CHAPTER #1-INTERDEPENDENCE OFLIVING THINGS

What is Ecology?Study of the environment and its

surroundingsEnvironment-Everything around you

LIVING NON-LIVINGCells: organized to form tissuesTissues: organized to form organsOrgans: organized to form organ systems

systems individual

Systems:Breathing CirculatoryDigestive Skeletal

LEVELS OF BIOLOGICAL ORGANIZATIONPopulation: group of individuals of same species

living together in the same areaCommunity: All living things in an areaBiome: Large geographical area with a

characteristic climateBiosphere: Region on earth in which life exists

Individual (Level 1)Population (Level 2)Community (Level 3)Biome (Level 4)Biosphere (Level 5)Ecosystem: Interacting system that consists of a

group of organismsBiotic: LivingAbiotic: Non-livingRespiration: “Burning” of fuels within cells

Glucose: Main fuel of reaction-Simple Sugar

Catalysts: Permits “burning” at temperatures that will not damage the organism(s)

Enzymes: Organic CatalystsPRODUCERS

COMSUMERSDECOMPOSERS

Trophic Levels: Feeding levelsProducers- Create their own food

Auto-trophs: Self FeedersConsumers: Organisms that feed on other

organismsHeterotrophs: Feed on other organisms1st Order Consumer: feed directly on producersHerbivore: Plant EatersCarnivores: Meat EatersOmnivores: Consume both plant & meat1st order carnivores: feed on herbivores2nd order consumer

2nd Order Carnivores: feed on 1st order carnivores3rd Order ConsumerTop Carnivores: HumansPredators: Carnivores which feed on live animalsPrey: Animals which are eatenScavengers: Feed on/in dead organismsSaprophytes: Fungi and bacteria which feed of

dead organismsDecomposers: Mainly bacteria

-Break down and feed on non-living organic matter

Food Web: Organisms in an ecosystem linked together

Photosynthesis: Food Production for Plants

CHAPTER #2-STRUCTURE OF AN ECOSYTEMBiotic: LivingAbiotic: Non-LivingHabitat: Is the place in which it livesNiche: Organism is its total role in the communityCompetition: Same habitat and similar niches

Food Web: Interdependence and interrelated system of plants and animals

Ecological Pyramids:Pyramid of Numbers:

-many producers –few carnivores –many parasites

TAXONOMY OF LIVING THINGSKingdom-Phylum-Class-Order-Family-Genus-

Species-VarietyPouch Animals: Viviparous-give birth to live youngOviparous: Produce eggs

Pyramid of Biomass: Heavy carnivores/Light producersBiomass-total of mass of all living organismsPyramids of Energy:The efficiency with which energy is passed along

the food chain is more important than either the numbers of organisms or their biomass

Special Feeding RelationshipsSymbiosis: Living together

-Close association between 2 organisms of different species in which at least 1 of the 2 benefits

3 Kinds of Symbiosis:-Parasitism-Mutalism-Commensalism

Parasitism: Relationship between 2 organisms in which 1 benefits and the

other suffers harmBenefits: ParasiteHarmed: HostMutalism: 2 organisms in which both benefit

Terrestrial Ecosystem: Land CreaturesRange of Tolerance: Depends on Factor and

OrganismsOptimum: Point at which animal lives the bestAquatic Ecosystems: Water creaturesWhat affects land organisms?What affects water organisms?

CHAPTER #3-FLOW OF MATTER & ENERGY IN ECOSYSTEMS

Flow of Energy in Ecosystems:-Activity is the essence of life-Where do organisms get their energy-What happens to energy in ecosystems

Energy Flow is One-Way:Clover –Rabbit-Fox-Energy is gradually lost along a food chain-For an ecosystem to keep operating, energy must

always enter it from the sun-Is energy lost in a food web

Pyramid of Energy:NutrientsMost ecosystems need over 20 elements:

-Nitrogen-Oxygen

Mineral Nutrients: originally entered the ecosystem from bedrock

Non-Mineral Nutrients: Entered the ecosystem in the form of H2O & CO2

3 Non-Mineral Nutrients:

CARBON HYDROGEN OXYGENBUILDING BLOCKS OF LIFE

Macro-Nutrients: large amounts

Nitrogen-Phosphorus-PotassiumMicro-Nutrients:

small amountsZinc-Iron-Sodium

Nutrient Cycle:Recycled through an ecosystem

Water Cycle:Transportation PrecipitationSurface Runoff Percolation

Ground WaterCapillary Water:

Carbon CycleNitrogen Cycle: 78% of atmosphere is (N2)-must

be in form of nitrate (NO3) to be used

Changing of nitrogen to nitrates is called: NITROGEN FIXATION

Phosphorus: Water & Soil in inorganic compoundsNutrients pass through cycles“Balance” usually exists in nutrients

Chapter #4-Ecological SuccessionReplacement of plants and animals in an area over a

period of timeSand Dune Environment:

Wind blows sand inland Strong WindsLack of Nutrients Shifting WindsFew Nutrients High day TempsIntense Light Low night Temps

Pioneer Stage: Pioneer Plant-first plant to emerge

Shrub Stage: Added nutrients & waterExample: Sand Cherry

Cottonwood Stage: Dominant PlantsProvides ShadeExample: Cottonwood & Poplars

Index Plants: Common to area

Index Plants:Common to Area

Pine Stage:Enrich soilExample: Pine Trees

Oak Stage:Dominate SpeciesShade tolerant SpeciesExamples: Basswood/Hickory

Climax Stage:Climax Community-young plants replace

old plantsVariety/Diversity of plants

Succession: Plant succession of grasses to climax forest

Animal Succession:Living things can change their environment;

gradual replacement of living things by another over time

Animal Succession:-Species Diversity-Population Numbers-Niche availability increases-Total biomass & organic matter increases-Complexity increases

Sand Dune Protection:-Solutions?

Types of Succession:-Primary

Succession begins in an area that has not supported life within recent times

Secondary:Begins in area that once supported life

Autotrophic & Heterotrophic Succession:-Primary and secondary succession examples of autotrophic succession-Heterotrophic succession:

-Energy source-deaden material-Example: Fallen Log

Each stage has its special community of living things

Lichens: Single type of organism-Pioneers of succession

Mutualism: Both benefit-Crustose Lichens- first to colonize-Hyphae Lichens- obtain nutrients from placing

acid into rocks-Foliose Lichens- Leaf like-use the freeze-thaw

method-Froticose Lichens- Moss like-developed in soil

Succession in Lake Regions:

Pioneers: pigweed-ragweed-dandelionsMeadow Stage: Grassy areaOld Field Community:

-Dominated by biennials & perennials-Examples: goldenrod & milkweed

Quadrat Method:-Plots-Reliable measure of the properties of the total area

Arrangement:

Systematic arrangement: easier to plan & use-Spaced widely and easily as possible-Base Line-Transect Lines-Size of Quadrant

-Number of Quadrant-Shape of Quadrant

Importance Values:-Number which gives the relative importance of that species in an area

Frequency:-How widely distributed are the plants

Density:-How close together are the plants

Cover:-How large the plants are in the area

Frequency Equation:Density Equation:Cover Equation:Basal Area-relative cover of soil

DBH-Diameter Breast HeightRelative Frequency Equation:Relative Density Equation:Relative Cover Equation:Importance Value:Sustained Yield: cut trees are replaced by trees of

the same species

Sustainable Forestry Initiative: program is a comprehensive system of principles, objectives and performance measures developed by foresters, conservationists and scientists. It combines the growing and harvesting of trees with the long-term protection of wildlife, plants, soil and water quality.

