Chapter 1 Cells and Tissues

1 Describe the basic structure of a cell.All cells have the same basic structure. They are enclosed by a cell membrane which holds the cell’s contents in place. Within is a substance called cytoplasm which contains the following: organelles, each with a specific job to do, a nucleus, which holds the genetic blueprint and a nucleolus within the nucleus.

2 State the function of the cell membrane.The cell membrane allows the passage of substances into the cell, such as oxygen and food, and the passage of waste products out of the cell, such as CO2. These waste products can then be excreted at various sites around the body.

3 How would you describe cell metabolism?Cell metabolism is a process in which the cell utilises the energy obtained from food, producing waste products in turn.

4 Why do red blood cells not reproduce?They do not contain a nucleus, so red blood cells are technically not ‘cells’ at all.

5 What is cytoplasm?Cytoplasm is a jelly-like substance contained within the cell. It is 80 per cent water and helps hold the cell contents in place.

6 What are organelles?Organelles are ‘mini organs’ within the cell, each with a specific job to do. Some produce energy, others allow for respiration of the cell, and some produce protein.

7 Name the types of epithelial tissue.Epithelial tissue can be divided into two basic types; single-layer epithelial tissue and multi-layer tissue, known respectively as ‘simple’ and ‘stratified’. Within these two categories exists squamous tissue (flat like a pavement), cuboidal tissue (like sugar cubes) and columnar tissue (taller, like columns). In addition there is a specialised type of epithelial tissue known as transitional epithelium, which can expand when required.

8 Epithelial tissue can be described as simple or stratified. Explain what this means.Simple epithelium is single layer, whereas stratified contains layers of epithelium.

9 State a specialised type of epithelium and its function.Transitional epithelium is a specialised epithelial tissue. Its cells are rounded, not flat and overlap each other. For example, when the bladder is full, the cells unfold and allow the bladder to expand to hold the collecting urine.

10 Name the types of connective tissue in the body.• Loose areolar tissue

• Adipose (fatty) tissue

• Fibrous connective tissue

• Yellow elastic tissue

• Reticular connective tissue

• Cartilage

• Bone

• Blood

11 Which tissue type stores energy?Adipose tissue.

12 What is the function of areolar tissue?It contains collagen and elastin fibres which provide strength and resilience.

13 Name the types of membranes and state their functions.• Serous – Lines body cavities and outer layers of organs.

• Mucous – Lines tubes which lead to the outside of the body.

• Cutaneous – The skin which consists of an outer layer of epithelium.

• Synovial – Lines the joint cavity; produces synovial fluid to allow for ease of movement.

14 State the three types of cartilage and list their functions.• Hyaline – Smooth, tough and flexible. Covers the ends of long bones to allow for smooth joint movement; also forms

the costal cartilage, rings around the trachea and the cartilage in the nose.

• White fibro-cartilage – Strong cartilage found between the bones which form slightly-moveable joints, i.e. between the skull bones. The pads between each vertebra are made of white fibro-cartilage which acts as a shock absorber, as well as providing support and cushioning.

• Yellow elastic fibro-cartilage – A resilient and flexible type of cartilage containing many elastic fibres. Found where it would be unsuitable to have bone, i.e. parts of the outer ear and the fleshy part of the nose.

15. How many types of muscle tissue are there? Name them.Therearethreetypesofmuscletissue:

• skeletal (also called voluntary and striated)

• smooth (also called involuntary and visceral)

• cardiac muscle tissue (the heart muscle).

16 What does voluntary and involuntary mean?In connection with muscle tissue, voluntary means that it is under conscious control – you have to think about making the muscle move. Involuntary means that it is not under conscious control – i.e you do not have to think about moving it. An example of this would be the muscle which causes the hair to stand on end.

17 Which tissue performs peristalsis? Where do you find this type of tissue?Smooth muscle tissue performs peristalsis; it is found in the gut and makes our food move through the digestive system.

18 Which tissue is found around the heart?Cardiac muscle tissue.

19 Name the tissue of the nervous system.Neurones.

20 What special job does nervous tissue do?It transmits messages.

Chapter 2 The Skin, Hair and Nails

1 Name the type of tissue that forms the epidermis.The dermis is formed from stratified keratinised epithelial tissue.

2 How does the epidermis provide protection from the harmful UV rays of the sun?The epidermis can protect us form the harmful rays of the sun because the stratum germinitavum (basal layer) contains cells called melanocytes. These contain a pigment called melanin which filters out the UV rays from the sun.

3 Give the names of the different layers of the epidermis in the correct order (starting from the top).The layers of the epidermis from top to bottom are:

• Stratum corneum (Horny Layer)

• Stratum lucidum (Clear Layer)

• Stratum granulosum (Granular layer)

• Stratum spinosum (Prickle cell layer)

• Stratum germinitavum (Basal layer)

4 Name the layer of the epidermis that contains: a) keratin b) melanin.

a) Stratum granulosum (Granular layer)

b) Stratum germinitavum (Basal layer)

5 Name the vitamin synthesised by the skin.VitaminD.

6 Where is the dermis thickest?The dermis is thickest on the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet.

7 State the scientific name for sweat glands.The scientific name for sweat glands is sudiferous glands.

8 Where is sebum produced?Sebum is produced by sebaceous glands.

9 Describe the acid mantle.The acid mantle is formed from a combination of sweat and sebum. It provides the skin with a slightly acidic covering of about pH 5.5 which inhibits the spread of bacteria.

