31 to 40
years, 24% of the British marketing professionals selected 41 to 50 years, 34% of the British
marketing professionals ticked 51 to 60 years, and 0% of the British marketing professionals
selected over 60 years.
Social Media and Sports Marketing 42
The questionnaire questioned British marketing professionals that they mention the
educational background. The findings of frequency tables indicate following trends 14% of the
British marketing professionals opted undergraduate, 16% of the British marketing professionals
opted graduates, 14% of the British marketing professionals rated postgraduates, and 56% of the
British marketing professionals marked others.
In the survey British marketing professionals were asked to select one rating for the
statement below. Social media content is most important element of digital marketing success of
Nike. Following trends have been obtained from ratings 5% of the British marketing
professionals opted strongly disagree, 16% of the British marketing professionals marked
disagree, 8% of the British marketing professionals highlighted neutral, 35% of the British
marketing professionals picked agree, and 36% of the British marketing professionals ticked
strongly agree.
Social Media and Sports Marketing 43
The British marketing professionals were requested that they rate the statement as
followed. The content on Nike social media platforms is coherent and consistent with its
strategic marketing objectives. The frequencies of questionnaire analyses indicated that 6% of
the British marketing professionals selected strongly disagree, 16% of the British marketing
professionals chose disagree, 6% of the British marketing professionals highlighted neutral, 33%
of the British marketing professionals chose agree, and 39% of the British marketing
professionals opted strongly agree.
The questionnaire requested that they rate the statement as followed. The content of
Nike’s social media is focused on developing community of loyal customers. Following trends
have been obtained from ratings 8% of the British marketing professionals picked strongly
disagree, 18% of the British marketing professionals picked disagree, 5% of the British
Social Media and Sports Marketing 44
marketing professionals ticked neutral, 28% of the British marketing professionals picked agree,
and 41% of the British marketing professionals opted strongly agree.
In the survey British marketing professionals were asked to select one rating for the
statement below. Nike effectively uses social media content for advertising and marketing of its
products and brand. The findings of frequency tables indicate following trends 8% of the British
marketing professionals highlighted strongly disagree, 13% of the British marketing
professionals opted disagree, 9% of the British marketing professionals chose neutral, 35% of the
British marketing professionals picked agree, and 35% of the British marketing professionals
marked strongly agree.
The questionnaire requested that they rate the statement as followed. Celebrity
endorsement is long lasting tradition maintained by Nike both in traditional as well as digital
Social Media and Sports Marketing 45
social media marketing strategies. Following trends have been obtained from ratings 8% of the
British marketing professionals chose strongly disagree, 19% of the British marketing
professionals picked disagree, 4% of the British marketing professionals opted neutral, 47% of
the British marketing professionals picked agree, and 22% of the British marketing professionals
opted strongly agree.
The British marketing professionals were questioned in the questionnaire that they rate
the statement as followed. Celebrity endorsement contributes towards creating online community
and developing sense of loyalty towards its brand. As per the trends in survey ratings this study
reports that 7% of the British marketing professionals highlighted strongly disagree, 17% of the
British marketing professionals opted disagree, 0.06% of the British marketing professionals
picked neutral, 33% of the British marketing professionals selected agree, and 37% of the British
marketing professionals chose strongly agree.
Social Media and Sports Marketing 46
The questionnaire questioned British marketing professionals that they rate the statement
as followed. Celebrity endorsement helps Nike to transform passion and love of fans of
celebrities into favourable buying behaviour and customer loyalty. The tables organising ratings
showed that 6% of the British marketing professionals marked strongly disagree, 13% of the
British marketing professionals rated disagree, 8% of the British marketing professionals chose
neutral, 35% of the British marketing professionals ticked agree, and 38% of the British
marketing professionals selected strongly agree.
The questionnaire questioned British marketing professionals to select one rating for the
statement below. It is safe to assume that Nike uses the celebrity endorsement strategy
effectively in its marketing campaigns. The trends observed from frequency tables indicated that
9% of the British marketing professionals rated strongly disagree, 10% of the British marketing
Social Media and Sports Marketing 47
professionals selected disagree, 11% of the British marketing professionals opted neutral, 35% of
the British marketing professionals rated agree, and 35% of the British marketing professionals
chose strongly agree.
The British marketing professionals were requested in the questionnaire that they rate the
statement as followed. Positive recommendations made by friends and family in social networks
are more trusted and accepted by consumers as compared to other advertising. From the
frequency tables it was found that 9% of the British marketing professionals rated strongly
disagree, 16% of the British marketing professionals picked disagree, 6% of the British
marketing professionals highlighted neutral, 32% of the British marketing professionals picked
agree, and 37% of the British marketing professionals picked strongly agree.
Social Media and Sports Marketing 48
The British marketing professionals were questioned that they rate the statement as
followed. Positive word of mouth increases the intention to buying and favourable consumer
behaviour such repeat purchase. Based on ratings provided by the respondents it is reported that
11% of the British marketing professionals opted strongly disagree, 10% of the British marketing
professionals ticked disagree, 8% of the British marketing professionals rated neutral, 29% of the
British marketing professionals marked agree, and 42% of the British marketing professionals
rated strongly agree.
In the survey British marketing professionals were asked to select one rating for the
statement below. The content on social media platforms of Nike is generally positive and
favourable for its marketing objectives. Following trends have been obtained from ratings 8% of
the British marketing professionals ticked strongly disagree, 15% of the British marketing
professionals chose to disagree, 7% of the British marketing professionals chose neutral, 38% of
the British marketing professionals rated agree, and 32% of the British marketing professionals
selected strongly agree.
Social Media and Sports Marketing 49
The questionnaire requested that they rate the statement as followed. Nike has a powerful
customer engagement such as ‘@NikeSupport’ to enhance positive word of mouth. The trends
observed from frequency tables indicated that 9% of the British marketing professionals rated
strongly disagree, 12% of the British marketing professionals chose disagree, 9% of the British
marketing professionals opted neutral, 34% of the British marketing professionals rated agree,
and 36% of the British marketing professionals marked strongly agree.
