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CHAPTER 1

GENERAL INTRODUCTION

Pogostemon cablin Benth. syn. Pogostemon patchouli Pellet. is a tropical, aromatic,

herbaceous perennial, that belongs to the family Lamiaceae. It is commonly called

the patchouli plant (Guenther 1949). The shade dried leaves of the plant on steam

distillation yield an essential oil called the patchouli oil of commerce (Caius 1986).

Patchouli oil is carried in the glandular trichomes on the adaxial surface of leaves.

The glandular hairs are small with a short single celled stalk and double celled head

(Weiss 1997), (Fig.1b). The stem, floral tops and roots also possess oil glands. But the

oil obtained from them is of an inferior quality when compared to the oil of leaves.

The second pair of primordial leaves is reported to carry glandular trichomes

containing a sesquiterpene concentration twelve times higher than that in any other

part of the plant (Henderson et al. 1970). Unlike other oils of Lamiaceae, patchouli

oil is unique, because it consists of twenty four different sesquiterpenes rather than

a blend of different mono, sesqui and diterpene compounds (Denguerry et al. 2006).

This feature imparts tenacity of odor to patchouli oil which is the reason for its

versatile use.

1.1. History of Patchouli

The word “Patchouli” seems to be derived from the Hindustani “Pacholi”. In the

1740’s, precious Indian fabrics and shawls used to arrive in Europe permeated with a

strange odor which was considered characteristic and proof of oriental origin. It was

only when the first shipment of dried patchouli leaves arrived in London about 1844,

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that the long sought-after secret of the mysterious scent was revealed. Many

historians speculate that, its association with opulent eastern goods like silk is the

reason why patchouli was considered by Europeans to be a luxurious scent. In

Europe and the United States, patchouli oil and incense underwent a surge in

popularity during 1960’s and 1970’s among the devotees of free love and hippie

lifestyles since the pungent smell of patchouli was alleged to mask the smell of

burnt cannabis and body odor. The essence of patchouli has been a traditional

ingredient of love potions from time immemorial and remains a very popular scent

to date.

The patchouli plant was first technically described in 1845 by Pelletier Sautelet and

named Pogostemon patchouli. It was identified as a native of the Philippine islands

in 1896 (Holmes 1913). The word cablin was derived from “cablam” the vernacular

name of the plant in Philippines.

There is no substitute reported till-date for natural patchouli oil since it has a

characteristic oriental odor that is balsamic, spicy, sweet, aromatic, woody and

minty. Organic patchouli essential oil has a long history of use in the fields of

medicine, perfumery, rituals, and cosmetics as it has stood the test of time for its

safety, efficacy, versatility, cultural acceptability and environment friendly

properties.

1.2. Uses of Patchouli

The patchouli leaves are used along with clothes stored in the wardrobe since they

deter insects like flies, ants, moths, gnats and mosquitoes (Nadkarni 1972). They are

also used as a leech repellent and remedy for poisonous insect bites. In combination

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with other drugs, patchouli is prescribed as an antidote to snake and scorpion

venoms (Kirthikar and Basu 1991). Cultivation of this plant outside houses also helps

to keep mosquitoes at bay.

The fresh leaves of the plant possess anti-microbial, diuretic, regenerating and

rejuvenating properties. Therefore, it is used in Ayurveda, Indian traditional

medicine, Chinese medicine (Agarwal 1985; Akhila and Tiwari 1984), and alternative

therapies. The fresh leaves are used to prepare a decoction with other drugs to treat

nausea, vomiting, diarrhea and abdominal pain (Akhila and Thakur 1988). Japanese

researchers tested eight traditional Chinese herbs to see how well they reduce

nausea and vomiting. Patchouli alcohol in patchouli oil was reported to be the most

active. It worked 58% better than the controls. Patchouli is reported to control

muscle spasm of the digestive tract (Yang 1999). In Ayurveda, patchouli is used as an

equivalent to taleespatram. It is commonly called pathram, pathrakam and

pathranamakam, in Sanskrit. It is used in many balms and is an unavoidable

ingredient of many kashayams (decoction), alcoholic medicaments, distillations,

linctus, medicated oils, powders, fine powders, snuffs, medicated sticks, pills and

tablets. It is also administered in gastro intestinal problems, peptic ulcer, hyper

acidity, indigestion, gas trouble and vaginal disorders. An infusion of the leaves in

water (1:10) in doses of half to one fluid ounce is administered as a diuretic and

carminative. It is used with tulasi seeds in scanty urine and biliousness (Nadkarni