10 Define erythema.Erythema is a reddening of the skin that appears when the blood vessels in the skin dilate.

11 Name and briefly describe the hair growth cycle.Hair grows in three distinct phases known as the ‘hair growth cycle’. The phases are as follows:

•Anagen, the active or growing phase;

•Catagen, (also called the transitional phase) when growth stops and the blood supply ceases

• Telogen, when the hair falls out and the follicle ‘rests’ until the growth phase begins again

12 Name the sweat gland responsible for body odour. The sweat gland responsible for body odour is the apocrine gland found in the underarm and pubic regions.

13 Explain how the skin regulates body temperature.The skin regulates the body temperature by producing sweat when the body temperature rises. As the sweat dries on the skin it has a cooling effect. In addition, the blood vessels dilate or widen when the body is hot allowing the blood to cool as it passes near the surface. This is called vasodilatation. When the body temperature begins to fall, vasoconstriction takes place restricting the flow of blood to the skin and retaining the heat in the core of the body.

14 Describe three non-infectious skin conditions.• Eczema – dry, flaky, inflamed and itchy skin, often an allergic reaction.

• Psoriasis – reddened skin characterised by scaly patches.

• Freckles – small clusters of pigmented skin.

• Birth marks – varying in size and characterised by dark red areas.

15 Describe three infectious skin conditions.• Herpes simplex – the cold sore caused by a virus; these resemble small blisters and usually occur around the mouth.

• Tinea – caused by a fungus, this is recognisable as red circles on the skin.

• Scabies – tiny parasites that burrow under the skin.

16 Explain why infectious skin conditions are always a contra-indication to treatment.Infectious skin conditions are always a contra-indication to treatment because of the risk of spreading the infection.

17 Identify two types of capillary found in the dermis.The two types of capillary found in the dermis are the blood capillary and the lymph capillary.

18 State four structures that comprise the hair follicle.The structures comprising the hair follicle are the inner root sheath, the outer root sheath, the cuticle, henle’s layer and huxley’s layer.

19 Name the layers of the hair shaft.The layers of the hair shaft are the cuticle, the cortex and the medulla.

20 Give the location for fat cells.Fat cells are found in the subcutaneous layer of the skin.

21 Describe two ways in which the skin provides protection from injury.The skin protects us from injury because the epidermis is tough and leathery and because the nerve endings in the skin send messages to the brain if the skin is at risk of injury (i.e water that is too hot, a source of heat like an open flame).

Chapter 3 The Skeletal System

1 List and briefly describe the main functions of the human skeleton.•Provides support for the body and its component parts.

•Provides protection for internal organs.

• Facilitates movement: attachment of muscles to bones enables them to act as levers.

•Development of blood cells: hollow bones contain bone marrow which is the site for the production of red blood cells.

•Mineral reservoir: 97 per cent of the mineral calcium in the body is stored in the bones.

2 Describe the process of ossification.Bone tissue is maintained by osteoblasts which make new bone tissue and osteoclasts which contain enzymes that digest protein and break down minerals in old bone tissue.

3 Compare and contrast the two types of bone tissue.Compact tissue is hard and strong and forms the outer casing of many bones. Cancellous tissue is less tightly structured and has the appearance of a sponge under the microscope.

4 List and briefly describe the different classifications of bone.• Long bones consist of a strong hollow shaft and two softer ends.

• Short bones are small and strong and consist of a hard shell and a soft centre.

• Flat bones are plate-like and consist of layers of compact and cancellous bone tissue.

• Irregular bones are structured like short bones but without a regular shape.

• Sesamoid bones are situated in tendons and so are protected from friction in a joint.

5 Name and locate the bones of the skull.Frontal x 1; parietal x 2; temporal x 2; occipital x 1.

6 Name and locate the bones of the shoulder girdle.Scapula x 2; Clavicle x 2.

7 Name and locate the bones of the vertebral column.Cervical vertebrae x 7; Thoracic vertebrae x 12; Lumbar vertebrae x 5; Sacrum x 5 fused vertebrae; Coccyx x 4 fused vertebrae.

8. Name and locate the bones of the thorax.Ribs x 12 pairs; Sternum x 1.

9 Name and locate the bones of the limbs.Upper limb: humerus x 1 per limb; radius x 1 per limb; ulna x 1 per limb; carpals x 8 per limb; metacarpals x 5 per limb; phalanges x 14 per limb.

Lower limb: femur x 1 per limb; patella x 1 per limb; tibia x 1 per limb; fibula x 1 per limb; tarsals x 7 per limb; metatarsals x 5 per limb; phalanges x 14 per limb.

10 Name and locate the bones of the pelvis.Pelvic bone x 2 – each pelvic bone is a fusion of three individual bones; the ilium, ischium and pubis.

11 Name and locate the arches of the foot.Medial longitudinal arch; lateral longitudinal arch; anterior transverse arch; posterior transverse arch.

12 Draw and label a long bone.Labels include (from top to bottom): spongy bone; compact bone;epiphyseal (growth) plate; periosteum; marrow cavity; articular cartilage.