The questionnaire requested British marketing professionals to select one rating for the
statement below. Social media has become an essential feature of sports marketing firms such as
Nike. As per the trends in survey ratings this study reports that 12% of the British marketing
professionals rated strongly disagree, 9% of the British marketing professionals picked disagree,
Social Media and Sports Marketing 50
9% of the British marketing professionals selected neutral, 35% of the British marketing
professionals chose agree, and 35% of the British marketing professionals chose strongly agree.
The British marketing professionals were requested in the questionnaire that they rate the
statement as followed. The success of social media based sports marketing is heavily relied upon
the content quality. From the frequency tables it was found that 9% of the British marketing
professionals rated strongly disagree, 11% of the British marketing professionals picked
disagree, 10% of the British marketing professionals selected neutral, 39% of the British
marketing professionals opted agree, and 31% of the British marketing professionals selected
strongly agree.
The British marketing professionals were requested that they rate the statement as
followed. Celebrity endorsement is a customary and effective marketing strategy for sports
Social Media and Sports Marketing 51
merchandise firms such as Nike. The frequencies of questionnaire analyses indicated that 7% of
the British marketing professionals chose strongly disagree, 12% of the British marketing
professionals marked disagree, 10% of the British marketing professionals opted neutral, 33% of
the British marketing professionals selected agree, and 38% of the British marketing
professionals picked strongly agree.
The questionnaire requested that they rate the statement as followed. Spreading positive
word of mouth is critical for the achievement of marketing objectives such as developing loyal
customer base and online community for Nike. The findings of frequency tables indicate
following trends 8% of the British marketing professionals chose strongly disagree, 15% of the
British marketing professionals highlighted disagree, 8% of the British marketing professionals
ticked neutral, 40% of the British marketing professionals selected agree, and 29% of the British
marketing professionals rated strongly agree.
Social Media and Sports Marketing 52
4.2.2 Correlation Analysis
Although the trends above confirm that there is strong relationship between content
marketing, celebrity endorsement, and word of mouth in sports marketing in case of Nike,
however, the results above do not provide insights about the nature and strength of relationship
among these variables. Therefore, correlation analysis has been conducted. A correlation
coefficient evaluates the strength and nature of change between two variables. The positive
correlation or direct correlation reflected by positive sign indicates that both variables change in
same direction, i.e. if one of them increases the other also shows increment and if one of them
decreases the other also shows reduction. The strength of the correlation is considered to be
strong if the magnitude of the correlation coefficient is higher than 0.5 and closer to 1. On the
other hand, if the magnitude is less than 0.5 and closer to zero the correlation is generally
considered to be weak. Following table shows correlation between independent variables
(content marketing, celebrity endorsement, and word of mouth) and dependent variable (sport
marketing).
Social Media and Sports Marketing 53
The correlation between content marketing and sport marketing is (r=919, p=.000). the
interpretation of this results is that there is very strong and statistically significant correlation
between these quantities. Furthermore, the correlation coefficient between word of mouth and
sports marketing is (r=.886, p=.000) which leads to the inference that celebrity endorsement has
very strong positive correlation with sports marketing. The correlation between positive word of
mouth and sport marketing is (r=.886, p=.000). The interpretation of this result is that there is
very strong and statistically significant correlation between these quantities.
Although the correlation provides useful inferences about the nature and strength of
relationship, still more analyses is required due to inherent limitations in correlation technique.
Firstly, it only shows relationship between two variables and does not accommodate for more
than two variables. Furthermore, it does not gauge the impact of one variable on another and thus
it cannot be used for predictive purposes. Hence, this study also conducted regression model
which is discussed in following section and overcomes the limitations.
Social Media and Sports Marketing 54
4.2.3 Regression Model
The regression model shows more insights about change in a social phenomenon. There
is coefficient of determination, i.e. r-square which indicates the degree of variability in the
phenomenon under consideration that can be explained by given set of independent variable. As
a general rule, an r-square of 0.7 or higher is considered to be statistically sound and shows
adequate soundness in the model. Furthermore, there is significance value in the ANOVA table
which indicates whether the model is statistically sound. If the significance value is less 0.05,
then the impact of independent variables on dependent variable is statistically significant.
Finally, there is the beta coefficient which determines the change in units in the dependent
variable that can be expected by a unit change in the independent variable. Therefore, it gauges
the impact of independent variable on dependent variable. Following table presents the
regression model for the variables in this study.
Social Media and Sports Marketing 55
The table summary shows that r-square is .895 which implies that 89.5% of variability or
change in sports marketing (as dependent variable) can be explained by the independent
variables (content marketing, celebrity endorsement, and word of mouth). Furthermore, the
ANOVA table shows that significance level is 0.000 which indicates that the impact of
independent variables is statistically significant. Furthermore, the beta coefficient for content
marketing is .451 which leads to the inference that if there is a unit increase in content
marketing, while assuming that all other factors remains the same, it can be predicted that sport
marketing will show a positive increase by .451 units. Similarly, the beta coefficient for celebrity
endorsement is .564 which leads to the inference that if there is a unit increase in celebrity
endorsement, while assuming that all other factors remains the same, it can be predicted that
sport marketing will show a positive increase by .564 units. Finally, the beta coefficient for word
of mouth is -.049 which leads to the inference that if there is a unit increase in word of mouth,
while assuming that all other factors remains the same, it can be predicted that sport marketing
will show a decrease by .049 units. The impact of content marketing and celebrity endorsement
are consistent with past literature while the negative impact of word of mouth is inconsistent
with general findings in literature which shows that word of mouth has positive impact.