1972). The extract of the leaves is given in cough and asthma. An infusion of this

plant is also given for menstrual troubles. Fresh leaves are used to make styptic

pastes. They are also applied as a cataplasm to clean wounds and to promote

healthy granulation. Its powder is used as sternutatory and yield antiseptic oil. The

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root of the plant is given in dropsy (Agarwal 1985). The other ayurvedic preparations

in which patchouli is used include, Lodhrasavam, pootheekaranjasavam, bala

thailam, madhuyashtyadi thailam, amruthaprasaghritham, kooshmanda rasayanam,

dadimashtaka choornam, thaleesapatradivatakam, patoladi choornam, yavanathi

choornam, chathurjatha choornam, bhrakshadi choornam, arivavathi oil,

chandanathi oil, thriphalathi oil, elathi oil, chyavanaprasam, dashamoolarishtam

and pippalyasavam.

Patchouli oil has found widespread use in modern industry despite its common

association with an alternative lifestyle. It is a component of one third of the modern

high end perfumes including more than half of the perfumes for men. Its base-note

and excellent fixative properties make it an important ingredient of many famous

perfumes like “Tabu” and “Shocking”. Since it mixes well with other essential oils like

vetiver, sandalwood, frankinscense, bergamot, cedarwood, myrrh, jasmine, rose,

citrus oil, lavender and clove oil (Arctander 1960), it is also used to fix many other

perfume formulations. There is no synthetic chemical to replace the oil of patchouli,

which further enhances its value and unique position in the perfumery market. The

oil also gives one of the finest attars when blends with sandalwood oil. It is also used

to perfume agarbattis and candles and is made use of extensively by the incense

industry. Pogostemon cablin Benth. was grown in China two thousand years ago and

is reported to have given the distinctive smell of original Indian ink and Chinese red

ink paste.

Patchouli oil is used as a flavor ingredient in major food products including alcoholic

and non-alcoholic beverages, candy, baked goods, pudding, and meat products, in

the cosmetic, tobacco and pharmaceutical industries due to its aromatic, flavoring

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and masking nature. It is approved by the FDA for food use under para 172.510 and

has been recognized as safe (GRAS No. 2838). As a flavor ingredient, the use level of

oil is less than two parts per million.

There is a great demand for patchouli oil in soaps, shampoos, scents, body lotions,

pre-shave and after-shave lotions, detergents, tobacco and incense manufacturing

factories. It is also used to scent many foul smelling creams and as a masking agent

in depilatory creams. Patchouli oil is used to treat athlete’s foot and dandruff of the

hair since it possesses antifungal property. It is reported to inhibit gram negative

bacteria and Candida albicans. In skin care, its regenerative, wound-healing and

tissue strengthening properties work. The oil is therefore used in indications of

varicose veins and as a topical remedy for skin problems like acne, eczema,

inflamed, cracked, chapped and irritated skin, sores and is also known as a skin

rejuvenator that helps in healing wounds and scars (Balz 1996). Patchouli oil is used

as a mouthwash and against vaginal infections. The oil is proved to be active against

Alternaria citri, Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium solani, Helminthosporium

compactum and Sclerotium rolfsii. It also helps to tighten loose skin, shrink enlarged

pores and smooth out ageing skin. The oil is reported to absorb infra-red radiation

and thus increases the circulation and oxygenation of blood. Linconchalcon A, a

cyto-toxic agent from P. cablin is reported to be used in the treatment of

promyelocytic leukemia cells (HL-60) (Park et al. 1998).

The oil of patchouli is used in temples in the form of incense, as it aids in grounding

and centering the mind prior to meditation and connect with the natural beauty of

planet earth (Valerie 1999). It is also widely used in the Chinese traditional system to

balance chi or positive energy.