13 Compare and contrast the three types of joints.• Fibrous joints are found where two bones dovetail together and do not permit any movement.

•Cartilaginous joints are formed where two bones are connected by a pad of fibrocartilage and permit limited movement.

• Synovial joints are formed where two or more bones meet and are freely moveable.

14 Describe the different types of synovial joints and the movements they permit.•Gliding: small versatile

•Hinge: flexion, extension

•Pivot: pronation, supination

•Ball and socket: flexion, extension, adduction, abduction, pronation, supination

•Condyloid: adduction, abduction, flexion, extension

15 Give an example in the body of each type of synovial joint.•Gliding: clavicle, scapula

•Hinge: phalanges

•Pivot: radius, ulna

•Ball and socket: pelvis, femur

•Condyloid: carpals

16 Briefly describe, with examples, the different types of connective tissue, including: cartilage, tendons, aponeurosis and ligaments.• Ligaments are bands of strong fibrous connective tissue which hold bones together across joints and stretch to allow

movement.

• Tendons are strong fibrous bands of connective tissue which attach muscles to bones; e.g. the Achilles tendon attaches the gastrocnemeus to the calcaneum.

•An aponeurosis is a flattened sheet of tendinous fibres; e.g. the palmar aponeurosis, on the palm of the hand, and the inguinal ligament, in the groin.

•Cartilage is a type of firm connective tissue. Hyaline cartilage forms the nose, larynx, trachea and bronchi. Fibrocartilage is located in the intervertebral discs. Elastin cartilage helps to maintain the shape of the internal organs.

17 Describe five disorders of joints and the implications for treatment.•Rheumatism is characterised by pain, swelling and limited mobility.

•Arthritis is inflammation of one or more joints which is characterised by pain, swelling and restricted movement.

• Spondylosis is a degenerative disease of the invertebral discs of the spine which typically causes pain in the cervical and lumbar regions of the back.

•Bursitis is an inflammation of the bursa; the small pads of tissue which reduce friction.

• Tendonitis is inflammation of a tendon usually caused by over use and is also know as repetitive strain injury (RSI).

• Sprains are injuries to ligaments, cartilage or muscle in the locality of a joint which occur when the joint is over stretched. A sprain causes localised pain and swelling.

•Dislocation can occur as a result of sudden or unnatural movements.

All of the above disorders require a doctor’s note prior to treatment.

18 Explain the meaning of homeostasis in relation to maintenance of the skeleton.It is the balance between osteoblast and osteoclast activity to maintain healthy bone tissue.

19 Explain the physiological changes which occur in the skeleton due to ageing.Age-associated changes in the digestive system can radically affect the condition of the skeleton. As we age, less calcium is absorbed from the diet which appears to effect post-menopausal women more so than men of the same age adding to the tendency towards osteoporosis. Changes in the digestive system also affect the absorption of vitamin D and changes in the skin slow down the production of vitamin D activated by natural sunlight. As the function of vitamin D is to transport calcium from the digestive system to the bones, a deficiency means that new bone tissue is produced slower than existing tissue is destroyed. During middle age our bones start to shrink, our height decreases and the skin can become saggy as it fits less snugly.

20 Provide suitable homecare advice for a mature client concerned about the effects of ageing on bones and joints.•Maintain regular gentle exercise to prevent loss of bone mass.

• Spend time outdoors to aid production of vitamin D in the skin via sunlight.

•Drink one pint of skimmed milk daily to ensure an adequate intake of calcium.

Chapter 4 Muscles and the Muscular System

1 Describe briefly the structure and function of cardiac muscle tissue.Structure: short, striped, cylindrical cells which are branched.

Function: the rhythmic beating of the heart.

2 Describe briefly the structure and function of involuntary muscle tissueStructure: spindle-shaped, smooth cells.

Function: to contract the walls of blood vessels and internal organs.

3 Describe briefly the structure and function of voluntary muscle tissue.Structure: long, striped cells.

Function: contracts strongly when stimulated to provide voluntary movement.

4 List the chief components of muscle tissue.Water, actin, myosin, elastin, collagen, mineral salts, glycogen and fat.

5 Name the two proteins in voluntary muscle.Actin and myosin.

6 Name the four main functions of skeletal muscle.• To facilitate movement

• To maintain posture

• The shivering action produces heat

•Venous return to the heart.

7 Explain what happens to the origin and insertion of a muscle during movement.When a muscle contracts, the origin remains fixed while the insertion moves towards it, thus reducing the angle of the joint.

8 Describe muscle tone.The state of partial contraction of muscles under normal, resting circumstances.

9 Name the two proteins in connective tissues.Collagen and elastin.

10 Describe the sliding filament theory of muscle contraction.Myosin filaments have projections which allow them to move along actin filaments when the muscle is excited by a stimulus. The filaments of actin and myosin do not change in length but slide past each other giving the illusion of shortening and extending.

11 Describe muscle fatigue.Overworked muscles feel tired and sore due to a build up of lactic acid.

12 Describe the physiological effects of manual massage treatment on muscles.Massage warms muscle tissue which encourages tight muscle fibres to relax and become more elastic, thus alleviating aches and pains.