Social Media and Sports Marketing 56
4.2.4 Reliability – Cronbach’s Alpha
The table below presents the reliability with respect to internal consistency of
questionnaire items used in this study. Typically the internal consistency is considered to be high
and demonstrates adequate reliability if the Cronbach’s alpha is at least 0.7 or higher. This study
found that there is high level of internal consistency in the questionnaire because the Cronbach
alpha is .98 which is very high reliability.
4.3 Interview Results
4.3.1 Focus of Content of Social Media Marketing by Nike
Many participants stated that the content of Nike social media is focused on brand image
and customer self-image. Consider the following statement
People wear Nike and go to events and then they upload their selfies! They want to relate
them with Nike.
Similar conclusions have been drawn by Cornwell and Kwon, (2019) who argued that
people can develop a sense of belongingness with online community and the central brand by
relating their taste and preferences with the products and services of the company. In fact, the
analysis makes it possible to examine the concept of self and identify motivations of consumers
towards buying of brand merchandise.
Another participant made following statement,
This use of brands, in line with a real self-image, was mentioned by Nufer (2016).
Indeed, although several studies mentioned having a particular interest in a luxury brands, many
of them considers these brands as being directly linked to their identity. It should be noted that
Social Media and Sports Marketing 57
they are "fan" to regularly buy products from a luxury brand (the others mainly mentioned
buying luxury goods through counterfeits and democratized products such as accessories, shoes
and beauty products). It is also the oldest participant and having reached a certain social status
through their employment as well as their financial means.
In addition, another participant stated,
Now there is a culture that shows an ideal image which can be achieved through use of
popular brands or luxury brand
The same conclusion have been presented by Brown, Anderson, and Dickhaus, (2016)
who argued that the cultural notion would play a role in the importance given to luxury brands as
well as in the social valuation attributed to associating one's identity with that of luxury houses.
People therefore justify tier desire to reflect a prestigious ideal self, among other things.
Consider another statement,
"Exclusivity is sure and certain [...] the effect of scarcity [...] being different from the
others".
The statement above can be related to King, et al, (2012) who posited that people desire
to be associated with these brands on Facebook comes directly from their need to project a
positive image to others and to perpetuate this image of a person of confidence. Therefore, it can
be said that the content the Nike generates and the content that Nike encourage consumers to
generate is focused on creating a link between brand image and people own self-image. With this
sentence, participant demonstrated the desire to establish, via Facebook, an ideal social self
through luxury brands. For people, accessing the communities of these brands allows them to
strengthen the image that she owns them and that she, too, is prestigious.
Social Media and Sports Marketing 58
Furthermore, the marketing professionals also mentioned that Nike attempts to raise
brand awareness by encouraging followers to upload content about its products and services.
“Many users upload pictures of Nike products and indirectly promote these while trying
to propagate self-image”
Similar assertion is made by Serazio, (2019) who concluded that while some followers
associate the brand with their identity on Facebook simply by integrating their virtual
community, others comment on their status, love their photos, share their content or clearly stage
the brand on their personal page using techniques visual. In fact, two informants substituted their
profile photo (the one most directly linked to the identity of the individual who owns the
Facebook page) in order to show an image of a brand. Thus, by appropriating the images of
luxury brands and generating their own personalized story with the brand, these participants try
to accentuate the link between the brand and the self in order to promote the ideal social self.
4.3.2 Engagement by Nike
Many interviewees indicated that Nike social media encourage engagement by triggering
interest of followers as well as their curiosity. For example one of the professionals opined,
“There are several intrinsic motivations for users to follow Nike social media. There is
entertainment, news, exciting new offers/products, etc.”
Many researchers indicate that brands use social media to engage followers and
customers. Followers subscribing to the brand's Facebook page specifically to access the
information it offers, for entertainment as well as for interest and curiosity. Indeed, for them,
behaviour is also intrinsically motivated since the activity is carried out for the satisfaction it
generates, the pleasure as well as the content it offers (Kunkel and Biscaia, 2020).
Consider another statement
Social Media and Sports Marketing 59
“I think majority of the followers are there to get information and infotainment”
Similarly, McCormick, (2018) argued that the desire to acquire information is an intrinsic
need related to knowledge and mentioned by many respondents. In addition, various anticipated
consequences underlying this need were mentioned by informants such as the desire to learn to
buy, to maintain a blog and to be informed about new products.
Consider another excerpt,
"It’s really to keep up with the latest news." " I’m sure consumers feed on this
information, that’s why they subscribe to these types of pages."
The need for general knowledge of brands is highlighted here in addition to a desire to
acquire specific information. For example, the desire to obtain information about the brand is a
motivating factor for consumers since they frequently mention the same. In addition, it justifies
its adhesion and its desire for information by another need which can, for its part can also be
considered as extrinsic that is to feed a blog on fashion. Therefore, for consumers, these pages
are a source of reliable information on the brands that she can use to maintain her own page
(Nufer, 2016).
Finally, following statement sums the intrinsic motivation and engagement.
"Facebook is going to keep me posted on what's going on there on Nike [...] I'm going to
get information and then shop around with it."
According to Huang and Hsu, (2017) for participants purchasing luxury brand products,
the desire to be informed about new products may also be in the perspective of purchasing these
goods. Thus, they no longer need to regularly go to the store to find out about product offers
since they can now observe them directly on their news feed.
Social Media and Sports Marketing 60
4.3.3 Entertainment
Entertainment was also mentioned by some professionals as the attraction for consumers.
Consider the following statement,
"For people the social media pages have transformed into magazines. You log on to the
page and then scroll through so much that each brand shares a photo".