Chapter #5Adaptations of organisms to

temperature, moisture and wind

Adaptation to Organisms:Structural AdaptationsBehavioral Adaptations

5 Factors affecting Organisms:RANGE OF TOLERANCE

-Temperature-Moisture-Wind-Light-Soil Conditions

Optimum PointOptimum Temperature

Organisms live bestRange of Tolerance: Range between these extremesPoikilotherms: various temperaturesHomeotherms: alike temperatures2 Forms of Moisture:Organisms must adapt to:

-Precipitation-Relative Humidity-Optimum moisture conditions

Climate: dictates the type of vegetative growthDeciduous vs. EvergreenFactors Affecting Precipitation:

-Direction of Prevailing winds-Topography (shape) of the land-Temperature

Relative Humidity: Ratio of the mass of water in a certain volume of air to the mass of water needed to saturate the same volume of air at the same temperature

Transpiration: water vapor released from plantsStomata: poresEpidermis: skin

Water Content of SoilHydrophytes: plants in extreme moisture conditionsXerophytes: very dry conditionsMesophytes: moisture conditions between the

other 2 classesAdaptations to Moisture:

Exoskeleton (thick body covering)

Wind:-Advantages-Disadvantages

Chapter #6Adaptations of Organisms

To Light and Soil3 Aspects of Light affect Organisms:

-Intensity-Brightness-Duration-Quality

What is Light?-Sun gives off electromagnetic waves which have a wide range lengths

Short: Gamma raysLong: Radio wavesLight: Form of energy the eye can detectUltraviolent Radiation: Shorter than 390

nanometersInfrared Radiation: Wave Lengths longer than 770

nanometersIntensity: Factors affecting intensity

-Latitude -Time of year-Altitude -Time of Day-Topography -Cloud CoverCompensation Intensity: Intensity at which the

light is just bright enough to make it possible for photosynthesis

Primary Production: Rate at which energy is stored by producers through

photosynthesis

Saturation Intensity: maximum productionShade Tolerant: Like shadeShade Intolerant: Dislike shadeOrientation: Direction of GrowthGeotropism: Response to GravityPhototropism: Response to LightGeotaxis: Gravity to stay verticalPhotoaxis: Angle of PolarizationDuration: Length of exposurePhotoperiodism: Response to the length of day

Long-day Short-day Day-neutralPerennials: Plants come up year afterAnnual: Finish life cycle in one yearQuality: Referring to the color or wavelength of lightPositively Phototactic: move toward bright lightNegatively Phototactic: move away from bright lightMicroenvironment: Small EnvironmentMicroclimate: Small climate zone within a larger

zone

Unit #1-Water Collection BodiesEarth contains billions of gallons of water, however

small portion is readily available and easily used by plants and animals

About .8% of the earth’s water is present in the earth’s crust in a form that could be reclaimed

Water stored in porous rock layers is called:Aquifers or Groundwater

Large lakes, inland seas & rivers contain most of the earth’s usable surface water. More than half of this water is stored in freshwater lakes. Small portion is stored in salt lakes.

Extremely small portions are found in rivers and streams

2 Categories in Pennsylvania:-Running Water-Standing Water

Running water handles the surplus amounts of water that exists. They are involved with the process of evapotranspiration

Running WaterGravity primary mover of surface water

Pennsylvania contains a large number of LIMESTONE STREAMS that serve as natural BUFFERS to acidic fallout & support many forms of aquatic life not found in FREESTONE STREAMS

Limestone Streams: usually spring from deep cavities which contain calcium salts

Freestone Streams: Start with high mountain springs where soil is thin & they continually increase in size with the addition of feeder

2 Classifications of Streams in Pennsylvania:-Cold Water

-support trout & aquatic plants-Warm Water

-Over 70 degrees-Bass, Carp and Catfish

Channels: Runoff water follows these paths-These channels converge into a

major final stream, drain a particularly well-drained

land area

Watershed: Main drainage basinRiver Basin: Large-well established watersheds

supporting major riversBrooks-Runs-Creeks-Rivers:

-Classified by Size-1st order-2nd order-3rd order-4th order

Coldwater: Usually colder than 70 degrees FWarmwater: Usually warmer than 70 degrees F

45, 000 square miles of land surface in Pennsylvania

Pennsylvania drained by 3 large & 3 smaller river basins-6 total

Smallest Basin:Genesee River- Northcentral Part of PA

-Flows northwardErie Basin:

-Drains Erie County & part of Lake Erie

Potomac River Basin:-Drains the lower ridge & valleys of the south

central part of the state3 Large Rivers

Delaware: Eastern border between New York & New JerseyLargest free flowing river in the

eastern United States-No dams, locks, etc.