13 Explain how massage can reduce ‘knots’ and tension in muscles.Circulation is increased to the area reducing the build up of lactic acid and improving elasticity.

14 Name the chief postural muscles.Abdominals; erector spinae; trapezius; quadratus lumborum; gluteals.

15 Describe the effects of ageing on the muscular system.•Bone shrinkage and flattened cartilage in the vertebral column reduces height.

• Lifestyle factors also have an effect on posture and maintenance of good muscle tone due to occupation or weight gain.

16 Name and describe three common disorders which can affect muscles.• Torn muscles caused by sudden movement or over exertion.

• Sprains are injuries to ligaments or muscles in the locality of a joint which occur when the joint is over stretched.

• Sciatica is a common disorder whereby the sciatic nerve is irritated causing pain in the lower back and leg.

17 Name the facial muscle responsible for each of the following:(a) crow’s feet – orbicularis oculi

(b) lines on the forehead – frontalis

(c) double chin – platysma

(d) frown lines - corrugator

18 Name the muscles likely to be responsible for shoulder tension.Trapezius;rhomboids;levatorscapula;supraspinatus;infraspinatus.

19 Name the muscles responsible for the following postural complaints:(a) knock knees – tense adductors of the lower leg

(b) bow legs – tense abductors of the lower leg

(c) hollow back – poor abdominal tone and quadratus lumborum

(d) hump back – poor pectoral tone, tense trapezius

20 Name the muscles which form the following body parts:(a) the calf – gastrocnemeus

(b) the waist - internal and external obliques

(c) a six pack - rectus abdominus

(d) the buttocks – gluteals

Chapter 5 The Blood Circulatory System

1 State the functions of the blood.•Regulation – heat and water.

• Transport – of food, oxygen, carbon dioxide, water, hormones, waste products.

•Protection – white blood cells fight infection and disease, platelets prevent blood loss through clotting.

2 Define erythema.Redness of the skin caused by blood vessels dilating close to the skin’s surface.

3 List the causes of erythema.Blood capillaries dilating; massage; heat; friction; radiation.

4 What is high blood pressure?High blood pressure or hypertension is when the force of the blood on the arterial walls is very strong and damages the artery walls by weakening them. As a result the heart has to work harder to push the blood around the body, it weakens in turn, enlarges and becomes more prone to injury.

5 State three factors which can affect blood pressure.Peripheral resistance; cardiac output; blood viscosity; total blood volume; the elasticity of the blood vessel walls (the lumen).

6 State four reasons why the pulse rate may increase.Body size; stress; smoking; fitness levels; illness; physical activity; alcohol; age.

7 Why should you not massage over a varicose vein?It places extra strain on the vein, which is already damaged (by a faulty valve) and it would also be very painful.

8 Define capillary exchange and state where this takes place.Capillary exchange is where food and oxygen passes from the capillary to the fluid surrounding the tissue cells, and also where waste such as CO2 is passed from the cell, through the cell membrane, via the tissue fluid and back into the blood to be excreted. It takes place at the level of the cell and also in the lungs.

9 Describe blood flow through the heart.Deoxygenated blood enters the right side of the heart, the atrium, through the vena cava, and passes into the right ventricle before being pumped to the lungs via the pulmonary artery. The oxygenated blood returns from the lungs to the left side of the heart, the left atrium, via the pulmonary veins. It then passes into the right ventricle before being pumped out via the aorta to pass around the body.

10 Name the four vessels entering and leaving the heart.Vena Cava; pulmonary artery; pulmonary vein; aorta.

11 Name the arteries supplying the leg.Femoral arteries, popliteal arteries; anterior tibial arteries; posterior tibial arteries.

12 Describe the structure of arteries.Arteries have thick muscular walls and elastic tissue. They have an outer layer of elastic and collagenous tissue and a smooth inner layer of endothelium.

13 How do veins differ from arteries?Veins are smaller, they have less muscle tissue and they contain valves.

14 What is the job of platelets?Platelets allow the blood to clot.

15 How does massage affect the circulation?It increases it/speeds it up so assisting venous return to the heart.

16 What causes broken capillaries?Damage to the tiny blood vessels can be caused by heat, cold; overuse (dilation and contraction sustained over a period of time) alcohol, smoking and injury.

17 What is the job of white blood cells?To fight infection and disease.

18 Where are blood cells manufactured?In the red bone marrow.

19 What is thrombosis and why is it a contra-indication?Thrombosis is a blood clot. It is contra-indicated to many treatments because of the risk of dislodging the clot and causing a blockage that could be fatal. A blockage in the heart could lead to a heart attack; a blockage in the brain could cause a stroke.

20 Briefly explain how blood sugar levels are maintained in the body.Insulin released by the pancreas causes excess sugar in the blood to be stored in the muscles and liver. If sugar levels drop, glycogen is then produced by the pancreas, which releases the stored sugar from the muscles and liver, thereby maintaining the correct levels.

Chapter 6 The Lymphatic System

1 What is lymph?A watery, pale, yellow or clear fluid which is similar to blood plasma.

2 Explain how lymph is formed.Plasma is forced from the blood capillaries and bathes the tissue cells. Most fluid returns to the blood and the heart, but a small amount cannot return this way. Lymph vessels take up this excess fluid and eventually return it to the heart.