The similar conclusions have been put by McCarthy, (2016) who argued that in order to
occupy their free time and have fun, consumers can indulge in all kinds of activities related to
brands. Some subscribe to fashion magazines, allowing them to observe trends and see the
brands' product offerings while others window shop. For participants, the brand pages on
Facebook offer them the possibility of carrying out these two activities, without any time
constraints. A Facebook page is primarily a place of entertainment. Indeed, rather than using
paid and paper magazines, this participant uses her Facebook page to distract herself and to reach
the various fashion images of the many luxury brands of which she is a "fan". For her, as for
other participants, her own Facebook page gives her direct access to the world of brands and
allows her to relax while watching a variety of content.
Similar statement made by another participant is,
For participants, the brand page provides entertaining content that allows them to relax.
The fun aspect of the brand's videos also attracts Florence since she says
Furthermore, one of the participants stated,
“Nike and other brands attract attention of consumer by sharing their enthusiasm for
sports and celebrities and therefore the brands try to link and relate with customers”
The aforementioned element has been mentioned by many studies such as Saari and
Tuominen, (2016) who argued that it is critical for social media marketing to establish
Social Media and Sports Marketing 61
relationship between target consumers and brand products and services. The basic idea is to
depict that the brand shares the same feelings and excitement with the customers regarding the
sports. Therefore, customer stay connected with the brands.
4.4 Impact of Social Media
Another important theme in the interview discussions was to understand and explore the
impact of social media on sports marketing. Although, previous themes show that social media
shows its impact in terms of connection, relating, and engaging the brands with customers
through targeted content, interest, infotainment, and sports enthusiasm, however, the basic
purposes of marketing is to affect the buying behaviour. Following discussion provides evidence
regarding impact of social media on buying behaviour of Nike customers from the perspective of
professionals in the UK. Consider the following excerpt,
Nike definitely wants social media marketing to have effects on buying behaviour. The
basic purpose is to enhance loyalty and positive buying decisions.
Majority of the literature on social media marketing is focused on identifying its impact
on buying behaviour. According to Nufer (2016) within the context of sports marketing, the
purpose of social media is to engage the customers to the brand and its products. The brand
provide product details and other information for customers in different and innovating ways so
that they can enhance brand image in the minds of customers and the idea is to make customers
recall when making buying decisions.
Another participant expressed the impact of social media in following words,
“One of the main fundamental purpose of social media for any company including Nike
is to drive sales. This can be achieved by identifying needs of customers and then providing
relevant content that affects their buying decision”
Social Media and Sports Marketing 62
The aforementioned aspect is also frequently cited in literature. According to Kunkel and
Biscaia, (2020) social media generates significant and valuable content for marketers and
businesses. Since users are able to generate their own content, therefore the content can be used
to identify unmet needs of customers as well as change in buying preferences.
Another important aspect of impact of social media was reflected in following statement,
“Social media has much wider reach to people as compared to traditional media. People
have access to social media content in their personal phones, thus it can be used to reach
individuals”
There is significant amount of literature that shows the ability of social media to
personalise the marketing and advertising content for target customers. According to McCarthy
(2016) social media communities develop by people with common interest and common
characteristics. Businesses can identify their interests and characteristics and adapt their products
so that people feel more relevant with the brand and its products. This is an important objective
of branding strategy.
Finally, it is important to highlight an important impact of social media advertising which
is reflected in the following statement,
“for me the most important impact of social media on sports marketing is the cost
efficiency marketing effectiveness. Social media is cheaper as compared to traditional media.
Imagine the cost of conducting a simple survey among millions of consumers without social
media”
The cost efficiency of social media marketing has been widely discussed and generally
the researchers agree that it provides higher cost efficiency and higher return on investment as
compared to traditional advertising media. According to Saari and Tuominen (2016) although the
Social Media and Sports Marketing 63
measurement and evaluation of efficiency and effectiveness as well as return on investment of
marketing and advertising is non-definitive generally, however, it can be fairly opined that social
media has some unique characteristics such as wider reach, two way communication, etc. which
makes its more cost and resource efficient as compared to traditional media. However, the study
also highlighted a number of risks such as a corporate scandal going viral and having adverse
impact on brand.
4.5 Chapter Summary
The quantitative results show that social media marketing has significant impact on sports
marketing. This is based on the finding that celebrity marketing, content marketing, and positive
word of mouth are important aspects of social media marketing within the context of Nike and
these affect the buying behavior consumers. The internal consistency of the questionnaire is high
which adds to the reliability and validity of the findings. This provides answer to the main
research objectives of this study. Furthermore, the interview results confirm that the focus of
content marketing by Nike is on encouraging customer involvement and spreading positive word
of mouth as well as to develop a community that creates a sense of belongingness. Furthermore,
entertainment and infotainment are also major aspects of Nike’s social media marketing. The
results of interviews are generally consistent with past studies which also adds to the reliability
of this study. A number of recommendations have been made in the next chapter to answer the
final research objective.
Social Media and Sports Marketing 64
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Conclusion
The aim of this study was to analysis the impact of social media advertising on sports
marketing within the context of Nike in the UK. Using the statistics exhibited, this inquisition
substantiates that social media content is most important element of digital marketing success of
Nike. Furthermore, from the discussions yielded, this work proclaims that the content on Nike
social media platforms is coherent and consistent with its strategic marketing objectives.
Additionally, taking into account the inferences furnished, this investigation records that the
content of Nike’s social media is focused on developing community of loyal customers.
Moreover, grounded on the details discovered, this investigation testifies that Nike effectively
uses social media content for advertising and marketing of its products and brand. In addition,
taking into account the analysis secured, this inquisition endorses that celebrity endorsement is
long lasting tradition maintained by Nike both in traditional as well as digital social media
marketing strategies.
In addition, grounded on the deductions yielded, this investigation deduces that celebrity
endorsement contributes towards creating online community and developing sense of loyalty
towards its brand. Furthermore, in view of the evidences produced, this investigation
substantiates that celebrity endorsement helps Nike to transform passion and love of fans of
celebrities into favourable buying behaviour and customer loyalty. Moreover, considering the
discussions procured, this work ratifies that it is safe to assume that Nike uses the celebrity
endorsement strategy effectively in its marketing campaigns.