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Patchouli oil helps to reduce tension, insomnia and anxiety, thus soothing the

nervous system (Hyung et al. 2008). This coupled with its wine-like intoxicating

aroma functions as an aphrodisiac (Holmes 2001). Hence, it is widely used in

Aromatherapy. Perfume compositions containing patchouli oil are also reported to

improve mental work efficiency (Suzuki et al. 2006).

1.3. Patchouli oil : National status

In view of the above, an excess demand of patchouli oil has always prevailed in the

national and international markets. The major patchouli oil producing countries have

been Indonesia (500 tons), China (60 tons), Brazil (1.5 tons) and Malaysia (1.0 ton),

per annum. According to the figures of the Essential Oil Association of India, seventy

one tons of patchouli oil worth rupees one hundred and sixty three lakhs was

imported by India from other countries in the 1990’s. By the year 2000, the

requirement rose to forty tons pure and sixty tons formulated oil (Bhasker and

Vasanthakumar 2000). Reports of 2002 depicted that India’s annual requirement of

patchouli oil was three hundred tons. Of this, only a negligible quantity was

produced in India. One hundred tons was met by import and the remaining shortfall

was fulfilled by reconstituted formulated oil. Today, the Indian demand for patchouli

oil is two hundred and twenty tons per annum, a major share of which is met by

imports. The North Eastern Development Finance Corporation of India has also

identified immense export potential for this crop and has predicted a steady market

for patchouli oil in the forthcoming twenty years (NENA Headlines 2002).

The Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (CIMAP), Lucknow took up

the task of expanding the production of patchouli oil in India since the global

requirement of patchouli could not be met due to a localized production base

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(Varshney 2001). CIMAP chose fourteen villages around Siddapur town in the

western ghat region of North Karnataka to be a part of the three year patchouli

movement, under its Bio-village project on patchouli. Success of the project

promoted patchouli cultivation in other coastal areas, interspaces and wastelands of

Karnataka, Gujarat and Chattisgarh.

1.4. Rationale of the Study

Patchouli has been extensively cultivated in various Indonesian islands, The

Philippines, Malaysia, China and South America for a long time. The crop was

introduced for domestication in India only in the eighteenth century. But, India took

two centuries to realize the potential of patchouli as a cash crop. It was only in the

twentieth century that the patchouli crop came into mainstream cultivation in India.

Patchouli has also been identified as a potential inter-crop for the plantations, since

it has the advantage of not requiring stringent maintenance practices like weeding,

tilling and loosening of soil. Intercropping trials have proved that it can be strongly

recommended as an intercrop for Sesbania, Coconut (Vishwanathan et al. 1993;

Srinivasa Reddy and Arunachalam 2002) and papaya (Ram et al. 1999) plantations.

Penang and Johore type patchouli were the two most popular varieties of

Pogostemon cablin under global cultivation for a long time. The Penang variety was

observed to produce more foliage and more oil whereas the Johore variety yielded

lesser herbage and lesser oil, but a better quality oil in terms of chemical

composition and odor value (Farooqui et al. 2001).

In tune with most of the patchouli cultivating regions of the world, India also

adopted the Johore variety of patchouli for large scale cultivation. But, long term

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and large scale cultivation of only the Johore variety and adoption of vegetative

propagation methods to obtain better oil yield in a short period of time brought

along with it an array of physiological problems in the patchouli crop. The first

among these was a gradual shut down in the reproductive mechanism of the crop.

This process set in with non-flowering of patchouli (Heffendehl and Murray 1979)

followed by a decline in the agro-diversity of the crop.

Repeated propagation by stem cuttings caused woodiness of the stem leading to low

leaf yield and a decrease in the quality and life span of the crop. This explains the

contradiction in reports regarding the number of harvests in patchouli. According to

earlier reports, the first harvest of patchouli crop used to be conventionally

performed after six months of planting i.e. when the plant attained a height of 0.5 to

1.0 meter. The plant tops consisting of six to eight pairs of leaves were harvested

when the color of the leaves tended to turn pale. Subsequent harvests took place

every four to five months till the plants were three years old. The patchouli crop

therefore, exhibited a three year growth period (Guenther 1949 and Weiss 1997) as

against the more recent reports which suggest that the crop dries out after one year

(Samuel 2002). If this situation persists, the Johore variety is bound to become

extinct.