3 Describe what a lymph node does.It produces white blood cells and fights infections.

4 What is oedema?An excess of tissue fluid in an area; swelling can be observed.

5 Name the two lymphatic ducts in the body.Right lymphatic duct; thoracic duct.

6 Which body parts do each of the lymphatic ducts drain?• The right lymphatic duct drains the right side of the head and neck as well as the right arm and shoulder.

• The thoracic duct collects fluid from all other areas, mainly in the lower portion of the body.

7 Name two other types of lymphatic tissue in the body.The tonsils and the adenoids.

8 What is the function of the spleen?It destroys worn out red blood cells and produces lymphocytes.

9 What role does the thymus gland play in the lymphatic system?It is concerned with the development of T-lymphocytes and developing immunity.

10 Name the group of lymph nodes in the underarm area.The axillary nodes.

11 What does it mean if your tonsils are swollen?They are fighting infection in that area.

12 Name four groups of nodes in the head and the neck.Occipital; parotid; cervical; sub-mandibular; sub-mental; buccal; pre and post auricular; supraclavicular.

13 Name the nodes in the groin.The inguinal nodes.

14 Where does lymph rejoin the blood circulation?The left and right subclavian veins.

15 State the basic constituents of lymphatic fluid.Water; white blood cells; waste; fat molecules.

16 How does lymph move around the body?Gravity; muscle action; massage.

17 How does a lymphatic capillary differ from a blood capillary?It has many more valves and it is ‘blind-ended’.

18 List the functions of the lymphatic system.•Defence – white blood cells destroy bacteria and viruses and produce antibodies to protect against disease.

• Transport – of excess fluid, fat molecules and waste products.

19 How do lymph vessels prevent the backward flow of lymph?Numerousvalvespreventbackflow.

20 When and why does lymph fluid appear milky?Whenitiscarryingfatmoleculesfromthedigestivesystem.

Chapter 7 The Respiratory System

1 Distinguish between respiration and breathing.Breathing is the movement of air in and out of the lungs and respiration is the process by which the cells use oxygen and glucose to form energy.

2 State three structures found in the respiratory system.The trachea, bronchi and alveoli are all found in the respiratory system.

3 What happens to air as it passes over the nasal mucosa?The air is warmed and moistened as it passes over the nasal mucosa.

4 Explain why it is better to breathe through the nose than the mouth. The nose will warm and filter the air.

5 Name the part of the respiratory system that contains the Adam’s Apple. The Adam’s apple is part of the larynx.

6 Explain how food particles are prevented from entering the lungs.During swallowing, the epiglottis closes over the top of the trachea to prevent food from entering the lungs.

7 Give the correct names for throat, voice box and windpipe.• Throat = pharynx

•Voice box = larynx

•Windpipe = trachea

8 Explain how dirt and dust are prevented from entering the lungs.The ciliated epithelial tissue that lines the air passages traps dirt and dust and moves it up towards the pharynx so that it can be swallowed and dealt with by the stomach acids.

9 Explain why the right lung is larger than the left.Because the heart takes up space on the left side of the thorax.

10 State why the bronchi are sometimes referred to as a tree.Because the small bronchi and bronchioles resemble the branches of a tree as they spread out in the lung.

11 Describe the function of the alveoli.The alveoli allow oxygen to diffuse into the blood from the air and carbon dioxide to diffuse from the blood into the lungs for exhalation.

12 How does the pulmonary artery differ from the other arteries in the body?The pulmonary artery is the only artery to carry deoxygenated blood.

13 Name the respiratory muscles.The diaphragm and the intercostals.

14 Name two accessory muscles of respiration.The abdominals or the pectoralis major.

15 Identify the two phases of breathing.Inhalation and exhalation.

16 Which part of the brain controls the breathing rate?The hypothalamus.

17 Where does gaseous exchange take place?In the alveoli of the lung.

18 Respiration occurs at the same rate as breathing. True or false?False.

19 Where in the body is carbon dioxide produced?In the cells; it is the waste product of respiration.

20 Describe the functions of the respiratory system.The respiratory system allows oxygen to enter the blood and removes excess carbon dioxide.

Chapter 8 The Nervous System

1 Name and describe the main parts of a neurone.Neurones have a large cell body which contains the nucleus. It has short, branched processes called dendrites and one longer nerve fibre called an axon. Axons and some dendrites are protected by a myelin sheath of fatty tissue.

2 What is a synapse?The minute space between neurons; the area of communication between them.

3 What is a nerve?A nerve is the name given to a collection of neurons.

4 State the alternative names for afferent and efferent.•Afferent = sensory

• Efferent = motor

5 Name the main parts of the central nervous system.Brain and spinal cord.

6 Name the three main sections of the brain.The forebrain, the midbrain and the hindbrain.

7 What is the main function of the three main sections of the brain?• Forebrain – to co-ordinate movement.

•Midbrain – to co-ordinate sight and sound.

•Hindbrain – to co-ordinate circulatory and respiratory function.

8 In what direction do motor and sensory fibres run in the spinal cord?•Motor fibres run downwards from the brain.

• Sensory fibres run upwards towards the brain.