Moreover, using the facts secured, this inquisition recognises that positive
recommendations made by friends and family in social networks are more trusted and accepted
Social Media and Sports Marketing 65
by consumers as compared to other advertising. Also, from the analysis gathered, this inquiry
derives that positive word of mouth increases the intention to buying and favourable consumer
behaviour such repeat purchase. Additionally, taking into account the statistics collected, this
inquisition explains that the content on social media platforms of Nike is generally positive and
favourable for its marketing objectives. Additionally, in the light of the statistics provided, this
work deduces that Nike has a powerful customer engagement such as ‘@Nikesupport’ to
enhance positive word of mouth.
Additionally, based on the empirical data brought forth, this inquiry exhibits that social
media has become an essential feature of sports marketing firms such as Nike. Moreover, in view
of the analysis presented, this investigation supports that the success of social media based sports
marketing is heavily relied upon the content quality. Furthermore, in the light of the deductions
put up, this research denotes that celebrity endorsement is a customary and effective marketing
strategy for sports merchandise firms such as Nike. Furthermore, in view of the arguments
secured, this investigation testifies that spreading positive word of mouth is critical for the
achievement of marketing objectives such as developing loyal customer base and online
community for Nike.
5.2 Recommendations
Although, it can be observed in the general literature that Nike has a successful social
media marketing strategy, however, there is always room for improvement. Following are some
of the recommendations derived from general literature:
• It is recommended to promote more research on the theory of Uses and Gratifications
since there is not much information on the subject, much less updated research. Nike should use
Social Media and Sports Marketing 66
various instruments such as customer motivation and satisfaction surveys to identify the unmet
needs of its loyal consumers and develop more promotional strategies (Green, 2016)
• Furthermore, it is recommended that it has been observed that Nike invests millions of
dollars in marketing and therefore it can be recommended that there is a need to achieve higher
efficiency. Nike can use data and information provided to its social media pages by consumers
and use data analytics tools to achieve more efficiency (Nichols and Gardner, 2017)
• In addition, it is also recommended that Nike can use artificial intelligence tools and
techniques to enhance its marketing strategy. For example, AI-enhanced PPC advertising is a
tool that can be used to enhance marketing effects and optimise marketing budget on social
media web pages such as Facebook (Karppinen, 2016).
• The Nike positions itself in different targets and takes into account the particularities of
each country. For example, in the United States basketball and American football are stronger
than soccer. In addition, Nike is in different sports disciplines and is also an event sponsor. Thus,
it encompasses people who practice different sports and has made everyone feel part of the same
community. In this way, in digital strategy it has differentiated its segments by disciplines such
as "Nike Football" or "Nike Basketball". This segmentation for content marketing manages to
provide each buyer person with what they need depending on their interests. Hence, more
segmentation focused on identifying niche products can be used to enhance content marketing
strategy (Zhou, et al., 2016).
• Nike empowers its audience to create their own personalized content. In other words, it
gives the consumer the opportunity to design their own sports shoes according to their style.
Thus, it manages to make users feel part of the brand and its values. In fact, through
personalization, it manages to generate a feeling of belonging and relevance to the company. In
Social Media and Sports Marketing 67
Nike's strategy consumer tastes and interests are key, allowing them to create their own footwear.
Thus, it reaches the emotions and feelings of the clients, feeling part of a shared project. It is
recommended that Nike should improve this strategy by developing promotions and social media
influencers and celebrities that are most effective for the company as compared to sports
celebrities (Teo, 2019).
• There is also a need for the reorientation of sports sponsorship. This new reality has
triggered a real war between Nike, and its main competitor Adidas, for sponsoring the best clubs
in the world. One of the effects of this reorientation of sports sponsorship to clubs is the high
figures that will be paid for such sponsorship, which will require a long time for the investment
to be profitable. For all these reasons, we insist that the decades-long alliances allow sports firms
to better monetize their investments, which in the case of large teams have been triggered by
increasing economic demands (Ratten, et al., 2016).
5.3 Future Research
Although, this study is based on mixed method using both secondary and primary sources
of data, and depicts adequate level of reliability and validity, yet, there are some inherent
limitations in the methodology and scope of this study. These limitations present future research
opportunities. First among the methodological limitations is the small sample size of data
collection process for both quantitative and qualitative empirical evidence. Furthermore, the
evidence has been gathered from marketing professionals only which shows that the sample
lacks diversity. Although the marketing professional’s insights are important and valuable yet,
the research literature would also benefit from perspective and opinions of other stakeholders,
particularly consumers, athletes, fans, and other stakeholders. Therefore, it is recommended that
Social Media and Sports Marketing 68
future researcher may conduct the same methodology with bigger and larger scale survey and
more interview participants as well as with more diversified sample participants. In addition, this
study was focused on assessing the impact of social media while using only three indicators, i.e.
content marketing, word of mouth, and celebrity endorsement, however, there are also other
factors of social media that must be determined and included in future research projects. In
addition, this study was based on case study of Nike which is a multinational company which
invests millions of dollars in marketing and has shown significant success in social media
marketing. But the results cannot be equally applicable in case of SMEs. Hence there are
opportunities for future researchers to gather evidence regarding SMEs and assess the impact of
social media marketing on sport marketing in SMEs context also.
Social Media and Sports Marketing 69
References
Abeza, G., O’Reilly, N., Séguin, B., and Nzindukiyimana, O. (2017). The world’s highest-paid
athletes, product endorsement, and Twitter. Sport, Business and Management: An
International Journal.
Austin, L. L., and Jin, Y. (2017). Social media and crisis communication. Routledge.
Barroilhet, T. (2016). BRAND INTEGRATION AND SPORTS SPONSORSHIP: BENEFITS
AND PITFALLS.