Susquehanna River: Largest basin in Pennsylvania-Formed by 2 large branches:

-Northern Branch-New York is where it begins

West Branch-drains the North central part of the state

Ohio River: 2nd largest river basin in Pennsylvania-Formed by Allegheny & Mongahela rivers in Pittsburgh-Flows 1,000 miles southwest to Mississippi river in

Illinois-Drains western PA, parts of NY, western MD and northern WV-Contains small navigational locks & dams that permit large river barges to carry goods & raw materials from PA to other states

45,000 miles of stream channels drain PennsylvaniaPennsylvania: large exporter of water to other

states & other types of collection bodies

Unit #2-Freshwater Ecosystems70%-Earth’s surface97%-Earth’s water is salt3%-Earth’s freshwater

-of that 3%-98% is frozen-2% usable to humans

Amazon River: South America-1,100 tributaries-Contains 65% of the world’s

river waterFunctions of Freshwater:

-Drinking water -Irrigating food cropsHumans-80% is water500,000 liters of water is used to produce 1 carWHAT HAS CAUSED INCREASED USE OF WATER?2 Categories:

Standing Water: pondFlowing Water: stream2 Types:

-Standing water-Wholly aquatic

-ponds & lakesPartly Terrestrial:

-marshes -swamps -carrs -bogs -fensWetlands: Sloughs-ponds and small lakes with high

nutrient values

PotholesLimnologists: people who study standing waterStream Order: Classification of flowing waters

-1st order=no tributaries-2nd order=2-1st order streams form 1 stream-3rd order=2-2nd order streams join

3 Reasons:-Originate in hilly country

-slope high-stream speed is high-turbulence causes evaporation

Small is size-shielded from sun by over-hangings

Water from streams, springs, sub-surface runoff-contains cool water

2 Main Items: for stream order to increase-water becomes warmer-stream speed decreases

Environmental Gradient: Gradual Change-Geophysical-Chemical-Biological

Standing Water vs. Flowing Water:-Aeration-adding of oxygen to water

-Source of Oxygen-Standing water=Photosynthesis

Source of Food:-Autotrophic food chain-self feeding

Detritus Food Chains: begins with non-living organic matter

Heterotrophic Food Chains: other feeding food chainsAdaptations of Organisms:

Unit #3-Ecology of Fresh Water EcosystemsEcology: The study of relations between organisms

& their environmentLevels of Biological Organization:IndividualPopulationCommunityBiomeBiosphereEcosystem: Interacting system that consists of

groups of organisms & their non-living environment

Flow of Matter: energy is gradually lost along a food chain/food web

Flow of Matter in an Ecosystem:Mineral nutrientsNon-mineral nutrients

-macro-micro-recycled through an ecosystem

-nutrient cycle

Abiotic: non-livingBiotic: livingHabitat: nicheFeeding Levels:

-Producers-Consumers-Decomposers

Food Web:Ecological Pyramids:

WATER & SOIL CONSERVATIONBoth resources have become limited and there is

real concern that we are rapidly depleting them.While there seems to be a sufficient volume of

water in most areas of the world, supplies of usable water are generally insufficient due to misuse-poor management-pollution

Productive land is becoming a scare commodity and ownership is very expensive

Water:We live on the water planet

Our bodies and the bodies of plants and animals are about 80% water

Potable: drinkable-free from harmful chemicals and organisms

Water is an essential nutrient for all plant and animal life. Water transports nutrients to living cells and carries away waste products.

Fresh Water: Water that flows from the land to oceans and contains little or no salt

Domestic: Household useSalt Water: Water that rests on the land and

contains salt

Tide Water: Water that flows up the mouth of a river as the ocean tide rises.

Food Chains: The interdependence of plants and animals for food

Universal Solvent: Water-material that dissolves or otherwise changes most other materials

Ocean Water:-Gathers and transports nutrients-Is the habitat for micro-organisms-Carries life supporting oxygen-Cleanses and Purifies

Water Cycle: The cycling of water between the water sources, atmosphere and surface areas

Land: Provides us the solid foundation for our structures, nutrition and support for plants and space for work and recreation.