9 How many spinal nerves are there in the human body?31 pairs.

10 What are nerve plexuses?The network of nerves surrounding the spinal column.

11 Name the main nerve plexuses.The cervical plexus in the neck, the brachial network in the region of the arms and the lumbar and sacral networks in the lower part of the trunk.

12 State the location of the sciatic nerve.It branches from the sciatic plexus in the lower part of the trunk.

13 Name the two parts of the peripheral nervous system.Somatic nervous system and autonomic nervous system.

14 How many cranial nerves are there in the human body?12 pairs.

15 Describe the process involved in the sense of smell.The nose receives information in the form of sensory impulses. These are transmitted to the CNS via the olfactory and 1st cranial nerves. Sensory impulses are first sent to the thalamus in the brain which then sends the information to the temporal lobe for interpretation.

16 Describe what happens in a reflex action.Sensory nerves react to a stimulus causing stimulation of motor nerves followed by an involuntary action.

17 What are the two branches of the autonomic nervous system?Sympathetic and parasympathetic.

18 Name and describe two disorders of the nervous system which affect mobility.•Motor neurone disease is caused by degeneration of the motor nerves and symptoms include clumsiness, cramp in

the limbs and difficulty with swallowing and breathing.

•Parkinson’s disease is a degenerative disease caused by a fault with the neurotransmitters which control movement. Individuals with this disorder suffer from muscular tremors or rigidity and a lack of facial expression.

19 Name and describe two disorders of the nervous system which affect mental functioning.• Senile dementia affects people over the age over 65. The main symptom is confused memory and thought processes.

•Alzheimer’s disease is a more severe form of dementia which affects about 50% of senile dementia sufferers. This disorder affects cognitive (brain) functions such as memory, thought, language and personality.

20 What are the effects of ageing on the nervous system?The functions of the nervous system slow down and the brain starts to shrink.

Chapter 9 The Endocrine System

1 Define ‘hormone’.A hormone is a chemical messenger produced by an endocrine gland. It travels in the blood to target organs and influences changes such as growth or development.

2 Distinguish between an endocrine and exocrine gland.An endocrine gland is ductless and secretes directly into the bloodstream; an exocrine gland has no duct and secretes onto the surrounding tissue.

3 Name the part of the brain that controls the pituitary gland.The hypothalamus is the part of the brain that controls the pituitary.

4 Some of the hormones from the anterior lobe of the pituitary contain the suffix – trophic. What does this suffix mean?

The suffix trophic means stimulating.

5 Name the two divisions of the pituitary gland.The pituitary gland is divided into the anterior and posterior lobes.

6 Explain why the pituitary gland is called the master gland.The pituitary gland is called the master gland because it influences the activity of other glands by producing trophic or stimulating hormones.

7 What is the term used to describe the way in which the endocrine system is regulated?Negative feedback.

8 Name the mineral essential for the production of thyroxin.Iodine.

9 Describe three symptoms of an overactive thyroid gland. Symptoms of an overactive gland include:

•weight loss

• sensitivity to heat

• sweating

•palpitations

• anxiety

• insomnia

•bulging eyes.

10 Name the thyroid disorder most likely to result in dry, thin hair. Myxoedema or underactive thyroid.

11 Name the two divisions of the adrenal gland and describe the effects of the hormones from each.The two divisions of the adrenal gland are the cortex, which produces steroids, and the medulla, which produces adrenalin. Steroids are responsible for aiding the metabolism of glucose and minerals as well as having a lesser role in the secondary sexual characteristics. Adrenalin maintains blood pressure and forms the fight or flight response in times of stress.

12 Describe three disorders of the adrenal cortex.•Cushing’s disease or syndrome – caused by excessive production of glucocorticoids. Symptoms include enlarged

abdomen, wasting of the limbs, facial hair, thinning of the skin or hair, a swollen face.

•Addison’s disease – caused by a lack of glucocorticoids. Symptoms include low blood pressure, muscular weakness, excessive skin pigmentation.

•Adreno genital virilism – this disorder results in the overproduction of androgens, resulting in virilism in women. They may grow facial or excessive body hair, the clitoris may become enlarged and the breasts may shrink.

13 Name the specialised cells of the pancreas that secrete insulin.The Islets of Langerhans or pancreatic islet cells.

14 State the function of insulin.Insulin regulates blood sugar by converting glucose to glycogen.

15 State the function of glucagon.Glucagon regulates blood sugar by converting stores of glycogen back into glucose.

16 Name two male and two female secondary sexual characteristics. Male secondary sexual characteristics:

facial hair growth

deepening of the voice

prominent Adam’s apple

higher waist to hip ratio (on average)

Female secondary sexual characteristics:

breast development

lower waist to hip ratio (on average)

17 Which trophic hormones regulate the hormones from the ovaries?Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinising hormone.

18 Name and describe two stress-related disorders.Stress related disorders include:

• stomach ulcers

•high blood pressure

•headaches

• insomnia.

19 Describe the difference between diabetes insipidus and diabetes mellitus. Diabetes insipidus is characterised by excretion of large amounts of dilute urine due to a deficiency of anti-diuretic hormone (ADH).

Diabetes mellitus is characterised by a disordered metabolism or high blood sugar levels (hyperglycaemia). This is caused by low levels of the hormone insulin. It can occur in early life (type 1) or as maturity onset (type 2).