Belasen, A. R., and Belasen, A. T. (2019). Revealed preferences among NBA fans: Is skin tone a
factor?. International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship.
Bigsby, K. G., Ohlmann, J. W., and Zhao, K. (2019). Keeping it 100: Social Media and Self-
Presentation in College Football Recruiting. Big data, 7(1), 3-20.
Billings, A. C., Qiao, F., Conlin, L., and Nie, T. (2017). Permanently desiring the temporary?
Snapchat, social media, and the shifting motivations of sports fans. Communication &
Sport, 5(1), 10-26.
Bohnsack, D., Jostol, G., Maher, R., Sundar, A., Pokrywczynski, J., and Berg, K. (2016).
TRACKING SPORTS & EVENT MARKETING ANALYTICS FOR MARKETING
EFFECTS: RELEVANT RESEARCH QUESTIONS THE INDUSTRY KNOWS AND
NEEDS. In American Academy of Advertising. Conference. Proceedings (Online) (p.
154). American Academy of Advertising.
Brannen, J. (2017). Mixing methods: Qualitative and quantitative research. Routledge..
Brown, K. A., Anderson, M. L., and Dickhaus, J. (2016). The impact of the image repair process
on athlete-endorsement effectiveness. Journal of Sports Media, 11(1), 25-48.
Bryman, A. (2016). Social research methods. Oxford university press.
Social Media and Sports Marketing 70
Budraitis, E. (2016). Sports Fan Empowerment through Social Web.
Burton, N. (2019). Exploring user sentiment towards sponsorship and ambush
marketing. International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship.
Caetano, N. M. R. P. L. (2019). Nike marketing plan: the launch of Nike Academy in
Portugal (Doctoral dissertation).
Carson, A. (2018). # ReadyForRio: How a Revised Rule 40 Impacted Sponsorship at the 2016
Summer Olympics.
Chanavat, N., and Desbordes, M. (2017). The marketing of football: history, definitions,
singularities, strategies and forms of operationalization. In Routledge handbook of
Football Marketing (pp. 9-59). Routledge.
Chisam, E. (2019). Progress is a Game of Inches: A History and Analysis of Athlete Activism
Before and During the Era of Social Media.
Connolly, B. (2020). Digital Trust: Social Media Strategies to Increase Trust and Engage
Customers. Bloomsbury Publishing.
Cornwell, T. B. (2016). Sport Sponsorship and. The SAGE Handbook of Sport Management, 368.
Cornwell, T. B., and Kwon, Y. (2019). Sponsorship-linked marketing: research surpluses and
shortages. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 1-23.
Cottingham, M., and Petersen-Wagner, R. (2018). Marketing of Paralympic Sports: Attracting
Spectators and Sponsors. In The Palgrave Handbook of Paralympic Studies (pp. 605-
624). Palgrave Macmillan, London.
da Silva, E. C., and Las Casas, A. L. (2018). Sports Ecosystem of the “Triad of São Paulo”:
Sports Marketing Management According to Fans. International Journal of Marketing
Studies, 10(3).
Social Media and Sports Marketing 71
Deshinge, D. R. (2020). Recent Trends in Sports Marketing. Studies in Indian Place
Names, 40(42), 353-358.
Diers-Lawson, A., and Croucher, S. M. (2017). Sports, Culture, and Financial Crisis: A cross-
cultural comparison of the social media responses of struggling sports associations in the
United States and the United Kingdom.
Ehrenberg, K. C., and da Costa Bueno, W. (2016). As marcas entram em campo nas mídias
sociais: O embate entre Nike e Adidas na Copa do Mundo de 2014. Logos, 23(1).
Eriksson, P., and Kovalainen, A. (2015). Qualitative methods in business research: A practical
guide to social research. Sage.
Erzikova, E., Gandy, L., Hall, A., and Kuntz, K. (2016, July). The 2014 NFL player ray rice
domestic abuse case: an analysis of factors that contributed to tweet popularity during the
scandal. In 3rd European Conference on Social M di R h Media Research EM
Normandie, Caen, France (p. 75).
Fetchko, M. J., Roy, D. P., and Clow, K. E. (2018). Sports marketing. Routledge.
Finlay, C. J. (2018). The Right to Profitable Speech: Olympians, Sponsorship, and Social Media
Discourse. Communication & Sport, 6(6), 655-679.
Fried, G., and Mumcu, C. (Eds.). (2016). Sport analytics: A data-driven approach to sport
business and management. Taylor & Francis.
Gadiraju, G. K. (2016). Impact of social media in sports marketing (Doctoral dissertation).
Gajek, K. (2016). Social Media as an important element of sports organization external
communication. Quality in Sport, 2(1), 39-51.
Social Media and Sports Marketing 72
Geurin, A. N., and McNary, E. L. (2020). Athletes as ambush marketers? An examination of
Rule 40 and athletes’ social media use during the 2016 Rio Olympic Games. European
Sport Management Quarterly, 1-18.
Gillooly, L., Anagnostopoulos, C., and Chadwick, S. (2017). Social media-based sponsorship
activation–a typology of content. Sport, Business and Management: An International
Journal.
Green, M. R. (2016). The impact of social networks in the development of a personal sports
brand. Sport, Business and Management: An International Journal.
Haemers, I. (2016). Success story of a young fitness brand: Social media influence as an
indicator of success in the fitness industry.
Hale, L. M. (2016). Social Response Analysis: Exploring social media demographic changes in
response to sporting events (Doctoral dissertation, University of Canberra).
Hazari, S. (2018). Investigating social media consumption, sports enthusiasm, and gender on
sponsorship outcomes in the context of Rio Olympics. International Journal of Sports
Marketing and Sponsorship.
Hoffrén, S. (2019). Developing Brand Identity: Case Ruin City Rollers.
Horák, T. (2016). Influence of Mass Media, Marketing and Advertising on Development of
Sports (Doctoral dissertation, Empire State College).