Soil: is an important component of landSoil must contain:

-The correct proportions of soil-Correct balance of nutrients-Contain some organic matter-Contain adequate moisture

Deserts: -Areas with continuous severe water shortages

Irrigation Practices:-Addition of water to plants to supplement that is provided by rain/snow

Precipitation:-Formation of rain/snow caused by the change of water in the air from a gaseous state to a liquid state

Evaporation: -Changing from a liquid to a vapor or gas

Land serves as a container or reservoirWater Table:

-The level below which soil is saturated or filled with water

Water moves upward in the soil from the water table to provide water for plant roots

Micro-organisms that live in the soil and contributes to the soil’s fertility and structure

Fertility: -The amount and type of nutrients in the soil

Types of Ground WaterSoil is saturated when water is added until all the

spaces or pores are filledThe water that drains out of soil after it has been

wetted is called free or gravitational water. This is what feeds wells and springs.

Plant roots can absorb or take up this moisture called capillary water. Water that is held to tightly for plant roots to absorb is called hygroscopic water.

Plants contribute to water absorption and reduce soil erosion.

Worms-insects-bacteria and other microscopic plants and animals contribute by decomposing plant & animal matter.Conserving Water & Improving Water Quality

Improvement of water quality can be achieved by proper land management-careful water storage-water handling methods.

Practices to Reduce Water PollutionSave Clean Water

-Purify: removal of all foreign materials-Dispose of household products carefully-Care for lawns-gardens-farmland carefully

Practice sensible pest controlControl water run-off from lawns-gardens-feedlots-

fieldsNo-till=Planting crops without plowing or disking

the soilContour=Following the level/slope of the land

around a hillsideAdvantages:

-Securing soil with plant material-Increasing absorption of water-Carrying runoff water away safely

Gully Erosion: Removal of soil to form narrow and deep trenches

Sheet Erosion: Removal of even layers of soilMethods for Reduction of Wind/Water Erosion

-Keep soil covered with growing plants-Cover soil with mulchMulch=Material placed on soil to break the fall of

rain and prevent weeds to occur-helping improve the appearance.

Utilize conservation tillage methods

Using techniques that disturbs the soil the least and leaves maximum plant residue on the surface

Plant Residue: Plant material left when a plant dies-Use contour practices in production-Use strip cropping=alternating strips of row crops(corn) with strips of close growing crops(alfalfa)-Rotate crops=planting of different crops in a given field every year or several years-Increase organic matter in soil=dead plant & animal tissue

Aggregates: Gel-like substance which holds soil particles together

-water absorbing & nutrient holding soil-Provide correct balance of lime & fertilizer

Lime: Material that reduces the acid content of soilFertilizer: Any material that supplies nutrients for

plants-Establish permanent grass waterways

Grass Waterway: Strips of grass growing in the low area of a field where water can gather

41 million acres (10%) of our nation’s cropland is highly erodible at rates of 50 tons per acre per year

Ground water contamination can threaten the health of large populations

Aquifer: Water bearing rock formation that lies underground

Soil erosion can be reduced by good land management practices

Soil Conservation Methods-Reducing rain impact

-Reducing the speed of wind/water moving across land

-Construct terraces-Soil/wall structure built across the slope to capture water

-Avoid over-grazing-Damage to plants and/or soil due to animals eating too much plant material at one time

-Use land according to conservation plan-Maximum production without unacceptable damage to land

-Control soil erosion-Avoid spillage/dumping of gasoline-fuel-oil on

ground-Keep chemical spills from running or seeping into

water or soil-Properly maintain your septic systemLand Erosion: Wearing away of land is a serious

problem world-wide.Port: Having a harbor for ships to take on cargoResearch has shown it takes 300 to 500 years for

nature to develop one inch of topsoil from bedrock

Large areas of the world (3rd world nations) are using a farming technique called “slash & burn” agriculture

Each year, 1.6 billion tons of soil are worn away from 417 million acres of United States farmland into lakes-streams-rivers

1 ton=2,000 pounds