20 Make a chart to highlight the key differences between the nervous and endocrine systems.

NERVOUS ENDOCRINE

Messages are transmitted by impulse Messages are transmitted by chemicals

Tends to control the quick immediate responses Tends to effect the slower changes

Usually constant Subject to cyclical changes

Chapter 10 The Digestive System

1 State the function of the mouth and salivary glands in the digestive process.Digestion begins in the mouth where the food is ground down by the teeth. Salivary glands moisten the food and the tongue rolls the food into a ball (or bolus) ready to be swallowed.

2 Name the organs and glands involved in digestion.Mouth; salivary glands; oesophagus; stomach; small intestine; large intestine; liver gall bladder; pancreas.

3 Describe what is meant by digestion.The breaking down of whole food into its smallest parts.

4 List the functions of the stomach.•Acts as a reservoir for food.

•Churns the food and mixes it with the stomach secretions.

•Makes food acidic.

5 State the constituents of pancreatic juice.It contains the enzymes; trypsin, lipase, amylase and chymotrypsin.

6 What is bile and where is it stored?Bile is a substance containing pigments, salts, water and waste and it is stored in the gall bladder until it is required.

7 Where do pancreatic juice and bile enter the digestive tract?The duodenum.

8 List the main functions of the liver.•Production – of bile, energy, heat, and heparin

•Metabolism – of fats, proteins, carbohydrates, drugs and poisons

• Storage of vitamins, iron and glycogen

9 Name the two blood vessels supplying the liver and give an explanation for why the liver is supplied with two vessels.

The hepatic artery and the hepatic portal vein: the hepatic artery supplies the liver itself and the hepatic portal vein carries nutrient rich blood directly from the digestive system to be metabolised by the liver.

10 State the parts and functions of the small intestine.The small intestine is divided into three sections:

• the duodenum (25cm long) is the first portion which leads away from the stomach; food is still being digested here

• the jejunum (2.5metres long) is the middle section; food is neutralised here

• the ileum (3 metres long) is the final section where most nutrients are absorbed.

11 Give a brief overview of the structure of the small intestine.The small intestine inner walls are constructed with tiny finger-like projections which greatly increase the surface area. This allows maximum surface area for absorption of nutrients.

12 What is a lacteal?A finger-like projection (part of the lymphatic system) which sits inside an intestinal villi; its job is to absorb digested fat from the gut wall.

13 List the functions of the large intestine.Water is absorbed in the large intestine. Waste products and bacteria are eliminated here.

14 Name the nutrients required by the body.Protein, carbohydrate, fat, vitamins and minerals.

15 State the main functions of each nutrient.• Fats are the main providers of energy

•Protein provides the means for growth and repair

•Carbohydrates provides energy.

16 List the enzymes required to break down protein, fats and carbohydrate.•Protein are broken down by trypsin and chymotrypsin

• Fats are broken down by lipase

•Carbohydrates are broken down by amylase.

17 What is the difference between mechanical and chemical digestion?Mechanical digestion is caused by the action of the teeth on food in the mouth or food churned in the stomach. Chemical digestion is caused by the action of enzymes.

18 State the function of insulin.Insulin maintains the correct sugar levels in the body by converting excess sugar into glycogen which is then stored in the liver and muscles.

19 Explain what happens to excess fat and carbohydrates in the body.It is stored as energy reserves in the body in adipose (fat) cells.

20 What is the function of fibre in the diet?Fibre adds bulk to food and assists its passage through the alimentary canal.

Chapter 11 The Excretory and Urinary System

1 Name three methods of excretion from the body.Urination, defecation, sweating.

2 Define the term homeostasis.The literal definition is ‘staying the same’. The balance of water, pH, salts, temperature, tissues and cells are examples of homeostasis in the body.

3 Explain how water balance is maintained in the body.We consume about 2.5 litres of water each day. Each day, about 400–500ml of water is excreted by the lungs as water vapour, about 500–600ml is excreted by the skin as sweat, about 1000–1500ml is excreted by the kidneys as urine and about 100–150ml is excreted in the faeces.

4 Name three mineral salts found in body fluids.• Sodium and chloride in plasma and interstitial fluid.

•Potassium and phosphate in intracellular fluid.

• Traces of calcium and magnesium.

5 Explain how the balance of mineral salts is maintained in the body.The amount of anions and cations in mineral salts contained in body fluids is regulated by excretion and absorption.

6 Name and describe the main components of the kidney.The darker outer part of the kidney is the renal cortex and the paler inner section is the renal medulla. Each kidney is surrounded by a capsule of fibrous tissue and is embedded in fat.

7 Describe the stages of urine production.• Filtration under pressure – water and other small particles pass through the walls of the glomerulus into the

Bowman’s capsule.

• Selective re-absorption – some of the substances from the glomerular filtrate which are needed by the body are re-absorbed.

•Active secretion – cells lining the nephrons secrete substances from the blood.