Hsu, J. H., and Hunang, Y. (2017). The applications of social media in sports marketing.
Huang, Y., and Hsu, J. H. (2017). The applications of social media in sports marketing. 體育學
報, 50(S), 1-18.
Jones, J. L. (2019). International Olympic Committee--Rule 40: Who Does It Protect Versus
Who Should It Protect?.
Social Media and Sports Marketing 73
Kalu, F. (2019). The Impact Of Social Media Influencer Marketing On Purchase Intention From
An Irish Male Millennial’s Perception: A Case Study Of Irish Fashion Industry (Doctoral
dissertation, Dublin, National College of Ireland).
Karppinen, E. (2016). Sports sponsorship as a channel for brand engagement on social media.
King, A. B., Kulick, N. L., Eroshenko, P., and Jaskoviak, T. K. (2016). Developing a Marketing
Plan for Legends Sports Leagues.
Klevtcova, A. (2018). Sport marketing: Coopertion of sport organizations with Russian athletes.
Kunkel, T., and Biscaia, R. (2020). Sport brands: brand relationships and consumer
behavior. Sport Marketing Quarterly, 29(1), 3-17.
Legg, D., and Dottori, M. (2017). Marketing and sponsorship at the Paralympic Games.
In Managing the Paralympics (pp. 263-288). Palgrave Macmillan, London.
Leng, H. K. (2017). Sponsor recall in sports events of short duration: empirical evidence from
swimming competitions. International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship.
Lyons, T. E. (2017). Marketing and social media content strategies for mid-major Division I
athletic departments.
Madej, A. (2019). The Role of Marketing Communication In Recognition of The Global Brand:
A Case Study of Nike (Doctoral dissertation, Empire State College).
Maderer, D., Parganas, P., and Anagnostopoulos, C. (2018). Brand-image communication
through social media: The case of European professional football clubs. International
Journal of Sport Communication, 11(3), 319-338.
Manna, Y. (2019). Examining Consumer-Purchasing Behaviour Towards Valuable Sportswear
Brands: The Social Representation Theory Perspective.
Social Media and Sports Marketing 74
McCarthy, S. T. (2016). It's All About Me: How Self-Brand Connection and Social Media
Interactivity Influence Purchase Intent.
McCormick, K. (2018). Impact of athletic star power on product consumption. International
Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship.
McKelvey, S., and Grady, J. (2017). # JoinTheConversation: The evolving legal landscape of
using hashtags in sport. J. Legal Aspects Sport, 27, 90.
Mittal, A., and Manavalan, A. (2017). The IPL Model: Sports Marketing and Product Placement
Sponsorship. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science Invention, 44-61.
Newman, T., Peck, J., and Wilhide, B. (2017). Social media in sport marketing. Routledge.
Nichols, B. S., and Gardner, J. (2017). Corporate reputation and cause-related marketing in
professional sports: The case of devon still and the cincinnati bengals. Sport Marketing
Quarterly, 26(3), 168-175.
Nichols, B. S., Cobbs, J., and Tyler, B. D. (2019). Rival team effects in cause-related sports
marketing. International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship.
Nikodimou, V., and Dimitrakopoulou, P. (2019). The Power of Marketing in the Industry of
Sports.
Nufer, G. (2016). Ambush marketing in sports: an attack on sponsorship or innovative
marketing?. Sport, Business and Management: An International Journal.
Nufer, G. (2016). Sports events and social media marketing.
Oliveira, D. M. D. S. D. M. (2019). Sponsorship in sports marketing: the effects of sports
sponsorship on football fans' sponsor awareness, exposure, attitude, perceived
congruence, purchase intentions and simultaneous sponsorship with a rival
club (Doctoral dissertation).
Social Media and Sports Marketing 75
Padgett, D. K. (2016). Qualitative methods in social work research (Vol. 36). Sage Publications.
Phillips, K. K. (2019). The relationship between the use of social networking sites and student
spectator behaviour: A case of university sport in the Western Cape.
Phua, J., Pan, P. L., and Chen, K. J. (2018). Sport team-endorsed brands on Facebook. Online
Information Review.
Popp, B., and Woratschek, H. (2016). Sport, Social Media and Online Communities. When Sport
Meets Business: Capabilities, Challenges, Critiques, 120.
Popp, B., Horbel, C., and Germelmann, C. C. (2018). Social-media-based antibrand communities
opposing sport-team sponsors: Insights from two prototypical communities. International
Journal of Sport Communication, 11(3), 339-368.
Pourazad, N., Stocchi, L., and Pare, V. (2019). The power of brand passion in sports apparel
brands. Journal of Product & Brand Management.
Prather, D. (2018). How NBA teams use twitter as a brand management tool (Doctoral
dissertation, University of Missouri--Columbia).
Ratten, V., Madichie, N., Jensen, J. A., Wakefield, L., Cobbs, J. B., and Turner, B. A. (2016).
Forecasting sponsorship costs: marketing intelligence in the athletic apparel
industry. Marketing Intelligence & Planning.
Richelieu, A. (2016). Sport teams' brands going international: The ‘Integrated Marketing
Strategy on the Internationalisation in Sport’(IMSIS). Journal of Brand Strategy, 5(2),
218-231.
Ristevska-Jovanovska, S. (2017). AN EFFECTIVE VIRAL MARKETING
STRATEGIES. Research in Physical Education, Sport & Health, 6(1).
Social Media and Sports Marketing 76
Ristevska-Jovanovska, S. (2018). UNCONVENTIONAL MARKETING STRATEGIES AND
TACTICS. Knowledge International Journal, 23(4), 987-992.
Rowe, W. J., Moore, M. E., and Zemanek Jr, J. E. (2019). Three-tiered sponsorship: a study of
decision heuristics across multiple levels of sport sponsorship. Innovative
Marketing, 9(2).