Although spacing trials (Ramachandra et al. 2002) and trials with variation of growth

regulators and their concentrations (Jadhav et al. 2003) are observed to enhance

yield of the patchouli crop, the market is still unable to meet the biomass

requirements of patchouli for propagation through rooted stem cuttings. About fifty

thousand seedlings are required for planting in a hectare as mono-crop and twenty

thousand for intercrop. In vitro tissue culture trials for large scale propagation of

true to type patchouli plant material was also carried out in view of its commercial

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production (Gopi and Polenin Sripal 2007) since in vitro derived plantlets were

reported to be similar to each other in morphological characteristics, RAPD

(Hembrom et al. 2006) and GC profiles. Gas Chromatographic studies and GC (MS)

analysis of the chemical constituents of the essential oils produced by callus and cell

suspension cultures also showed that essential oils obtained from these cultures

contained the same major constituents as in the intact plant (Bunrathep et al. 2006).

An increase in the commercial demand of patchouli raw material, a narrow genetic

base, a localized production base, a shortage of planting material and a low

regeneration capacity of the cultivar yielding good quality oil are the major

limitations in its production in India. This situation also paved the way for the

introduction of patchouli adulterants and substitutes into the global market.

Bombay patchouli, Assam patchouli, Mysore patchouli, wild patchouli and local

patchouli form a part of this growing list.

There is also a lack of consensus regarding the place of origin and taxonomic status

of the patchouli plant used in different places for cultivation. The distillation and sale

of an inferior quality oil from Pogostemon heyneanus Benth., commonly called the

Java patchouli has been in practice for a long time (Holmes 1913). Java patchouli is

indigenous to India and is often seen mislabeled in nurseries and sold as

Pogostemon cablin. According to “The Index Kewensis”, P. patchouli Pellet. is

identical with P. heyneanus Benth. from India and Burma, and with P. cablin Benth.

from the Philippines. Closely related to P. heyneanus is P. hortensis, which has been

grown for many generations in the gardens around Serang in the province of

Bantam, Java.

However, it is unfortunate that no progress has been made in understanding the

origin, domestication, phylogeny, diversity and production of patchouli in our

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country. The current knowledge on vegetative growth behavior, oil yield and oil

quality of patchouli is fragmentary. Therefore, there is an urgent need for studies in

this field and redefine the standards of patchouli that have been set thirty years ago

(Ramachandra et al. 2002) it is also imperative that a strategy be developed for

expanding the genetic base of patchouli in the country. With the aim of constituting

an inventory of patchouli, a study of the existing patchouli varieties and

conservation of its wild relatives need to be carried out since they can form part of

the primary, secondary and tertiary gene pools. A comparison of their horticultural

performance, essential oil yield and quality can help in the construction of a genetic

resource profile of the patchouli crop.

1.5. Objectives of the study

The objective of the study is to establish a patchouli germplasm and characterise the

same based on physical, morphological and micromorphological parameters. A

molecular charactersation following this would help to rule out the occurrence of

duplicates and establish the taxonomic identity of patchouli cultivars that constitute

the germplasm. The final germplasm obtained thus, is proposed to be evaluated for

growth, yield and oil parameters in the field. The ultimate aim is to identify patchouli

elites that would help in expansion of the genetic base of patchouli in the country.

The study also aims at devising cultivar specific methods of propagation. The

investigation proposed.

1.5.1. To collect, establish and maintain patchouli germplasm in pot cultures.

1.5.2. To characterise the patchouli germplasm based on morphological and micro

morphological parameters.

1.5.3. To characterise patchouli germplasm using their RAPD profiles.

1.5.4. To evaluate patchouli germplasm through a field study.

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1.5.5. To identify patchouli elites based on field evaluation data and GC (MS)

profiles of their essential oils.

1.5.6. To device cultivar specific propagation methods for the selected patchouli

elites.

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