8 List the components of urine.96% water, 2% urea and 2% uric acid and salts.

9 Name three disorders of the urinary system.Kidney disease; urinary tract infection; bladder infection; cystitis.

10 Name and locate the structures of the large intestine.It is a muscular tube about 1.5 metres long made up of seven separate sections:

• a blind-ended tube called the caecum on the lower right-hand side of the abdomen

• the ascending colon which travels up the right-hand side of the abdomen towards the ribs

• the transverse colon which travels across the abdomen below the diaphragm

• the descending colon which travels down the left-hand side of the abdomen

• the sigmoid colon which curves around towards the midline of the abdomen

• the rectum and the anal canal.

11 Describe the stages of faeces production.•Water, salt, indigestible cellulose and bacteria enter the large intestine.

•Most of the water and salts are absorbed by the walls of the large intestine.

• The material which remains combines to form faeces.

12 List the components of faeces.Celluloseanddeadbacteria.

13 Explain the importance of the sequence of an abdominal massage.Abdominalmassagemustfollowthedirectionofthepassageoffoodthroughthelargeintestinesothatthemanipulationscomplementthephysiologicalprocesses.Begintheonthelowerrightsideoftheabdomenandworkupwardstojustbelowtheribs.Thenmoveacrosstotheleftlowerribanddownwardsontheleftside.Thenmoveintowardsthemidlineanddowntowardsthepubis.

14 Describe three disorders of the large intestine.•Diarrhoea is the frequent elimination of loose, runny faeces, often accompanied by abdominal pain and nausea or

vomiting.

•Constipation is the infrequent elimination of hard, dry faeces or no elimination at all, usually accompanied by abdominal pain and bloating.

• Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is characterised by bouts of diarrhoea followed by bouts of constipation often accompanied by abdominal discomfort, particularly after eating.

15 Explain the difference between apocrine and eccrine sweat glands.•Apocrine glands are larger and are attached to hair follicles in the groin, the axilla and the nipples. They are stimulated

during times of stress, anxiety or excitement.

• Eccrine glands are smaller and are located all over the body. Their function is to regulate body temperature.

16 Explain how sweat glands assist in the removal of waste from the body.Sweatcomprisesofwater,saltsandotherwasteproducts–thesameasurine.Alcohol,foodandmedicationcanalsobeexcretedinsweat.

17 Give two examples of peristalsis in the body.Peristalsisisthenamegiventomuscularcontractionsinstructureswhichmovetheircontentsfromoneareatoanother.Examplesareinthesmallandlargeintestine.

18 Describe three disorders of the sweat glands.•Hyperhidrosis is characterised by over-secretion of sweat, particularly affecting the hands, feet and/or under arms.

•Anhidrosis is characterised by the partial or complete lack of perspiration.

•Bromhidrosis is characterised by unpleasant smelling perspiration usually as a result of poor hygiene, tight fitting clothes or infection.

•Miliaria rubra is caused by blocked sweat ducts which create small raised itchy spots.

19 Describe the effects of ageing on the organs of excretion.• The function of the suderiferous glands slows down with age so we may sweat less.

•As the bladder sphincter becomes less taut we may experience bladder weakness and feel the desire to pass urine more frequently.

•As the digestive system slows down we may be more likely to suffer from constipation.

20 List the advice for maintaining a healthy excretory system. •Maintain a balanced diet to ensure the health of the digestive system and regular bowel movements.

•Continue to drink adequate amounts of water and reduce caffeine intake to avoid dehydration.

•Maintain good personal hygiene.

Chapter 12 The Reproductive System

1 When do the gonads become active?At puberty.

2 Name the male gonads.The testes.

3 Name the male sex hormone.Testosterone.

4 List the order in which sperm travel to reach the outsides.1 The seminiferous tubules

2 The epididimis

3 The vas deferens (spermatic cord)

4 The seminal vesicle

5 The prostate gland

6 The urethra.

5 Which glands, apart from the testes, produce secretions to aid the sperm?The prostate and the seminal vesicle.

6 Explain how the position of the testes assists the process of reproduction.The position of the testes on the outside of the body means that the sperm are kept at a temperature of 35 degrees; their optimum temperature.

7 Name the pituitary hormone that regulates male and female reproduction.Gonadotrophins.

8 Describe how the ovaries are held in position.By the ovarian ligaments.

9 Explain the function of the ovaries.The ovaries secrete oestrogen and progesterone and they produce ova.

10 Define ovulation.Ovulation is the moment the ova are released from the ovary.

11 Name the two hormones produced by the ovaries.The ovaries secrete oestrogen and progesterone.

12 Briefly describe the menstrual cycle.The menstrual cycle is a sequence of events occurring every 28 days to prepare the female body for pregnancy. The process is regulated by the pituitary hormones follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinising hormone (LH). An ovum develops in the ovaries before being released into the specially prepared womb lining (endometrium). If the ovum is not fertilised, the endometrium breaks down resulting in bleeding (menstruation).

13 At what point in the menstrual cycle are the levels of hormones at their lowest.Just before menstruation.

14 Define meiosis.The name given to cell division in gametes.

15 Name the structure formed by the union of sperm and the ovum. Zygote.

16 What is a gene?The part of the DNA in a cell which controls physical development and behaviour. It is also the part needed for cell reproduction.

17 Name the pigmented area around the nipple.Areola.

18 Explain lactation.The process of milk production in the female breast

19 How many lymph nodes are in the breast.None.

20 Explain how the contraceptive pill works.By keeping levels of oestrogen artificially high to prevent ovulation.