Saari, J., and Tuominen, J. (2016). The Use of Social Media in Sports Marketing: The Case of
Nordic Ice Hockey Clubs.
Sande, A. V. D. (2019). Influence of Celebrity Athletes on the Sportswear Industry: An analysis
of influencers’ impact on Nike and Adidas brand image (Doctoral dissertation).
Sanderson, A. R., and Siegfried, J. J. (2018). The role of broadcasting in national collegiate
athletic association sports. Review of Industrial Organization, 52(2), 305-321.
Scelles, N., Helleu, B., Durand, C., Bonnal, L., and Morrow, S. (2017). Explaining the number of
social media fans for North American and European professional sports clubs with
determinants of their financial value. International Journal of Financial Studies, 5(4), 25.
Schlereth, N. G., and Frederick, E. (2017). Going for gold: Social media and the USOC. J. Legal
Aspects Sport, 27, 19.
Schmidt, S., Limbach, M., Langner, S., Wiedmann, K. P., Albertsen, L., and Reiter, P. (2018).
Official sports sponsorship fortress vs ambush marketing attack. International Journal of
Sports Marketing and Sponsorship.
Schoombee, J., and Bick, G. (2018). Reebok rebrands: Corporate and marketing strategies in
the south african sporting goods industry. Graduate School of Business, University of
Cape Town.
Serazio, M. (2019). The power of sports: Media and spectacle in American culture. NYU Press.
Social Media and Sports Marketing 77
Silverman, D. (Ed.). (2016). Qualitative research. Sage.
Sobande, F. (2019). Woke-washing:“Intersectional” femvertising and branding “woke”
bravery. European Journal of Marketing.
Stavros, C., and Smith, A. C. (2019). Sport branding insights. Routledge.
Taylor, S. J., Bogdan, R., and DeVault, M. (2015). Introduction to qualitative research methods:
A guidebook and resource. John Wiley & Sons.
Teo, D. D. W. (2019). Antecedents of consumer’s attitude towards social media influencer & its
impact on purchase intention (Doctoral dissertation, UTAR).
Toffoletti, K. (2016). Analyzing media representations of sportswomen—Expanding the
conceptual boundaries using a postfeminist sensibility. Sociology of Sport Journal, 33(3),
199-207.
Vimieiro, A. C. (2017). Sports journalism, supporters and new technologies: Challenging the
usual complicity between media and football institutions. Digital Journalism, 5(5), 567-
586.
Volozova, E. (2016). Effectiveness of Sports Sponsorship and Athletes’ Endorsement as Brand
Communication Tools. Unpublished Bsc. Thesis.
Vredenburg, J., and Giroux, M. (2018). What did Ryan Lochte do? The double-edged sword of
endorsers behaving badly. International Journal of Sports Marketing and Sponsorship.
Walliman, N. (2015). Social research methods: The essentials. Sage.
White, D., White, C., and White, D. (2017). Sponsorship-linked marketing: Using social media
brand affinity data to determine sport sponsorship effectiveness.
Wolfsteiner, E., Grohs, R., and Reisinger, H. (2019). The impact of name and shame disclosure
strategies on sponsor and ambusher brand attitude. Journal of Business Research.
Social Media and Sports Marketing 78
Youn, S., and Jin, S. V. (2017). Reconnecting with the past in social media: The moderating role
of social influence in nostalgia marketing on Pinterest. Journal of Consumer
Behaviour, 16(6), 565-576.
Zhang, J. J., Kim, E., Mastromartino, B., Qian, T. Y., and Nauright, J. (2018). The sport industry
in growing economies: critical issues and challenges. International Journal of Sports
Marketing and Sponsorship.
Zhou, F., Mou, J., Su, Q., and Wu, Y. C. J. (2020). How does consumers' Perception of Sports
Stars' Personal Brand Promote Consumers’ brand love? A mediation model of global
brand equity. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 54, 102012.
Social Media and Sports Marketing 79
Appendix A – Survey Questionnaire
Demographics
Gender
Male
Female
Age
18 to 30
31 to 40
41 to 50
51 to 60
Over 60 years
Education
Under graduate
Graduate
Post graduate
PhD
Others
Scale Strongly Agree (5), Agree (4), Neutral (3), Disagree (2), Strongly Disagree (1)
Independent Variable – Content MarketingSocial media content is most important element of digital marketing success of Nike
(5)(4)(3)(2)(1)
The content on Nike social media platforms is coherent and consistent with its strategic marketing objectivesThe content of Nike’s social media is focused on developing community of loyal customersNike effectively uses social media content for advertising and marketing of its products and brand
Social Media and Sports Marketing 80
Independent Variable – Celebrity EndorsementCelebrity endorsement is long lasting tradition maintained by Nike both in traditional as well as digital social media marketing strategiesCelebrity endorsement contributes towards creating online community and developing sense of loyalty towards its brandCelebrity endorsement helps Nike to transform passion and love of fans of celebrities into favourable buying behaviour and customer loyaltyIt is safe to assume that Nike uses the celebrity endorsement strategy effectively in its marketing campaigns
Independent Variable – Word of MouthPositive recommendations made by friends and family in social networks are more trusted and accepted by consumers as compared to other advertisingPositive word of mouth increases the intention to buying and favourable consumer behaviour such repeat purchaseThe content on social media platforms of Nike is generally positive and favourable for its marketing objectivesNike has a powerful customer engagement such as ‘@NikeSupport’ to enhance positive word of mouth
Dependent Variable – Sports MarketingSocial media has become an essential feature of sports marketing firms such as NikeThe success of social media based sports marketing is heavily relied upon the content qualityCelebrity endorsement is a customary and effective marketing strategy for sports merchandise firms such as NikeSpreading positive word of mouth is critical for the achievement of marketing objectives such as developing loyal customer base and online community for Nike